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Theoretical and experimental investigation of MWCNT dispersion effect on the elastic modulus of flexible PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposites

  • Pardis Ghahramani , Kamran Behdinan EMAIL logo , Rasool Moradi-Dastjerdi and Hani E. Naguib
Published/Copyright: December 7, 2021
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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 11 Issue 1

Abstract

In this article, Young’s modulus of a flexible piezoresistive nanocomposite made of a certain amount of multiwalled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) contents dispersed in polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) has been investigated using theoretical and experimental approaches. The PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposites with the governing factor of MWCNT weight fraction (e.g., 0.1, 0.25, and 0.5 wt%) were synthesized by the solution casting fabrication method. The nanocomposite samples were subjected to a standard compression test to measure their elastic modulus using Instron Universal testing machine under force control displacement mode. Due to the costs and limitations of experimental tests, theoretical predictions on the elasticity modulus of such flexible nanocomposites have also been performed using Eshelby–Mori–Tanaka (EMT) and Halpin–Tsai (HT) approaches. The theoretical results showed that HT’s approach at lower MWCNT contents and EMT’s approach at higher MWCNT contents have a better agreement to experimental results in predicting the elastic modulus of PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposites. The experimental results indicated that the inclusion of MWCNT in the PDMS matrix resulted in a noticeable improvement in Young’s modulus of PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposite at small values of MWCNT contents (up to w f = 0.25%); however, exceeding this nanofiller content did not elevate Young’s modulus due to the emergence of MWCNT agglomerations in the nanocomposite structure.

Keywords: flexible PDMS-MWCNT nanocomposite; Young’s modulus; compression test; theoretical approaches; CNT agglomeration; CNT aspect ratio

1 Introduction

Development of novel flexible highly sensitive pressure-detecting sensors with high durability, biocompatibility, and lightweight has drawn tremendous attention toward smart systems and wearable healthcare devices [1,2,3,4]. Flexible piezoresistive nanocomposite sensors are a type of pressure-sensitive sensor whose applications in biomedical science have been gradually increased over the last decade [5,6,7,8,9]. Piezoresistive effect is a change in the electrical resistance of a material when mechanical strain is applied to it. Piezoresistive nanocomposite sensors are built up from a polymeric matrix and a reinforcement phase, which their work principle counts on resistivity change due to the displacement of conductive networks inside their structure in response to an external force. Controlling the elastic modulus of nanocomposites is the key factor in the design of flexible piezoresistive nanocomposites, which has a crucial impact on both their electrical and mechanical responses [10,11]. In this regard, multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) have attracted great interest to be used in nanocomposites owing to their exceptional electronic and mechanical characteristics, which include tremendously high elastic modulus, low density, large surface area, and high aspect ratio [12,13,14,15]. The elastic modulus of a nanocomposite is a function of many parameters including the polymer elasticity, weight fraction, dispersion, agglomeration fraction, and aspect ratio of reinforcement particles along with the bonding between polymer and reinforcement particles [16]. Therefore, many endeavors have been performed to investigate the elastic modulus of nanocomposite materials with different polymeric matrices enhanced with single- or multiwalled CNTs.

Different numerical/theoretical approaches, such as molecular dynamic (MD) simulations, Eshelby–Mori–Tanaka (EMT), Halpin–Tsai (HT), and the rule of mixture, have been proposed for the estimation of mechanical properties of nanocomposites. In MD simulations, the interactions between the atoms of the material are described by atomistic potentials based on the energy minimization of the system [17,18]. MD principles stand with the simulation of particles’ motions in the presence of applied forces to the system. The potentials of chemical bonds between the atoms, which depend on the atomic distances, are responsible for the existing forces. It is worth mentioning that the length and timescale that can be explored in the MD simulation are limited. Usually, the size of the simulation varies from 10 Å to 100 nm, and the time step is 100 ns to microseconds [17]. The number of atoms that can be probed in the MD simulation is several thousand to millions. Moreover, the time step in the simulation should be considered long enough to minimize the computational costs, which will challenge the accuracy of the simulation in this case. Another limitation of using MD simulation is finding a proper forcefield in molecular mechanics to cover all the existing interactions will be a challenge [17]. Moreover, in these mixed phases, a larger quantity of particles in the simulation box should be considered to be representative enough for the system, which adversely adds to the computational time and cost.

Among the theoretical approaches, EMT, HT, and some modified forms of the rule of mixture have widely been used for the investigation of the nanoscale effect on CNT-reinforced nanocomposites. Although the rule of mixture offers a transversely isotropic nanocomposite material, the other two approaches assume that the resulting nanocomposite is an isotropic material. Shen [19] modified the micromechanical form of the rule of mixture by incorporating three parameters efficiency coefficients to capture the nanoscale effects of CNTs. He evaluated those coefficients by equaling the elastic modulus of CNT-reinforced nanocomposites from MD simulations with the original rule of mixture. However, this approach needs a set of coefficients for each type of material at desired temperatures or nanofiller volume fractions. Using the same concept, this micromechanical method was also further modified to involve the effects of the aspect ratio and waviness of the nanofiller part [20,21,22,23]. Halpin–Tsai model is also heavily used for nanocomposites. This model predicts the elasticity behavior of unidirectional composites/nanocomposites as a function of the filler’s aspect ratio where the transverse and longitudinal Young’s moduli are presented based on filler geometry and the loading direction [16]. For composites/nanocomposites with short fibers, another version of this approach was also introduced, which proposes an isotropic material [16,24,25]. To involve the impacts of nanofillers’ orientation and agglomeration, EMT’s approach has widely been used. In CNT-reinforced nanocomposites, CNT agglomeration is caused by intrinsic van der Waals interactions between nanoparticles. The other reasons for creating local CNT agglomerations in CNT-reinforced nanocomposites are the high aspect ratio, low bending rigidity, and high volume fraction of these nanotubes embedded in a polymer host [26]. It has been proven that CNT local aggregations significantly reduced the CNT functionalization [27,28]. Montazeri et al. [29] modified HT formulation based on some experimental tensile test outcomes to capture the agglomeration effect on the stiffness of an epoxy/MWCNT nanocomposite. They noticed that above 1.5 wt%, adding nanotubes could not improve the elasticity modulus of that nanocomposite due to MWCNT agglomerations. Barai and Weng [30] also used Mori–Tanaka approach on the small scale of a new two-scale theoretical model to study the agglomeration effect on the elastic and plastic behavior of CNT-reinforced polymeric nanocomposites. To introduce a lead-free piezoelectric nanocomposite material, Krishnaswamy et al. [31] added a lead-free piezoelectric inclusion inside a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)/CNT nanocomposite. They developed a modified micromechanical (EMT) approach to study the effect of CNT defect and agglomeration on the electro-mechanical properties of such active nanocomposites.

Besides the theoretical approaches, many experimental studies have been done to study the mechanical properties of nanocomposites. In a research article, Lu et al. [32] explored the effect of CNT content on the elastic modulus of a polymeric nanocomposite. They illustrated that by increasing the filler content in PDMS/CNT matrix up to a specific amount, Young’s modulus of the nanocomposite increased. Due to the higher strength of conductive filler than polymer matrix, a higher filler ratio increased Young’s modulus of the nanocomposite [33]. However, after a certain degree, the lower content of the polymer matrix inside the nanocomposite made the nanocomposite fragile and reduced its strength [34]. Madaleno et al. [35] observed that the compressive modulus and strength of polyurethane (PU)/CNT foam nanocomposite were enhanced in comparison to the pure PU foam. Tanabi and Erdal [34] studied the CNT dispersion effect on the mechanical properties of epoxy/CNT nanocomposites. Moreover, the effects of CNT dispersion [36,37,38], particles agglomeration [39,40], and interfacial bonding between polymer matrix and filler [41] on the mechanical properties of CNT-reinforced composites have been investigated experimentally.

PDMS [5], polylactic acid [42], polyvinylidene fluoride, polycaprolactone [43], and polyaniline [44] are polymers that are largely used in the fabrication of nanocomposites for biomedical applications. PDMS has been overwhelmingly used as the polymer matrix in the flexible nanocomposites in comparison to the other types of flexible polymers [45,46,47]. PDMS has excellent advantages such as commercial availability, variable mechanical properties, transparency, chemical inertness, high flexibility, stability over a wide range of temperatures, and biocompatibility [48,49]. The outstanding attributes of PDMS and MWCNT made them a good candidate to be used as the main components for the fabrication of a soft piezoresistive nanocomposite with potential application as a biocompatible sensor in this research article [14].

In this article, Young’s modulus of flexible PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposites as an essential mechanical parameter has been investigated using a standard compression experimental test at various MWCNT weight fractions, whereas the nanocomposite samples were fabricated by the solution casting method. In this method, the polymer matrix is added to a solution of dispersed particles in a solvent. Then the mixture gets homogenized by mixing at elevated temperature to evaporate the solvent. In the next step, a curing agent for crosslinking the polymer matrix is added to the mixture and poured in a mold. At the end of the process, mold will be put inside the oven to cure and solidify the nanocomposite structure.

For further understanding of the mechanical behavior of such nanocomposites and optimizing the use of nanoreinforcements, two theoretical (i.e., EMT and HT) approaches were also used to predict the elasticity modulus while distribution and shape parameters of the reinforcement part are considered.

2 Theoretical approaches

Due to the reliable results of EMT and HT approaches, we used these two approaches for the elastic modulus estimation of PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposite. EMT’s approach is able to consider random orientations for MWCNTs and their possible clustering. However, HT approach involves the geometrical dimension of the reinforcement part to consider its nanoscale effects.

2.1 EMT approach

According to the EMT approach, three types of nanofiller distribution including fully dispersed with aligned CNTs, fully dispersed with randomly oriented CNTs, and locally aggregated CNTs with random orientations can be considered. However, the first case is unlikely to happen because of the small bending rigidity and high aspect ratio of CNTs. Therefore, this subsection provides the formulations that cover the second and third types of CNT distributions in a polymeric matrix. It is worth mentioning that the fully dispersed type of nanocomposite is a specific condition of the nanocomposite with locally aggregated CNTs such that the whole volume of agglomerations and the volume of the nanocomposite are equal.

To investigate the negative impact of agglomerations on the elastic constants, Shi et al. [26] considered representative volume elements (RVEs) including a matrix with partly dispersed CNTs in agglomerations and partly well dispersed as shown in Figure 1. To generalize the RVE, they defined two parameters, which indicated the agglomeration volume µ and CNT concentration in those agglomerations η, which their definitions are mathematically presented in equation (1) [26]:

(1) μ = V aggl . / V , η = f r aggl . / f r 0 ≤ μ , η ≤ 1 and μ < η ,

where f r and f r aggl . are the whole MWCNT volume fraction and MWCNT volume fraction embedded inside the agglomerations, respectively. In addition, the physical parameters of V and V aggl . are the whole volume (area) of RVE and the total volume (area) of the agglomerations, respectively. Due to the physical constraints, µ is always less than η. Moreover, cases with µ = 1 or µ = η indicate RVE or nanocomposite with fully dispersed MWCNTs. Furthermore, η = 1 implies that whole MWCNTs are absorbed into each other, and there are no MWCNTs outside the agglomerations.

Figure 1 An EMT’s RVE, which shows randomly oriented MWCNTs and their agglomerations, are dispersed in a polymeric matrix.
Figure 1

An EMT’s RVE, which shows randomly oriented MWCNTs and their agglomerations, are dispersed in a polymeric matrix.

After generalizing this method for all possible agglomeration states, the mechanical properties of inside and outside agglomerations can be evaluated separately. The shear G and bulk K moduli of the RVE can be determined using the corresponding values of the inside (in) and outside (out) of agglomerations as shown in equation (2) [26]:

(2) K = K out 1 + μ K in K out − 1 1 + α ( 1 − μ ) K in K out − 1 , G = G out 1 + μ G in K G out − 1 1 + β ( 1 − μ ) G in G out − 1 ,

where

(3) α = 1 + υ out 3 ( 1 − υ out ) , β = 2 ( 4 − 5 υ out ) 15 ( 1 − υ out ) ,

(4) K in = K m + f r η ( δ r − 3 K m α r ) 3 ( μ − f r η + f r η α r ) , K out = K m + f r ( 1 − η ) ( δ r − 3 K m α r ) 3 [ 1 − μ − f r ( 1 − η ) + f r ( 1 − η ) α r ] ,

(5) G in = G m + f r η ( η r − 3 G m β r ) 2 ( η r − 3 G m β r ) , G out = G m + f r ( 1 − η ) ( η r − 2 G m β r ) 2 [ 1 − μ − f r ( 1 − η ) + f r ( 1 − η ) β r ] .

In equations (3)–(5), υ out is the Poisson’s ratio of outside of agglomerations and subscripts m and r are used to show the properties of the matrix and nanofiller materials, respectively. Moreover, α r , β r , δ r , and η r are defined as follows:

(6) α r = 3 ( K m + G m ) + k r − l r 3 ( K m + k r ) ,

(7) β r = 1 5 4 G m + 2 k r + l r 3 ( G m + k r ) + 4 G m G m + p r + 2 [ G m ( 3 K m + G m ) + G m ( 3 K m + 7 G m ) ] G m ( 3 K m + G m ) + m r ( 3 K m + 7 G m ) ,

(8) δ r = 1 3 n r + 2 l r + ( 2 k r + l r ) + ( 3 K m + 2 G m − l r ) G m + k r , and

(9) η r = 1 5 2 3 ( n r − l r ) + 8 G m p r G m + p r + 8 m r G m ( 3 K m + 4 G m ) 3 K m ( m r + G m ) + G m ( 7 m r + G m ) + 2 ( k r − l r ) ( 2 G m + l r ) 3 ( G m + k r ) ,

where k r, m r, l r, p r, and n r denote Hill’s elastic moduli of nanofiller, which can be found by matching the following (Hill’s) elastic matrix with the elastic stiffness matrix for MWCNT [26,50,51].

(10) C r = n r l r l r 0 0 0 l r k r + m r k r − m r 0 0 0 l r k r − m r k r + m r 0 0 0 0 0 0 p r 0 0 0 0 0 0 m r 0 0 0 0 0 0 p r .

As mentioned before, EMT’s approach assumes that the resulting nanocomposite is an isotropic material. Therefore, by obtaining K and G from equation (2), Young’s modulus of PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposite will be defined according to equation (11):

(11) E = 9 K G 3 K + G .

2.2 Halpin–Tsai approach

This approach is also heavily used by the community to calculate the stiffness of unidirectional MWCNT-reinforced nanocomposite as a function of the aspect ratio of the nanofillers. In this method, based on the loading direction and filler geometry, Young’s moduli are defined in the longitudinal and transverse independently [16]. Then, the overall Young’s modulus of the nanocomposite is predicted using those two terms as follows [16,24]:

(12) E = 3 8 E L + 5 8 E T ,

in which the longitudinal E L and transverse E T Young’s moduli are presented below [16,24]:

(13) E L = 1 + AR ⋅ η L ⋅ f r 1 − η L ⋅ f r E m , E T = 1 + 2 η T ⋅ f r 1 − η T ⋅ f r E m ,

where AR is the aspect ratio of nanofiller and

(14) η L = ( E r / E m ) − 1 ( E r / E m ) + AR , η T = ( E r / E m ) − 1 ( E r / E m ) + 2 .

Moreover, the relation between the weight and volume fractions of MWCNT inside the polymer is as follows:

(15) f r = w f w f + ρ r ρ m − ρ r ρ m w f ,

where ρ is the mass density.

3 Experimentation

3.1 Preparation of PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposite

Commercially available PDMS (Sylgard 184 two-component Dow Corning) and MWCNT (Shengzhen Nanotech Port Co. Ltd, average diameters: 9.5 nm, average length: 1.5 μm) were used as the polymer matrix and reinforcement particle, respectively, to fabricate the nanocomposite. In this study, PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposites with different MWCNT contents (e.g., 0.1, 0.25, and 0.5 wt%) were fabricated by the solution casting technique. Figure 2 describes a schematic of the PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposite preparation process. At the beginning of the process, a certain amount of MWCNT was dispersed in isopropyl alcohol (IPA) by ultrasonication for 30 min [52]. Then, a specific amount of PDMS was inserted into the solution and was mixed by a magnetic stirrer for 4 h to completely extract the IPA. A polymer crosslinker (Sylgard, 1:10 weight ratio for PDMS to curing agent) was added to the mixture to help the polymer curing process. At the final step, the mixture was poured into the mold cavities (29 mm diameter, 13 mm thickness) and put in an oven at 120°C for 2 h to be cured. Figure 3 shows the fabricated pure PDMS and nanocomposite discs.

Figure 2 Schematic of the preparation process of PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposites.
Figure 2

Schematic of the preparation process of PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposites.

Figure 3 Actual fabricated samples: Pure PDMS and PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposites with different MWCNT contents.
Figure 3

Actual fabricated samples: Pure PDMS and PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposites with different MWCNT contents.

3.2 Characterization

The compression tests were conducted by Instron Universal testing machine (INSTRON 5944) under force control (0.2 mm/min) displacement mode [53]. The test was in accordance with the ASTM D1229 – 03 standard test method. Young’s modulus of nanocomposites was concluded from the trendline slope of the linear elastic regions of the stress–strain curves obtained from the compression tests. Dispersion of MWCNT in the polymer matrix was observed by transmission electron microscope (TEM, Hitachi H7500), which was taken in the Center of Neurobiology of Stress at the University of Toronto Scarborough. For the sample preparation, samples were cut into small triangle pieces using a razor and then were mounted onto slotted pins from electron microscopy sciences (EMS) and sectioned (50 nm) at a temperature of −120°C using liquid nitrogen to cool the chamber and maintain the temperature.

4 Results and discussions

According to the procedure presented in Section 3, samples with different nanofiller fractions have been prepared. Figure 4 illustrates the TEM micrographs of the nanocomposite where the MWCNTs dispersion and particles agglomerations can be observed. According to these micrographs, MWCNT particles were not desirably dispersed in the polymer matrix and the nanofiller clusters increased by adding the MWCNT content in the nanocomposites. Figure 5 depicts the compressive stress versus compressive strain results from experimental compression tests. The experimental results indicated that adding MWCNT particles to the pure PDMS matrix noticeably enhanced its Young’s modulus (slop of the graphs). Moreover, increasing the MWCNT content from 0.1 to 0.25 wt% improved the nanocomposite’s modulus as well. However, at 0.5 wt% MWCNT, the elastic modulus of the nanocomposite did not significantly change in comparison to 0.25 wt% MWCNT content, which might be the result of increased agglomeration effect at higher filler content. Therefore, it can be concluded that high MWCNT agglomerations in the nanocomposite structure can adversely act as stress concentrators and decay the mechanical properties of the particle-reinforced composite.

Figure 4 TEM micrographs of PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposite at (a) 0.1 wt% MWCNT content, (b) 0.25 wt% MWCNT content, and (c) 0.5 wt% MWCNT content. The yellow areas show MWCNT agglomeration.
Figure 4

TEM micrographs of PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposite at (a) 0.1 wt% MWCNT content, (b) 0.25 wt% MWCNT content, and (c) 0.5 wt% MWCNT content. The yellow areas show MWCNT agglomeration.

Figure 5 Compressive stress vs compressive strain graphs for PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposites with different MWCNT contents.
Figure 5

Compressive stress vs compressive strain graphs for PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposites with different MWCNT contents.

Theoretical results have been calculated by considering E r = 1 TPa, υ r = 0.162 , AR = 315.8, E m = 3.53 MPa, and υ m = 0.4 . Figure 6 shows the calculated Young’s moduli of PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposites obtained from both EMT and HT’s approaches at different MWCNT weight fractions while they are compared with our experimental results. In view of HT results, we can see this approach suggesting a continual and almost linear relation between the embedded MWCNT content and Young’s modulus, which has good agreements with measured results at low MWCNT contents. It means this approach properly estimates Young’s modulus of PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposite when the nanocomposite contains low amounts of the nanofiller. However, HT fails to estimate the elasticity modulus of such nanocomposite at higher amounts of MWCNTs due to ignoring the effect of lumping these high aspect ratio nanofillers. Furthermore, the results of EMT’s approach reveal that EMT is successful in predicting the effect of MWCNT agglomerations at the high amounts of w f. However, this method estimates the formation of agglomerations at lower nanofiller contents rather than the experimental tests. According to this theoretical approach, the embedded MWCNTs are dispersed only in 8% of the volume of the resulting nanocomposite. This conclusion on the MWCNT dispersion can be verified by TEM micrographs, which are shown in Figure 4. As discussed before, it seems that EMT’s approach reflects the effect of MWCNT agglomerations on the elasticity modulus at a smaller amount of filler contents rather than the experiment results. The reason behind this observation could be attributed to the soft inheritance of PDMS, which has a very low elasticity modulus (E m = 3.53 MPa). Overall, Figure 6 indicates that both EMT’s (with µ = 0.08) and HT’s approaches estimate Young’s modulus of PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposite with less than 8% error while 0 < w f < 0.5%.

Figure 6 Young’s modulus of PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposite obtained from HT, EMT (with different aggregation states), and experimental compression test versus MWCNT weight fraction.
Figure 6

Young’s modulus of PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposite obtained from HT, EMT (with different aggregation states), and experimental compression test versus MWCNT weight fraction.

As HT’s approach considers a shape parameter (nanofiller aspect ratio), Figure 7 examines the impact of this parameter on the estimated Young’s modulus of PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposite for the four w f used in the experimental tests. This figure reveals that the use of MWCNTs with higher aspect ratios results in stiffer nanocomposites. Moreover, it is observed that there is almost a linear relationship between the aspect ratio of nanofiller and elasticity modulus of the resulting nanocomposite in which the trends are steeper for the nanocomposites with a higher amount of MWCNTs.

Figure 7 Young’s modulus of PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposite obtained from HT approach versus MWCNT aspect ratio for different nanofiller weight fractions.
Figure 7

Young’s modulus of PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposite obtained from HT approach versus MWCNT aspect ratio for different nanofiller weight fractions.

In Figures 8 and 9, the effects of different MWCNT agglomerations on Young’s modulus of PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposite are depicted using EMT’s approach. Figure 8 reveals that enlarging MWCNT cluster sizes (higher µ), while all MWCNTs are located inside such clusters (η = 1), improves the elasticity modulus of the nanocomposites. Moreover, as expected, by increasing µ, the negative effect of MWCNTs lumping is postponed such that the comparison between the results of µ = 0.1 and µ = 0.4 shows this effect can be seen when w f > 0.004% and w f > 0.02%, respectively. Figure 9 plots a comprehensive illustration of the impact of agglomeration states on Young’s modulus of the resulting nanocomposites by changing µ and η. A general observation of this figure shows that PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposites with agglomeration states describing with lower µ and higher η possess higher elasticity modulus due to MWCNT dispersion improvement inside the PDMS. Moreover, as expected, nanocomposites with the highest elasticity modulus can be achieved when µ = 1 or µ = η, which describes a nanocomposite with fully dispersed MWCNT in PDMS matrix.

Figure 8 Young’s modulus of PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposite obtained from EMT’s approach versus MWCNT weight fraction for different MWCNT cluster sizes when η = 1.
Figure 8

Young’s modulus of PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposite obtained from EMT’s approach versus MWCNT weight fraction for different MWCNT cluster sizes when η = 1.

Figure 9 Young’s modulus of PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposite obtained from EMT’s approach versus MWCNT cluster sizes for different concentrations of MWCNTs inside clusters when w f = 0.5%.
Figure 9

Young’s modulus of PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposite obtained from EMT’s approach versus MWCNT cluster sizes for different concentrations of MWCNTs inside clusters when w f = 0.5%.

5 Conclusion

In this article, the effect of MWCNT particles on Young’s modulus of PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposite was investigated using experimental tests and two theoretical approaches including EMT and Halpin–Tsai. The comparison between the results of experimental and theoretical methods showed that the accuracy of HT’s approach at lower MWCNT contents is higher than EMT’s approach. However, EMT predicts the elastic modulus of PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposites at higher MWCNT contents more precisely due to considering the effect of MWCNT agglomerations. According to the experimental results, the presence of MWCNT particles in the PDMS matrix improved the mechanical strength of the nanocomposite, which was comprehended by the stress–strain graphs. Increasing the MWCNT content in the nanocomposites up to 0.25 wt% enhanced their Young’s modulus. However, exceeding this content did not significantly improve Young’s modulus, which can be the result of increased MWCNT clusters in the nanocomposite structure. To reduce the MWCNT agglomeration for the future work, some methods are recommended. Since increasing the ultrasonication time or amplitude creates powerful vibration waves, which results in the breakage of the tubes, an alternative way to better disperse the particles can be the use of high-speed disperser [54]. In the high-speed disperser, the high speed and minimal gap between the rotor and stator produced extremely strong shear forces, which results in better particle dispersion with less tube breakage. Moreover, adding surfactant to the MWCNT and solvent mixture can improve the particle dispersion as well. The formation of a layer of a surfactant coat on CNT surface helps to counterbalance van der Waals attractions between CNTs and results in the better particle dispersion [55].

The potential use of fabricated nanocomposite is for force mapping in biomedical applications. The tailored PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposite with 0.25 wt% MWCNT shows piezoresistive behaviors, which means its electrical resistance changes while an external force is applied to it, and therefore this nanocomposite can perform as a pressure sensor.

  1. Funding information: The work described in this paper was supported by Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC under grant RGPIN-217525). The authors are grateful for their supports.

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2021-08-17
Revised: 2021-09-14
Accepted: 2021-10-22
Published Online: 2021-12-07

© 2022 Pardis Ghahramani et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2022-0006
Keywords for this article
flexible PDMS-MWCNT nanocomposite; Young’s modulus; compression test; theoretical approaches; CNT agglomeration; CNT aspect ratio
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Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Theoretical and experimental investigation of MWCNT dispersion effect on the elastic modulus of flexible PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposites
  3. Mechanical, morphological, and fracture-deformation behavior of MWCNTs-reinforced (Al–Cu–Mg–T351) alloy cast nanocomposites fabricated by optimized mechanical milling and powder metallurgy techniques
  4. Flammability and physical stability of sugar palm crystalline nanocellulose reinforced thermoplastic sugar palm starch/poly(lactic acid) blend bionanocomposites
  5. Glutathione-loaded non-ionic surfactant niosomes: A new approach to improve oral bioavailability and hepatoprotective efficacy of glutathione
  6. Relationship between mechano-bactericidal activity and nanoblades density on chemically strengthened glass
  7. In situ regulation of microstructure and microwave-absorbing properties of FeSiAl through HNO3 oxidation
  8. Research on a mechanical model of magnetorheological fluid different diameter particles
  9. Nanomechanical and dynamic mechanical properties of rubber–wood–plastic composites
  10. Investigative properties of CeO2 doped with niobium: A combined characterization and DFT studies
  11. Miniaturized peptidomimetics and nano-vesiculation in endothelin types through probable nano-disk formation and structure property relationships of endothelins’ fragments
  12. N/S co-doped CoSe/C nanocubes as anode materials for Li-ion batteries
  13. Synergistic effects of halloysite nanotubes with metal and phosphorus additives on the optimal design of eco-friendly sandwich panels with maximum flame resistance and minimum weight
  14. Octreotide-conjugated silver nanoparticles for active targeting of somatostatin receptors and their application in a nebulized rat model
  15. Controllable morphology of Bi2S3 nanostructures formed via hydrothermal vulcanization of Bi2O3 thin-film layer and their photoelectrocatalytic performances
  16. Development of (−)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate-loaded folate receptor-targeted nanoparticles for prostate cancer treatment
  17. Enhancement of the mechanical properties of HDPE mineral nanocomposites by filler particles modulation of the matrix plastic/elastic behavior
  18. Effect of plasticizers on the properties of sugar palm nanocellulose/cinnamon essential oil reinforced starch bionanocomposite films
  19. Optimization of nano coating to reduce the thermal deformation of ball screws
  20. Preparation of efficient piezoelectric PVDF–HFP/Ni composite films by high electric field poling
  21. MHD dissipative Casson nanofluid liquid film flow due to an unsteady stretching sheet with radiation influence and slip velocity phenomenon
  22. Effects of nano-SiO2 modification on rubberised mortar and concrete with recycled coarse aggregates
  23. Mechanical and microscopic properties of fiber-reinforced coal gangue-based geopolymer concrete
  24. Effect of morphology and size on the thermodynamic stability of cerium oxide nanoparticles: Experiment and molecular dynamics calculation
  25. Mechanical performance of a CFRP composite reinforced via gelatin-CNTs: A study on fiber interfacial enhancement and matrix enhancement
  26. A practical review over surface modification, nanopatterns, emerging materials, drug delivery systems, and their biophysiochemical properties for dental implants: Recent progresses and advances
  27. HTR: An ultra-high speed algorithm for cage recognition of clathrate hydrates
  28. Effects of microalloying elements added by in situ synthesis on the microstructure of WCu composites
  29. A highly sensitive nanobiosensor based on aptamer-conjugated graphene-decorated rhodium nanoparticles for detection of HER2-positive circulating tumor cells
  30. Progressive collapse performance of shear strengthened RC frames by nano CFRP
  31. Core–shell heterostructured composites of carbon nanotubes and imine-linked hyperbranched polymers as metal-free Li-ion anodes
  32. A Galerkin strategy for tri-hybridized mixture in ethylene glycol comprising variable diffusion and thermal conductivity using non-Fourier’s theory
  33. Simple models for tensile modulus of shape memory polymer nanocomposites at ambient temperature
  34. Preparation and morphological studies of tin sulfide nanoparticles and use as efficient photocatalysts for the degradation of rhodamine B and phenol
  35. Polyethyleneimine-impregnated activated carbon nanofiber composited graphene-derived rice husk char for efficient post-combustion CO2 capture
  36. Electrospun nanofibers of Co3O4 nanocrystals encapsulated in cyclized-polyacrylonitrile for lithium storage
  37. Pitting corrosion induced on high-strength high carbon steel wire in high alkaline deaerated chloride electrolyte
  38. Formulation of polymeric nanoparticles loaded sorafenib; evaluation of cytotoxicity, molecular evaluation, and gene expression studies in lung and breast cancer cell lines
  39. Engineered nanocomposites in asphalt binders
  40. Influence of loading voltage, domain ratio, and additional load on the actuation of dielectric elastomer
  41. Thermally induced hex-graphene transitions in 2D carbon crystals
  42. The surface modification effect on the interfacial properties of glass fiber-reinforced epoxy: A molecular dynamics study
  43. Molecular dynamics study of deformation mechanism of interfacial microzone of Cu/Al2Cu/Al composites under tension
  44. Nanocolloid simulators of luminescent solar concentrator photovoltaic windows
  45. Compressive strength and anti-chloride ion penetration assessment of geopolymer mortar merging PVA fiber and nano-SiO2 using RBF–BP composite neural network
  46. Effect of 3-mercapto-1-propane sulfonate sulfonic acid and polyvinylpyrrolidone on the growth of cobalt pillar by electrodeposition
  47. Dynamics of convective slippery constraints on hybrid radiative Sutterby nanofluid flow by Galerkin finite element simulation
  48. Preparation of vanadium by the magnesiothermic self-propagating reduction and process control
  49. Microstructure-dependent photoelectrocatalytic activity of heterogeneous ZnO–ZnS nanosheets
  50. Cytotoxic and pro-inflammatory effects of molybdenum and tungsten disulphide on human bronchial cells
  51. Improving recycled aggregate concrete by compression casting and nano-silica
  52. Chemically reactive Maxwell nanoliquid flow by a stretching surface in the frames of Newtonian heating, nonlinear convection and radiative flux: Nanopolymer flow processing simulation
  53. Nonlinear dynamic and crack behaviors of carbon nanotubes-reinforced composites with various geometries
  54. Biosynthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles and its therapeutic efficacy against colon cancer
  55. Synthesis and characterization of smart stimuli-responsive herbal drug-encapsulated nanoniosome particles for efficient treatment of breast cancer
  56. Homotopic simulation for heat transport phenomenon of the Burgers nanofluids flow over a stretching cylinder with thermal convective and zero mass flux conditions
  57. Incorporation of copper and strontium ions in TiO2 nanotubes via dopamine to enhance hemocompatibility and cytocompatibility
  58. Mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties of starch films incorporated with chitosan nanoparticles
  59. Mechanical properties and microstructure of nano-strengthened recycled aggregate concrete
  60. Glucose-responsive nanogels efficiently maintain the stability and activity of therapeutic enzymes
  61. Tunning matrix rheology and mechanical performance of ultra-high performance concrete using cellulose nanofibers
  62. Flexible MXene/copper/cellulose nanofiber heat spreader films with enhanced thermal conductivity
  63. Promoted charge separation and specific surface area via interlacing of N-doped titanium dioxide nanotubes on carbon nitride nanosheets for photocatalytic degradation of Rhodamine B
  64. Elucidating the role of silicon dioxide and titanium dioxide nanoparticles in mitigating the disease of the eggplant caused by Phomopsis vexans, Ralstonia solanacearum, and root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita
  65. An implication of magnetic dipole in Carreau Yasuda liquid influenced by engine oil using ternary hybrid nanomaterial
  66. Robust synthesis of a composite phase of copper vanadium oxide with enhanced performance for durable aqueous Zn-ion batteries
  67. Tunning self-assembled phases of bovine serum albumin via hydrothermal process to synthesize novel functional hydrogel for skin protection against UVB
  68. A comparative experimental study on damping properties of epoxy nanocomposite beams reinforced with carbon nanotubes and graphene nanoplatelets
  69. Lightweight and hydrophobic Ni/GO/PVA composite aerogels for ultrahigh performance electromagnetic interference shielding
  70. Research on the auxetic behavior and mechanical properties of periodically rotating graphene nanostructures
  71. Repairing performances of novel cement mortar modified with graphene oxide and polyacrylate polymer
  72. Closed-loop recycling and fabrication of hydrophilic CNT films with high performance
  73. Design of thin-film configuration of SnO2–Ag2O composites for NO2 gas-sensing applications
  74. Study on stress distribution of SiC/Al composites based on microstructure models with microns and nanoparticles
  75. PVDF green nanofibers as potential carriers for improving self-healing and mechanical properties of carbon fiber/epoxy prepregs
  76. Osteogenesis capability of three-dimensionally printed poly(lactic acid)-halloysite nanotube scaffolds containing strontium ranelate
  77. Silver nanoparticles induce mitochondria-dependent apoptosis and late non-canonical autophagy in HT-29 colon cancer cells
  78. Preparation and bonding mechanisms of polymer/metal hybrid composite by nano molding technology
  79. Damage self-sensing and strain monitoring of glass-reinforced epoxy composite impregnated with graphene nanoplatelet and multiwalled carbon nanotubes
  80. Thermal analysis characterisation of solar-powered ship using Oldroyd hybrid nanofluids in parabolic trough solar collector: An optimal thermal application
  81. Pyrene-functionalized halloysite nanotubes for simultaneously detecting and separating Hg(ii) in aqueous media: A comprehensive comparison on interparticle and intraparticle excimers
  82. Fabrication of self-assembly CNT flexible film and its piezoresistive sensing behaviors
  83. Thermal valuation and entropy inspection of second-grade nanoscale fluid flow over a stretching surface by applying Koo–Kleinstreuer–Li relation
  84. Mechanical properties and microstructure of nano-SiO2 and basalt-fiber-reinforced recycled aggregate concrete
  85. Characterization and tribology performance of polyaniline-coated nanodiamond lubricant additives
  86. Combined impact of Marangoni convection and thermophoretic particle deposition on chemically reactive transport of nanofluid flow over a stretching surface
  87. Spark plasma extrusion of binder free hydroxyapatite powder
  88. An investigation on thermo-mechanical performance of graphene-oxide-reinforced shape memory polymer
  89. Effect of nanoadditives on the novel leather fiber/recycled poly(ethylene-vinyl-acetate) polymer composites for multifunctional applications: Fabrication, characterizations, and multiobjective optimization using central composite design
  90. Design selection for a hemispherical dimple core sandwich panel using hybrid multi-criteria decision-making methods
  91. Improving tensile strength and impact toughness of plasticized poly(lactic acid) biocomposites by incorporating nanofibrillated cellulose
  92. Green synthesis of spinel copper ferrite (CuFe2O4) nanoparticles and their toxicity
  93. The effect of TaC and NbC hybrid and mono-nanoparticles on AA2024 nanocomposites: Microstructure, strengthening, and artificial aging
  94. Excited-state geometry relaxation of pyrene-modified cellulose nanocrystals under UV-light excitation for detecting Fe3+
  95. Effect of CNTs and MEA on the creep of face-slab concrete at an early age
  96. Effect of deformation conditions on compression phase transformation of AZ31
  97. Application of MXene as a new generation of highly conductive coating materials for electromembrane-surrounded solid-phase microextraction
  98. A comparative study of the elasto-plastic properties for ceramic nanocomposites filled by graphene or graphene oxide nanoplates
  99. Encapsulation strategies for improving the biological behavior of CdS@ZIF-8 nanocomposites
  100. Biosynthesis of ZnO NPs from pumpkin seeds’ extract and elucidation of its anticancer potential against breast cancer
  101. Preliminary trials of the gold nanoparticles conjugated chrysin: An assessment of anti-oxidant, anti-microbial, and in vitro cytotoxic activities of a nanoformulated flavonoid
  102. Effect of micron-scale pores increased by nano-SiO2 sol modification on the strength of cement mortar
  103. Fractional simulations for thermal flow of hybrid nanofluid with aluminum oxide and titanium oxide nanoparticles with water and blood base fluids
  104. The effect of graphene nano-powder on the viscosity of water: An experimental study and artificial neural network modeling
  105. Development of a novel heat- and shear-resistant nano-silica gelling agent
  106. Characterization, biocompatibility and in vivo of nominal MnO2-containing wollastonite glass-ceramic
  107. Entropy production simulation of second-grade magnetic nanomaterials flowing across an expanding surface with viscidness dissipative flux
  108. Enhancement in structural, morphological, and optical properties of copper oxide for optoelectronic device applications
  109. Aptamer-functionalized chitosan-coated gold nanoparticle complex as a suitable targeted drug carrier for improved breast cancer treatment
  110. Performance and overall evaluation of nano-alumina-modified asphalt mixture
  111. Analysis of pure nanofluid (GO/engine oil) and hybrid nanofluid (GO–Fe3O4/engine oil): Novel thermal and magnetic features
  112. Synthesis of Ag@AgCl modified anatase/rutile/brookite mixed phase TiO2 and their photocatalytic property
  113. Mechanisms and influential variables on the abrasion resistance hydraulic concrete
  114. Synergistic reinforcement mechanism of basalt fiber/cellulose nanocrystals/polypropylene composites
  115. Achieving excellent oxidation resistance and mechanical properties of TiB2–B4C/carbon aerogel composites by quick-gelation and mechanical mixing
  116. Microwave-assisted sol–gel template-free synthesis and characterization of silica nanoparticles obtained from South African coal fly ash
  117. Pulsed laser-assisted synthesis of nano nickel(ii) oxide-anchored graphitic carbon nitride: Characterizations and their potential antibacterial/anti-biofilm applications
  118. Effects of nano-ZrSi2 on thermal stability of phenolic resin and thermal reusability of quartz–phenolic composites
  119. Benzaldehyde derivatives on tin electroplating as corrosion resistance for fabricating copper circuit
  120. Mechanical and heat transfer properties of 4D-printed shape memory graphene oxide/epoxy acrylate composites
  121. Coupling the vanadium-induced amorphous/crystalline NiFe2O4 with phosphide heterojunction toward active oxygen evolution reaction catalysts
  122. Graphene-oxide-reinforced cement composites mechanical and microstructural characteristics at elevated temperatures
  123. Gray correlation analysis of factors influencing compressive strength and durability of nano-SiO2 and PVA fiber reinforced geopolymer mortar
  124. Preparation of layered gradient Cu–Cr–Ti alloy with excellent mechanical properties, thermal stability, and electrical conductivity
  125. Recovery of Cr from chrome-containing leather wastes to develop aluminum-based composite material along with Al2O3 ceramic particles: An ingenious approach
  126. Mechanisms of the improved stiffness of flexible polymers under impact loading
  127. Anticancer potential of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) using a battery of in vitro tests
  128. Review Articles
  129. Proposed approaches for coronaviruses elimination from wastewater: Membrane techniques and nanotechnology solutions
  130. Application of Pickering emulsion in oil drilling and production
  131. The contribution of microfluidics to the fight against tuberculosis
  132. Graphene-based biosensors for disease theranostics: Development, applications, and recent advancements
  133. Synthesis and encapsulation of iron oxide nanorods for application in magnetic hyperthermia and photothermal therapy
  134. Contemporary nano-architectured drugs and leads for ανβ3 integrin-based chemotherapy: Rationale and retrospect
  135. State-of-the-art review of fabrication, application, and mechanical properties of functionally graded porous nanocomposite materials
  136. Insights on magnetic spinel ferrites for targeted drug delivery and hyperthermia applications
  137. A review on heterogeneous oxidation of acetaminophen based on micro and nanoparticles catalyzed by different activators
  138. Early diagnosis of lung cancer using magnetic nanoparticles-integrated systems
  139. Advances in ZnO: Manipulation of defects for enhancing their technological potentials
  140. Efficacious nanomedicine track toward combating COVID-19
  141. A review of the design, processes, and properties of Mg-based composites
  142. Green synthesis of nanoparticles for varied applications: Green renewable resources and energy-efficient synthetic routes
  143. Two-dimensional nanomaterial-based polymer composites: Fundamentals and applications
  144. Recent progress and challenges in plasmonic nanomaterials
  145. Apoptotic cell-derived micro/nanosized extracellular vesicles in tissue regeneration
  146. Electronic noses based on metal oxide nanowires: A review
  147. Framework materials for supercapacitors
  148. An overview on the reproductive toxicity of graphene derivatives: Highlighting the importance
  149. Antibacterial nanomaterials: Upcoming hope to overcome antibiotic resistance crisis
  150. Research progress of carbon materials in the field of three-dimensional printing polymer nanocomposites
  151. A review of atomic layer deposition modelling and simulation methodologies: Density functional theory and molecular dynamics
  152. Recent advances in the preparation of PVDF-based piezoelectric materials
  153. Recent developments in tensile properties of friction welding of carbon fiber-reinforced composite: A review
  154. Comprehensive review of the properties of fly ash-based geopolymer with additive of nano-SiO2
  155. Perspectives in biopolymer/graphene-based composite application: Advances, challenges, and recommendations
  156. Graphene-based nanocomposite using new modeling molecular dynamic simulations for proposed neutralizing mechanism and real-time sensing of COVID-19
  157. Nanotechnology application on bamboo materials: A review
  158. Recent developments and future perspectives of biorenewable nanocomposites for advanced applications
  159. Nanostructured lipid carrier system: A compendium of their formulation development approaches, optimization strategies by quality by design, and recent applications in drug delivery
  160. 3D printing customized design of human bone tissue implant and its application
  161. Design, preparation, and functionalization of nanobiomaterials for enhanced efficacy in current and future biomedical applications
  162. A brief review of nanoparticles-doped PEDOT:PSS nanocomposite for OLED and OPV
  163. Nanotechnology interventions as a putative tool for the treatment of dental afflictions
  164. Recent advancements in metal–organic frameworks integrating quantum dots (QDs@MOF) and their potential applications
  165. A focused review of short electrospun nanofiber preparation techniques for composite reinforcement
  166. Microstructural characteristics and nano-modification of interfacial transition zone in concrete: A review
  167. Latest developments in the upconversion nanotechnology for the rapid detection of food safety: A review
  168. Strategic applications of nano-fertilizers for sustainable agriculture: Benefits and bottlenecks
  169. Molecular dynamics application of cocrystal energetic materials: A review
  170. Synthesis and application of nanometer hydroxyapatite in biomedicine
  171. Cutting-edge development in waste-recycled nanomaterials for energy storage and conversion applications
  172. Biological applications of ternary quantum dots: A review
  173. Nanotherapeutics for hydrogen sulfide-involved treatment: An emerging approach for cancer therapy
  174. Application of antibacterial nanoparticles in orthodontic materials
  175. Effect of natural-based biological hydrogels combined with growth factors on skin wound healing
  176. Nanozymes – A route to overcome microbial resistance: A viewpoint
  177. Recent developments and applications of smart nanoparticles in biomedicine
  178. Contemporary review on carbon nanotube (CNT) composites and their impact on multifarious applications
  179. Interfacial interactions and reinforcing mechanisms of cellulose and chitin nanomaterials and starch derivatives for cement and concrete strength and durability enhancement: A review
  180. Diamond-like carbon films for tribological modification of rubber
  181. Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) modified cement-based materials: A systematic review
  182. Recent research progress and advanced applications of silica/polymer nanocomposites
  183. Modeling of supramolecular biopolymers: Leading the in silico revolution of tissue engineering and nanomedicine
  184. Recent advances in perovskites-based optoelectronics
  185. Biogenic synthesis of palladium nanoparticles: New production methods and applications
  186. A comprehensive review of nanofluids with fractional derivatives: Modeling and application
  187. Electrospinning of marine polysaccharides: Processing and chemical aspects, challenges, and future prospects
  188. Electrohydrodynamic printing for demanding devices: A review of processing and applications
  189. Rapid Communications
  190. Structural material with designed thermal twist for a simple actuation
  191. Recent advances in photothermal materials for solar-driven crude oil adsorption
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