Startseite Preparation of layered gradient Cu–Cr–Ti alloy with excellent mechanical properties, thermal stability, and electrical conductivity
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Preparation of layered gradient Cu–Cr–Ti alloy with excellent mechanical properties, thermal stability, and electrical conductivity

  • Shaoli Fu , Xiaohong Chen EMAIL logo , Ping Liu , Honglei Zhou , Fengcang Ma und Wei Li
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 10. Dezember 2022
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Nanotechnology Reviews
Aus der Zeitschrift Nanotechnology Reviews Band 11 Heft 1

Abstract

Cu–Cr–Ti alloy with gradient properties was prepared at 960°C for 2 h in air, 80% cold rolling, and then aging at 500°C for 1 h. The results showed that the surface layer of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy had achieved a good match of electrical conductivity (96.2% International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS)), thermal stability (softening temperature of 650°C), and wear resistance (friction coefficient of 0.17). Meanwhile, the core region maintains high tensile strength (519 MPa) and good electrical conductivity of 71.8% IACS. Transmission electron microscope characterization revealed that the precipitates of surface layer are composed of Cr oxides, complex oxides formed by Cu, Cr, and O, and Ti-rich phases. The existence of oxide particles with discontinuous distribution and stable properties is the reason for the good electrical conductivity, excellent thermal stability, and outstanding wear resistance of the surface layer. The main precipitates of the core are Cr. The high tensile strength of the core is ascribed to the aging strengthening effect of these fine Cr particles. This work provides ideas and approaches for the preparation of copper alloy with excellent properties for high-speed railway contact wire, and solves the drawbacks of composites synthesized from heterogeneous materials.

Keywords: Cu–Cr–Ti alloy; gradient properties; internal oxidation; oxides; fine Cr precipitates

1 Introduction

With the rapid development of railways, the speed of railway transportation is increasing again and again, and it is about to enter 400 km/h or even higher. The contact line of high-speed railway needs higher conductivity, higher strength, better thermal stability, wear resistance, and so on, but it is difficult to improve the strength and conductivity at the same time [1,2,3]. In order to obtain the materials that meet the above requirements, some researchers have prepared oxygen-free Cu [4] or single crystal Cu [5,6,7,8] by special techniques, whose transmission frequency was greatly improved, but their mechanical properties was very poor. In addition, the skin-effect of high-frequency signals was also studied to synthesize copper [9,10,11,12,13]/aluminum clad steel [14,15,16] by using steel wire with high tensile strength in the core region and copper/aluminum with excellent electrical conductivity in the surface layer. However, many impurities and lattice defects will inevitably be introduced during the process of preparation, which were distributed at the interface between copper/aluminum and steel, affecting the bonding strength between them. Furthermore, the presence of impurities and defects will reduce the effect of signal transmission. And simultaneously due to the great difference in mechanical and physical properties between copper/aluminum and steel, there is a great difference in deformability between the two metals, which will also affect their bonding strength and ultimately weaken the excellent properties of copper/aluminum clad steel. Besides, it was reported that a nanostructured supersaturated solid solution of Cu–Cr alloy was prepared by combining the mechanical alloying and spark plasma sintering, and the high temperature mechanical properties have been greatly improved, but the electrical conductivity is only about 60% International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS) [17]. In addition, the tensile strength of another Cu–Cr alloy with up to 80% IACS is less than 500 MPa [18,19]. And the comprehensive properties of Cu–Cr–Ti prepared by traditional heat treatment and deformation cannot meet the application requirements of the contact line of high-speed railway [20,21,22].

Therefore, the aim of this work is to prepare a Cu alloy with excellent comprehensive properties, to achieve high electrical conductivity on the surface and high strength in the core in a single alloy, to achieve a perfect combination of higher electrical conductivity and higher strength, to solve the drawbacks of composites synthesized from heterogeneous materials. The Cu–Cr–Ti alloy was treated by the combinational process of internal oxidation [23], cold rolling, and aging. The traditional internal oxidation process requires a medium to supply oxygen, such as the commonly used Cu2O [24,25]. In this work, the internal oxidation only needs to be carried out under the atmosphere of air, so the process is simple and easy to operate. Moreover, Ti can delay the growth of precipitates and improve the mechanical properties of the alloy [26]. In addition, since the solid solubility of Cr in Cu at high temperature is only 0.65 wt% [27], even if the Cr remains in the Cu matrix that is not internally oxidized, it can be easily precipitated by the subsequent heat treatment [28,29,30]. Hence, the electrical conductivity of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy is greatly improved, and the Cr oxide particles precipitated on the surface layer greatly improve the thermal stability and wear resistance. At the same time, the fine Cr particles precipitated on the core play an aging strengthening role on the matrix, so that the surface layer achieves a good match of electrical conductivity, thermal stability, and wear resistance, while the core ensures the strength. More importantly, owing to the continuous distribution of the atomic lattice at the interface between the surface and the core region, the interfacial bonding is strong, and the interface is pure without impurities.

2 Experimental

The composition of the Cu–Cr–Ti alloy used in this experiment was 0.34 wt% Cr and 0.066 wt% Ti. And the as-cast Cu–Cr–Ti alloy can be obtained by the following steps: first, the A-grade electrolytic Cu was put into the crucible, next Cu–25% Cr was added after the electrolytic Cu melted completely, then Cu–22% Ti alloy was added after holding for 5 min; meanwhile, the temperature was raised and held for 10 min and at last cast for molding (the casting temperature was controlled at about 1,400°C). Subsequently, it was treated by the internal oxidation process. The atmosphere was air containing 20.8% O2, the temperature was 960°C, and the time was 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 h, respectively. In particular, the part that was internal oxidized was denoted by ITOX, and the rest was considered to have undergone solution treatment, which was denoted by ST. Then, it was subjected to 80% deformation and aging treatment at 500°C for 1 h under the atmosphere of Ar. The samples after aging treatment were represented by ST + 80% + aging and ITOX + 80% + aging, respectively. The internal oxidation and aging treatment were performed in a tube furnace with a pipe diameter of 80 mm (OTF-1200X, Hefei Kejing material technology Co., Ltd, China). The whole process flow is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 The process flow of the Cu–Cr–Ti alloy.
Figure 1

The process flow of the Cu–Cr–Ti alloy.

The hardness was tested by a Vickers hardness tester (HVS-1000Z, Shanghai Juhui Instrument Manufacturing Co., Ltd, China) under 200 g load for 15 s. The electrical conductivity was assessed by a digital metal electrical conductivity tester (D60K, Xiamen Xinbot Technology Co., Ltd, China). The friction coefficient was measured by a reciprocating friction-wear tester (HSR-2M, Lanzhou Zhongke Kaihua Technology Development Co., Ltd China). The tensile properties were measured by a 50 kN universal testing machine (X050, Zwick Corporation, Germany) at room temperature. Remarkably, in order to complete tensile test, wear test and other of the ST and ITOX samples, Cu–Cr–Ti alloy was treated at 960°C for 12 h in air. Then we can get a materials with the internal oxidation layer of 1.3 mm, 1.3 mm was regarded as ITOX, and the remaining part was ST. The two parts were subjected to the corresponding tests. The scanning electron microscope (SEM, Quanta FEG 450, FEI, USA) was adopted to observe the friction-wear morphologies and hardness indentation. Transmission electron microscope (TEM, Tecnai G2 F30, FEI, USA) was utilized to characterize the micro- and nano-scale structural morphologies. Energy Disperse Spectroscopy (EDS) was used to analyze the composition of the precipitates. In addition, it should be pointed out that the hardness and tensile strength of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy treated only by ST or ITOX were low, which cannot meet the requirements of practical use, so the softening temperature and tensile strength of the two states were not discussed.

3 Results

3.1 Effect of internal oxidation time on the properties of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy

Figure 2(a) shows the thickness of the internal oxidation layer against time. The thickness increased with the prolonging of time. The reason was that the decrease in the diffusion activation energy of Cr atoms in the Cu lattice made it easier for oxygen atoms to penetrate into the interior through the surface, so the depth of the internal oxidation layer increased gradually. Therefore, we can control the thickness of the internal oxidation layer by controlling the time. As shown in Figure 2(b), the microhardness of ST was about 68 HV, and it was significantly increased to about 82 HV after the internal oxidation treatment. The reason was that Cr has a strong affinity for O [31], which made Cr gradually precipitate from the Cu matrix, forming stable and dispersed strengthening phase particles, hindering the movement of dislocations and greatly improving its hardness [32]. Figure 2(c) is the microhardness indentation image of the sample treated at 960°C for 2 h, and the blue arrow is marked as the internal oxidation layer. It can be clearly seen from the inset c1 that when the microhardness indentation transited from the ITOX to the ST layer, the size of the indentation suddenly increased from 62.4 to 71.9 μm, that is, the hardness decreased.

Figure 2 (a) Effect of internal oxidation time on the thickness; (c) microhardness indentation image of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy; (b) microhardness and (d) electrical conductivity of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy after ST and ITOX treatment for different time.
Figure 2

(a) Effect of internal oxidation time on the thickness; (c) microhardness indentation image of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy; (b) microhardness and (d) electrical conductivity of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy after ST and ITOX treatment for different time.

Figure 2(d) displays the electrical conductivity of ITOX and ST states, which varies with internal oxidation time. The electrical conductivity of ITOX reached above 96% IACS compared with the 45% IACS for ST. Moreover, the internal oxidation time had almost no effect on the conductivity. This was because the Cr and Ti elements were dissolved in the Cu matrix for ST, and the existence of solid solution atoms distorted the lattice of Cu, which increased the probability of electron scattering, leading to a decline in the electrical conductivity. During the process of internal oxidation, the Cr atoms dissolved in the Cu matrix had a strong affinity for O atoms, and Cr was oxidized and gradually precipitated from the Cu matrix, resulting in an increase in electrical conductivity.

3.2 Electrical conductivity and tensile strength of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy

Figure 3(a) shows the stress–strain curves of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy after being treated by ST + 80% + aging and ITOX + 80% + aging. The electrical conductivity and tensile strength are shown in Figure 3(b). It can be seen from Figure 3(a) that the elongation after ITOX + 80% + aging treatment can reach about 20%, which was better than the elongation of 7.5% after ST + 80% + aging treatment. However, its tensile strength (342 MPa) was far lower than that of ST + 80% + aging (519 MPa), and the electrical conductivity of 96.2% IACS for ITOX + 80% + aging was much higher than that of 71.8% IACS for ST + 80% + aging, as shown in Figure 3(b). The reason for this phenomenon is that the size of the precipitates after ST + 80% + aging is smaller than ITOX + 80% + aging, making the tensile strength of the former higher owing to the effect of stronger precipitation strengthening. But meanwhile, the effect of fine precipitates on electron scattering is greater, so the electrical conductivity of the latter is better than that of ST + 80% + aging.

Figure 3 (a) Stress–strain curves and (b) electrical conductivity and tensile strength of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy after being treated by ST + 80% + aging and ITOX + 80% + aging.
Figure 3

(a) Stress–strain curves and (b) electrical conductivity and tensile strength of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy after being treated by ST + 80% + aging and ITOX + 80% + aging.

3.3 Softening resistance of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy

Figure 4 shows the microhardness of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy varied with temperature after being treated by ST + 80% + aging and ITOX + 80% + aging. As displayed in Figure 4, the microhardness decreased slowly when the temperature was lower than 500°C, and the downturn trend became faster after the temperature was higher than 500°C. And the downturn speed of ST + 80% + aging was faster than that of ITOX + 80% + aging. When the temperature was 568°C, the hardness of the ST + 80% + aging state was 132 HV, which dropped to 80% of the original hardness of 166 HV, so its softening resistance temperature was 568°C. When the temperature was 578°C, the hardness for two states were equal. When the temperature was lower than 578°C, the hardness of ST + 80% + aging was higher than that of ITOX + 80% + aging. But as the temperature continued to rise, the hardness of ST + 80% + aging was lower than that of ITOX + 80% + aging. When the annealing temperature was 650°C, the hardness of the ITOX + 80% + aging state was reduced to 108 HV (80% of the initial hardness of 136 HV), so its softening temperature was 650°C, which was higher than that of ST + 80% + aging. This was because the oxides formed by internal oxidation have more stable properties and stronger ability to resist softening.

Figure 4 Microhardness of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy after treated by ST + 80% + aging and ITOX + 80% + aging.
Figure 4

Microhardness of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy after treated by ST + 80% + aging and ITOX + 80% + aging.

3.4 The friction properties of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy

Figure 5(a) and (b) shows the friction coefficient and microhardness of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy after being treated by ST, ITOX, ST + 80% + aging, and ITOX + 80% + aging, respectively. The friction coefficient of ST fluctuated greatly in the initial stage, which can be explained as the polishing process during the wear test, and it finally stabilized at about 0.9. The formation of oxide particles during the ITOX process enhanced the hardness of the Cu matrix (as shown in Figure 5(b)), making the ability of failure resistance improve, that is, its wear resistance improved. Therefore, the friction coefficient of the ITOX was smaller than that of the ST. Moreover, the friction coefficient of the ST + 80% + aging (the yellow curve) and ITOX + 80% + aging (the green curve) was reduced compared with those of ST and ITOX. This was due to the fact that fine and dispersed second phase particles will precipitate from the matrix after aging, which will produce a significant strengthening effect on the matrix, making the hardness increase dramatically, as shown in Figure 5(b). The oxide particles formed by internal oxidation had better stability, so the friction coefficient of ITOX + 80% + aging treatment was the smallest and the wear resistance was the best.

Figure 5 Friction coefficient (a) and microhardness (b) of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy after being treated by ST, ITOX, ST + 80% + aging, and ITOX + 80% + aging.
Figure 5

Friction coefficient (a) and microhardness (b) of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy after being treated by ST, ITOX, ST + 80% + aging, and ITOX + 80% + aging.

Figure 6 shows the SEM images of the friction-wear morphologies of Cu–Cr–Ti after being treated by ST, ITOX, ST + 80% + aging, and ITOX + 80% + aging. As shown in Figure 6(a), since the hardness of ST was low, the hard spots moved on the soft matrix during the friction and wear process, so the surface wear was very serious, and there were a lot of peeling fragments accompanying the formation of chipping pits and grooves, and their wear mechanisms were delamination and adhesive wear. As shown in Figure 6(b), the phenomenon of debris peeling became weaker, and there was a furrow formed by squeezing and scraping against the grinding ball. The main wear mechanism was abrasive wear and weak delamination wear. After ST + 80% + aging, the hardness of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy was greatly improved due to the precipitation of dispersed Cr and deformation strengthening. A small amount of exfoliated fragments and grooves formed by spalling were observed on the worn surface, and the wear mechanism was mainly delamination wear, as shown in Figure 6(c). It can be seen from Figure 6(d) that the worn surface of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy after ITOX + 80% + aging treatment was the smoothest, only a weak furrow phenomenon was observed on the worn surface, and the wear mechanism was abrasive wear.

Figure 6 SEM images of the friction-wear morphologies of Cu–Cr–Ti after being treated by (a) ST, (b) ITOX, (c) ST + 80% + aging, and (d) ITOX + 80% + aging.
Figure 6

SEM images of the friction-wear morphologies of Cu–Cr–Ti after being treated by (a) ST, (b) ITOX, (c) ST + 80% + aging, and (d) ITOX + 80% + aging.

According to the above analysis, the Cu–Cr–Ti alloy treated by ITOX + 80% + aging has higher electrical conductivity, excellent softening resistance, and better wear resistance, while the part treated by ST + 80% + aging has higher tensile strength and hardness. And the properties of Cu–Cr–Ti are superior to the reported Cu-Gd2O3 gradient composites [33], copper/bronze laminates [34], and gradient structured Cu [35]. The diagrammatic drawing of Cu–Cr–Ti gradient alloy is shown in Figure 7. The thickness of the internal oxide layer can be controlled by adjusting the internal oxidation time. Finally, we can prepare the materials with gradient properties, the surface layer has good electrical conductivity, excellent wear resistance, and high softening resistance, and the core region has high strength to meet the requirements of high-speed rail contact line.

Figure 7 Diagrammatic representation of the prepared Cu–Cr–Ti gradient alloy.
Figure 7

Diagrammatic representation of the prepared Cu–Cr–Ti gradient alloy.

4 Discussion

According to the above experimental results, there is a great difference in the performance of ITOX + 80% + aging and ST + 80% + aging, so it is necessary to study the specific form of precipitates. For the region treated by ITOX + 80% + aging, 80% cold rolling and aging treatment did not change the existence form of the precipitates. Hence only the existence form of the particles by ITOX was analyzed.

Figure 8 illustrates the TEM images of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy after ITOX treatment. From the bright field image of Figure 8(a) and the dark field image of Figure 8(b), it can be seen that there were rhomboid (circle A), short rod-like (circle B), and rod-like (circles C and D) precipitates in the Cu–Cr–Ti alloy. In order to study these precipitates, high-resolution observation, selected area electron diffraction (SAED), and EDS were carried out on the particles A, B, C, and D. From Figure 8(c), the rhomboid particles mainly contain Cu, Cr, and O elements, and their size was about 47 nm. The inset c1 and c2 showed that the particles were composed of CuCrO4 particles with orthorhombic structure, cubic Cu2O particles, and rhombohedral Cr2O3 particles. CuCrO4 (221), Cr2O3 (006), and Cu2O (200) crystal planes overlapped to form the interface among each other, which was parallel to the Cu (002) [31,36]. As displayed in Figure 8(d), the short rod-like particles mainly contain Cu, Cr, O, and Ti elements. The inset d1 showed that the width was about 13 nm. The inset d2 proved that the short rod-like precipitate contained CuCrO2 (rhombohedral), Cr5O12 (orthorhombic), Cu4Ti3 (tetragonal), and Cu2O (cubic) particles. And the interface between these particles and the Cu matrix was parallel to the Cu {111}. Figure 8(e) and (f) shows the morphologies of two rod-shaped precipitates with different size. Figure 8(e) showed that the width of the particles C was about 16 nm, and the EDS analysis showed that the main elements were Cu, Cr, and O, and it was the co-phase of CuCrO4 and Cr2O3. The width of the particles in Figure 8(f) was about 8 nm. EDS analysis showed that the main elements were Cu, Cr, O, and Ti, and the main phases were CuCrO2 and Cu4Ti3.

Figure 8 TEM images of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy after ITOX treatment: (a) bright field image; (b) dark field image; (c, d, e and f) the enlarged images; (c1), (d1), (e1) and (f1) high resolution TEM images inset; (c2), (d2), (e2) and (f2) SAED pattern of particles A, B, C, and D in (b).
Figure 8

TEM images of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy after ITOX treatment: (a) bright field image; (b) dark field image; (c, d, e and f) the enlarged images; (c1), (d1), (e1) and (f1) high resolution TEM images inset; (c2), (d2), (e2) and (f2) SAED pattern of particles A, B, C, and D in (b).

Based on the above analysis, we can conclude that the precipitates were the coexisting phases of different oxide particles or Ti-rich phases. This was because Cr had a higher chemical affinity for O than Cu, so Cr was easy to form dispersed nano-sized Cr x O y and CuCr m O n particles in Cu matrix. The existence of these fine and hard particles with good thermal and chemical stability enhanced their ability to resist softening. Meanwhile they can nail dislocations, making dislocations multiply rapidly, which greatly increased the dislocation density, hindered the movement of dislocations, grain boundaries, and sub-grain boundaries. Moreover, they can inhibit static and dynamic recrystallization, so the hardness of ITOX was higher than that of ST. In addition, the Cr element was dissolved in the Cu matrix for ST, which distorted the lattice of Cu matrix, and increased the probability of electron scattering, thereby reducing the electrical conductivity. As a result, the electrical conductivity of the ST samples was very low. During the process of internal oxidation, the Cr atoms gradually precipitated from the Cu matrix for ITOX, so the electrical conductivity of ITOX was much higher than that of ST. The subsequent deformation and aging treatment greatly increased the dislocation density of the Cu–Cr–Ti alloy, so the mechanical properties were improved. For the part treated by ST + 80% + aging, due to the precipitation of Cr atoms from Cu matrix, its conductivity was greatly improved compared with ST. While for the part treated by ITOX + 80% + aging, since most of the Cr atoms have formed stable Cr x O y and CuCr m O n , that is, they have precipitated from the matrix during the internal oxidation, its conductivity has almost no change compared with ITOX.

Figure 9 displays the TEM images of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy after the ST + 80% + aging treatment. The dark field image of Figure 9(b) shows that the fine dispersed precipitates (bright spots) were present in the matrix after aging treatment, and the size ranged from 3 to 7 nm, which was smaller than that of oxides formed by ITOX + 80% + aging treatment. Figure 9(c) is the SAED pattern of the area A in Figure 9(a), the calibration showed that the precipitates were bcc Cr. Compared with the ST, the precipitation of Cr improved the tensile strength and electrical conductivity of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy after the ST + 80% + aging treatment.

Figure 9 TEM images of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy after the ST + 80% + aging treatment: (a) bright field image; (b) dark field image; (c) SAED pattern of the area A in (a).
Figure 9

TEM images of Cu–Cr–Ti alloy after the ST + 80% + aging treatment: (a) bright field image; (b) dark field image; (c) SAED pattern of the area A in (a).

We can conclude that the main strengthening mechanism of ST + 80% + aging and ITOX + 80% + aging is the precipitates strengthening, so the theoretical calculation is very important to support the experimental results. The main contributions of precipitation strengthening are coherent strengthening and orowan strengthening, and ST + 80% + aging is coherent strengthening, while ITOX + 80% + aging enhancement is mainly orowan strengthening. The main improved strength for ST + 80% + aging and ITOX + 80% + aging can be expressed as the following equations [37,38]:

(1) ∆ σ ST = 2 . 6 M ( G β ) 3 2 d V f b 2 F ,

(2) F = α Gb 2 ,

(3) ∆ σ ITOX = 0 . 4 MGb ln d b π λ 1 − ν ,

(4) λ = d 2 . 093 v f 2 − 0 . 0785 d ,

where M (3.06) is Taylor index, G (42.1 GPa) is the shear modulus of the Cu matrix, b (0.2556 nm) is the Burgers vector, β (0.015) is the mismatch strain constant, d and V f are the average size and volume fraction of the precipitates, F is the tension of the pinning dislocations of the second-phase, α (0.3) is the geometric parameter, ν (0.34) is the Poisson’s ratio, λ is the distance between the precipitates. The increment in strength for ST + 80% + aging and ITOX + 80% + aging strengthening are 209 and 90 MPa, respectively, which are in good agreement with the experimental results.

Figure 10 presents the XRD patterns of the Cu–Cr–Ti alloy of ST + 80% + aging and ITOX + 80% + aging. There were only Cu peaks and no secondary phases after ST + 80% + aging treatment, the reason was that the peak intensity of the precipitates was too weak to detect. Hence, they were covered by the strong peaks of the Cu matrix. The small angle diffraction of the black ellipse proved that there were CuCrO2 (012) peaks in addition to Cu after ITOX + 80% + aging treatment, but no peaks of Cr and Cu oxides were present, indicating that the nano-precipitates after internal oxidation treatment were mainly complex oxides formed by Cu, Cr, and O.

Figure 10 XRD patterns of the Cu–Cr–Ti alloy of ST + 80% + aging and ITOX + 80% + aging.
Figure 10

XRD patterns of the Cu–Cr–Ti alloy of ST + 80% + aging and ITOX + 80% + aging.

5 Conclusion

  1. With the increase in internal oxidation time, the thickness of the internal oxidation layer increases gradually, and the electrical conductivity (above 96% IACS) and hardness (82 HV) of the ITOX region are much higher than those of the ST region (45% IACS and 68 HV).

  2. After 80% deformation and aging at 500°C for 1 h, the Cu–Cr–Ti alloy exhibits obvious gradient properties. The surface area has an electrical conductivity of 96.2% IACS, a softening temperature of 650°C, a tensile strength of 342 MPa, and a friction coefficient of 0.17, while the core region has a tensile strength of 519 MPa, an electrical conductivity of 71.8% IACS, and a softening temperature of 568°C.

  3. The precipitates of the surface layer are Cr oxides, the complex oxides formed by Cu, Cr, and O, and the Ti-rich intergrowth phases, while the precipitates of the core are finely dispersed Cr.

  1. Funding information: This work was supported by the Shanghai Engineering Research Center of High-Performance Medical Device Materials (No. 20DZ2255500), the National Key R&D Program of China (Grant No. 2017YFB0306405), the State Key Laboratory of Advanced Optical Communication Systems and Networks (Grant No. 2018GZKF03007), and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51201107).

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2022-07-06
Revised: 2022-09-15
Accepted: 2022-09-15
Published Online: 2022-12-10

© 2022 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Artikel in diesem Heft

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https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2022-0500
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
Cu–Cr–Ti alloy; gradient properties; internal oxidation; oxides; fine Cr precipitates
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Research Articles
  2. Theoretical and experimental investigation of MWCNT dispersion effect on the elastic modulus of flexible PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposites
  3. Mechanical, morphological, and fracture-deformation behavior of MWCNTs-reinforced (Al–Cu–Mg–T351) alloy cast nanocomposites fabricated by optimized mechanical milling and powder metallurgy techniques
  4. Flammability and physical stability of sugar palm crystalline nanocellulose reinforced thermoplastic sugar palm starch/poly(lactic acid) blend bionanocomposites
  5. Glutathione-loaded non-ionic surfactant niosomes: A new approach to improve oral bioavailability and hepatoprotective efficacy of glutathione
  6. Relationship between mechano-bactericidal activity and nanoblades density on chemically strengthened glass
  7. In situ regulation of microstructure and microwave-absorbing properties of FeSiAl through HNO3 oxidation
  8. Research on a mechanical model of magnetorheological fluid different diameter particles
  9. Nanomechanical and dynamic mechanical properties of rubber–wood–plastic composites
  10. Investigative properties of CeO2 doped with niobium: A combined characterization and DFT studies
  11. Miniaturized peptidomimetics and nano-vesiculation in endothelin types through probable nano-disk formation and structure property relationships of endothelins’ fragments
  12. N/S co-doped CoSe/C nanocubes as anode materials for Li-ion batteries
  13. Synergistic effects of halloysite nanotubes with metal and phosphorus additives on the optimal design of eco-friendly sandwich panels with maximum flame resistance and minimum weight
  14. Octreotide-conjugated silver nanoparticles for active targeting of somatostatin receptors and their application in a nebulized rat model
  15. Controllable morphology of Bi2S3 nanostructures formed via hydrothermal vulcanization of Bi2O3 thin-film layer and their photoelectrocatalytic performances
  16. Development of (−)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate-loaded folate receptor-targeted nanoparticles for prostate cancer treatment
  17. Enhancement of the mechanical properties of HDPE mineral nanocomposites by filler particles modulation of the matrix plastic/elastic behavior
  18. Effect of plasticizers on the properties of sugar palm nanocellulose/cinnamon essential oil reinforced starch bionanocomposite films
  19. Optimization of nano coating to reduce the thermal deformation of ball screws
  20. Preparation of efficient piezoelectric PVDF–HFP/Ni composite films by high electric field poling
  21. MHD dissipative Casson nanofluid liquid film flow due to an unsteady stretching sheet with radiation influence and slip velocity phenomenon
  22. Effects of nano-SiO2 modification on rubberised mortar and concrete with recycled coarse aggregates
  23. Mechanical and microscopic properties of fiber-reinforced coal gangue-based geopolymer concrete
  24. Effect of morphology and size on the thermodynamic stability of cerium oxide nanoparticles: Experiment and molecular dynamics calculation
  25. Mechanical performance of a CFRP composite reinforced via gelatin-CNTs: A study on fiber interfacial enhancement and matrix enhancement
  26. A practical review over surface modification, nanopatterns, emerging materials, drug delivery systems, and their biophysiochemical properties for dental implants: Recent progresses and advances
  27. HTR: An ultra-high speed algorithm for cage recognition of clathrate hydrates
  28. Effects of microalloying elements added by in situ synthesis on the microstructure of WCu composites
  29. A highly sensitive nanobiosensor based on aptamer-conjugated graphene-decorated rhodium nanoparticles for detection of HER2-positive circulating tumor cells
  30. Progressive collapse performance of shear strengthened RC frames by nano CFRP
  31. Core–shell heterostructured composites of carbon nanotubes and imine-linked hyperbranched polymers as metal-free Li-ion anodes
  32. A Galerkin strategy for tri-hybridized mixture in ethylene glycol comprising variable diffusion and thermal conductivity using non-Fourier’s theory
  33. Simple models for tensile modulus of shape memory polymer nanocomposites at ambient temperature
  34. Preparation and morphological studies of tin sulfide nanoparticles and use as efficient photocatalysts for the degradation of rhodamine B and phenol
  35. Polyethyleneimine-impregnated activated carbon nanofiber composited graphene-derived rice husk char for efficient post-combustion CO2 capture
  36. Electrospun nanofibers of Co3O4 nanocrystals encapsulated in cyclized-polyacrylonitrile for lithium storage
  37. Pitting corrosion induced on high-strength high carbon steel wire in high alkaline deaerated chloride electrolyte
  38. Formulation of polymeric nanoparticles loaded sorafenib; evaluation of cytotoxicity, molecular evaluation, and gene expression studies in lung and breast cancer cell lines
  39. Engineered nanocomposites in asphalt binders
  40. Influence of loading voltage, domain ratio, and additional load on the actuation of dielectric elastomer
  41. Thermally induced hex-graphene transitions in 2D carbon crystals
  42. The surface modification effect on the interfacial properties of glass fiber-reinforced epoxy: A molecular dynamics study
  43. Molecular dynamics study of deformation mechanism of interfacial microzone of Cu/Al2Cu/Al composites under tension
  44. Nanocolloid simulators of luminescent solar concentrator photovoltaic windows
  45. Compressive strength and anti-chloride ion penetration assessment of geopolymer mortar merging PVA fiber and nano-SiO2 using RBF–BP composite neural network
  46. Effect of 3-mercapto-1-propane sulfonate sulfonic acid and polyvinylpyrrolidone on the growth of cobalt pillar by electrodeposition
  47. Dynamics of convective slippery constraints on hybrid radiative Sutterby nanofluid flow by Galerkin finite element simulation
  48. Preparation of vanadium by the magnesiothermic self-propagating reduction and process control
  49. Microstructure-dependent photoelectrocatalytic activity of heterogeneous ZnO–ZnS nanosheets
  50. Cytotoxic and pro-inflammatory effects of molybdenum and tungsten disulphide on human bronchial cells
  51. Improving recycled aggregate concrete by compression casting and nano-silica
  52. Chemically reactive Maxwell nanoliquid flow by a stretching surface in the frames of Newtonian heating, nonlinear convection and radiative flux: Nanopolymer flow processing simulation
  53. Nonlinear dynamic and crack behaviors of carbon nanotubes-reinforced composites with various geometries
  54. Biosynthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles and its therapeutic efficacy against colon cancer
  55. Synthesis and characterization of smart stimuli-responsive herbal drug-encapsulated nanoniosome particles for efficient treatment of breast cancer
  56. Homotopic simulation for heat transport phenomenon of the Burgers nanofluids flow over a stretching cylinder with thermal convective and zero mass flux conditions
  57. Incorporation of copper and strontium ions in TiO2 nanotubes via dopamine to enhance hemocompatibility and cytocompatibility
  58. Mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties of starch films incorporated with chitosan nanoparticles
  59. Mechanical properties and microstructure of nano-strengthened recycled aggregate concrete
  60. Glucose-responsive nanogels efficiently maintain the stability and activity of therapeutic enzymes
  61. Tunning matrix rheology and mechanical performance of ultra-high performance concrete using cellulose nanofibers
  62. Flexible MXene/copper/cellulose nanofiber heat spreader films with enhanced thermal conductivity
  63. Promoted charge separation and specific surface area via interlacing of N-doped titanium dioxide nanotubes on carbon nitride nanosheets for photocatalytic degradation of Rhodamine B
  64. Elucidating the role of silicon dioxide and titanium dioxide nanoparticles in mitigating the disease of the eggplant caused by Phomopsis vexans, Ralstonia solanacearum, and root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita
  65. An implication of magnetic dipole in Carreau Yasuda liquid influenced by engine oil using ternary hybrid nanomaterial
  66. Robust synthesis of a composite phase of copper vanadium oxide with enhanced performance for durable aqueous Zn-ion batteries
  67. Tunning self-assembled phases of bovine serum albumin via hydrothermal process to synthesize novel functional hydrogel for skin protection against UVB
  68. A comparative experimental study on damping properties of epoxy nanocomposite beams reinforced with carbon nanotubes and graphene nanoplatelets
  69. Lightweight and hydrophobic Ni/GO/PVA composite aerogels for ultrahigh performance electromagnetic interference shielding
  70. Research on the auxetic behavior and mechanical properties of periodically rotating graphene nanostructures
  71. Repairing performances of novel cement mortar modified with graphene oxide and polyacrylate polymer
  72. Closed-loop recycling and fabrication of hydrophilic CNT films with high performance
  73. Design of thin-film configuration of SnO2–Ag2O composites for NO2 gas-sensing applications
  74. Study on stress distribution of SiC/Al composites based on microstructure models with microns and nanoparticles
  75. PVDF green nanofibers as potential carriers for improving self-healing and mechanical properties of carbon fiber/epoxy prepregs
  76. Osteogenesis capability of three-dimensionally printed poly(lactic acid)-halloysite nanotube scaffolds containing strontium ranelate
  77. Silver nanoparticles induce mitochondria-dependent apoptosis and late non-canonical autophagy in HT-29 colon cancer cells
  78. Preparation and bonding mechanisms of polymer/metal hybrid composite by nano molding technology
  79. Damage self-sensing and strain monitoring of glass-reinforced epoxy composite impregnated with graphene nanoplatelet and multiwalled carbon nanotubes
  80. Thermal analysis characterisation of solar-powered ship using Oldroyd hybrid nanofluids in parabolic trough solar collector: An optimal thermal application
  81. Pyrene-functionalized halloysite nanotubes for simultaneously detecting and separating Hg(ii) in aqueous media: A comprehensive comparison on interparticle and intraparticle excimers
  82. Fabrication of self-assembly CNT flexible film and its piezoresistive sensing behaviors
  83. Thermal valuation and entropy inspection of second-grade nanoscale fluid flow over a stretching surface by applying Koo–Kleinstreuer–Li relation
  84. Mechanical properties and microstructure of nano-SiO2 and basalt-fiber-reinforced recycled aggregate concrete
  85. Characterization and tribology performance of polyaniline-coated nanodiamond lubricant additives
  86. Combined impact of Marangoni convection and thermophoretic particle deposition on chemically reactive transport of nanofluid flow over a stretching surface
  87. Spark plasma extrusion of binder free hydroxyapatite powder
  88. An investigation on thermo-mechanical performance of graphene-oxide-reinforced shape memory polymer
  89. Effect of nanoadditives on the novel leather fiber/recycled poly(ethylene-vinyl-acetate) polymer composites for multifunctional applications: Fabrication, characterizations, and multiobjective optimization using central composite design
  90. Design selection for a hemispherical dimple core sandwich panel using hybrid multi-criteria decision-making methods
  91. Improving tensile strength and impact toughness of plasticized poly(lactic acid) biocomposites by incorporating nanofibrillated cellulose
  92. Green synthesis of spinel copper ferrite (CuFe2O4) nanoparticles and their toxicity
  93. The effect of TaC and NbC hybrid and mono-nanoparticles on AA2024 nanocomposites: Microstructure, strengthening, and artificial aging
  94. Excited-state geometry relaxation of pyrene-modified cellulose nanocrystals under UV-light excitation for detecting Fe3+
  95. Effect of CNTs and MEA on the creep of face-slab concrete at an early age
  96. Effect of deformation conditions on compression phase transformation of AZ31
  97. Application of MXene as a new generation of highly conductive coating materials for electromembrane-surrounded solid-phase microextraction
  98. A comparative study of the elasto-plastic properties for ceramic nanocomposites filled by graphene or graphene oxide nanoplates
  99. Encapsulation strategies for improving the biological behavior of CdS@ZIF-8 nanocomposites
  100. Biosynthesis of ZnO NPs from pumpkin seeds’ extract and elucidation of its anticancer potential against breast cancer
  101. Preliminary trials of the gold nanoparticles conjugated chrysin: An assessment of anti-oxidant, anti-microbial, and in vitro cytotoxic activities of a nanoformulated flavonoid
  102. Effect of micron-scale pores increased by nano-SiO2 sol modification on the strength of cement mortar
  103. Fractional simulations for thermal flow of hybrid nanofluid with aluminum oxide and titanium oxide nanoparticles with water and blood base fluids
  104. The effect of graphene nano-powder on the viscosity of water: An experimental study and artificial neural network modeling
  105. Development of a novel heat- and shear-resistant nano-silica gelling agent
  106. Characterization, biocompatibility and in vivo of nominal MnO2-containing wollastonite glass-ceramic
  107. Entropy production simulation of second-grade magnetic nanomaterials flowing across an expanding surface with viscidness dissipative flux
  108. Enhancement in structural, morphological, and optical properties of copper oxide for optoelectronic device applications
  109. Aptamer-functionalized chitosan-coated gold nanoparticle complex as a suitable targeted drug carrier for improved breast cancer treatment
  110. Performance and overall evaluation of nano-alumina-modified asphalt mixture
  111. Analysis of pure nanofluid (GO/engine oil) and hybrid nanofluid (GO–Fe3O4/engine oil): Novel thermal and magnetic features
  112. Synthesis of Ag@AgCl modified anatase/rutile/brookite mixed phase TiO2 and their photocatalytic property
  113. Mechanisms and influential variables on the abrasion resistance hydraulic concrete
  114. Synergistic reinforcement mechanism of basalt fiber/cellulose nanocrystals/polypropylene composites
  115. Achieving excellent oxidation resistance and mechanical properties of TiB2–B4C/carbon aerogel composites by quick-gelation and mechanical mixing
  116. Microwave-assisted sol–gel template-free synthesis and characterization of silica nanoparticles obtained from South African coal fly ash
  117. Pulsed laser-assisted synthesis of nano nickel(ii) oxide-anchored graphitic carbon nitride: Characterizations and their potential antibacterial/anti-biofilm applications
  118. Effects of nano-ZrSi2 on thermal stability of phenolic resin and thermal reusability of quartz–phenolic composites
  119. Benzaldehyde derivatives on tin electroplating as corrosion resistance for fabricating copper circuit
  120. Mechanical and heat transfer properties of 4D-printed shape memory graphene oxide/epoxy acrylate composites
  121. Coupling the vanadium-induced amorphous/crystalline NiFe2O4 with phosphide heterojunction toward active oxygen evolution reaction catalysts
  122. Graphene-oxide-reinforced cement composites mechanical and microstructural characteristics at elevated temperatures
  123. Gray correlation analysis of factors influencing compressive strength and durability of nano-SiO2 and PVA fiber reinforced geopolymer mortar
  124. Preparation of layered gradient Cu–Cr–Ti alloy with excellent mechanical properties, thermal stability, and electrical conductivity
  125. Recovery of Cr from chrome-containing leather wastes to develop aluminum-based composite material along with Al2O3 ceramic particles: An ingenious approach
  126. Mechanisms of the improved stiffness of flexible polymers under impact loading
  127. Anticancer potential of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) using a battery of in vitro tests
  128. Review Articles
  129. Proposed approaches for coronaviruses elimination from wastewater: Membrane techniques and nanotechnology solutions
  130. Application of Pickering emulsion in oil drilling and production
  131. The contribution of microfluidics to the fight against tuberculosis
  132. Graphene-based biosensors for disease theranostics: Development, applications, and recent advancements
  133. Synthesis and encapsulation of iron oxide nanorods for application in magnetic hyperthermia and photothermal therapy
  134. Contemporary nano-architectured drugs and leads for ανβ3 integrin-based chemotherapy: Rationale and retrospect
  135. State-of-the-art review of fabrication, application, and mechanical properties of functionally graded porous nanocomposite materials
  136. Insights on magnetic spinel ferrites for targeted drug delivery and hyperthermia applications
  137. A review on heterogeneous oxidation of acetaminophen based on micro and nanoparticles catalyzed by different activators
  138. Early diagnosis of lung cancer using magnetic nanoparticles-integrated systems
  139. Advances in ZnO: Manipulation of defects for enhancing their technological potentials
  140. Efficacious nanomedicine track toward combating COVID-19
  141. A review of the design, processes, and properties of Mg-based composites
  142. Green synthesis of nanoparticles for varied applications: Green renewable resources and energy-efficient synthetic routes
  143. Two-dimensional nanomaterial-based polymer composites: Fundamentals and applications
  144. Recent progress and challenges in plasmonic nanomaterials
  145. Apoptotic cell-derived micro/nanosized extracellular vesicles in tissue regeneration
  146. Electronic noses based on metal oxide nanowires: A review
  147. Framework materials for supercapacitors
  148. An overview on the reproductive toxicity of graphene derivatives: Highlighting the importance
  149. Antibacterial nanomaterials: Upcoming hope to overcome antibiotic resistance crisis
  150. Research progress of carbon materials in the field of three-dimensional printing polymer nanocomposites
  151. A review of atomic layer deposition modelling and simulation methodologies: Density functional theory and molecular dynamics
  152. Recent advances in the preparation of PVDF-based piezoelectric materials
  153. Recent developments in tensile properties of friction welding of carbon fiber-reinforced composite: A review
  154. Comprehensive review of the properties of fly ash-based geopolymer with additive of nano-SiO2
  155. Perspectives in biopolymer/graphene-based composite application: Advances, challenges, and recommendations
  156. Graphene-based nanocomposite using new modeling molecular dynamic simulations for proposed neutralizing mechanism and real-time sensing of COVID-19
  157. Nanotechnology application on bamboo materials: A review
  158. Recent developments and future perspectives of biorenewable nanocomposites for advanced applications
  159. Nanostructured lipid carrier system: A compendium of their formulation development approaches, optimization strategies by quality by design, and recent applications in drug delivery
  160. 3D printing customized design of human bone tissue implant and its application
  161. Design, preparation, and functionalization of nanobiomaterials for enhanced efficacy in current and future biomedical applications
  162. A brief review of nanoparticles-doped PEDOT:PSS nanocomposite for OLED and OPV
  163. Nanotechnology interventions as a putative tool for the treatment of dental afflictions
  164. Recent advancements in metal–organic frameworks integrating quantum dots (QDs@MOF) and their potential applications
  165. A focused review of short electrospun nanofiber preparation techniques for composite reinforcement
  166. Microstructural characteristics and nano-modification of interfacial transition zone in concrete: A review
  167. Latest developments in the upconversion nanotechnology for the rapid detection of food safety: A review
  168. Strategic applications of nano-fertilizers for sustainable agriculture: Benefits and bottlenecks
  169. Molecular dynamics application of cocrystal energetic materials: A review
  170. Synthesis and application of nanometer hydroxyapatite in biomedicine
  171. Cutting-edge development in waste-recycled nanomaterials for energy storage and conversion applications
  172. Biological applications of ternary quantum dots: A review
  173. Nanotherapeutics for hydrogen sulfide-involved treatment: An emerging approach for cancer therapy
  174. Application of antibacterial nanoparticles in orthodontic materials
  175. Effect of natural-based biological hydrogels combined with growth factors on skin wound healing
  176. Nanozymes – A route to overcome microbial resistance: A viewpoint
  177. Recent developments and applications of smart nanoparticles in biomedicine
  178. Contemporary review on carbon nanotube (CNT) composites and their impact on multifarious applications
  179. Interfacial interactions and reinforcing mechanisms of cellulose and chitin nanomaterials and starch derivatives for cement and concrete strength and durability enhancement: A review
  180. Diamond-like carbon films for tribological modification of rubber
  181. Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) modified cement-based materials: A systematic review
  182. Recent research progress and advanced applications of silica/polymer nanocomposites
  183. Modeling of supramolecular biopolymers: Leading the in silico revolution of tissue engineering and nanomedicine
  184. Recent advances in perovskites-based optoelectronics
  185. Biogenic synthesis of palladium nanoparticles: New production methods and applications
  186. A comprehensive review of nanofluids with fractional derivatives: Modeling and application
  187. Electrospinning of marine polysaccharides: Processing and chemical aspects, challenges, and future prospects
  188. Electrohydrodynamic printing for demanding devices: A review of processing and applications
  189. Rapid Communications
  190. Structural material with designed thermal twist for a simple actuation
  191. Recent advances in photothermal materials for solar-driven crude oil adsorption
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Heruntergeladen am 6.9.2025 von https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/ntrev-2022-0500/html?lang=de
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