Benzaldehyde derivatives on tin electroplating as corrosion resistance for fabricating copper circuit

Yunzhong Huang; Chao Yang; Xiang Tan; Zhenhai Zhang; Shouxu Wang; Jiacong Hu; Wei He; Zhuoming Du; Yongjie Du; Yao Tang; Xinhong Su; Yuanming Chen

doi:10.1515/ntrev-2022-0497

Article Open Access

Benzaldehyde derivatives on tin electroplating as corrosion resistance for fabricating copper circuit

, , , , , , , , , , and

Published/Copyright: November 21, 2022

Published by

Become an author with De Gruyter Brill

Submit Manuscript Author Information

From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 11 Issue 1

Abstract

Electrodeposited tin is a crucial corrosion-resistant metal to protect electronic interconnection and copper circuits in the manufacturing process of electronic products. The corrosion-resistant properties of electrodeposited tin can be improved with the addition of additives in electrodeposition. Three benzaldehyde derivatives including vanillin, ethyl vanillin, and veratraldehyde as brighteners were investigated for tin electrodeposition. Computational and experimental analyses were conducted to investigate the relationship between coating properties and the chemical factors including the molecular structure, adsorption process, and electrochemical behavior of the brighteners. The computational work demonstrated that all three brighteners could hold high reactivity and spontaneously absorb on the tin surface. The results of linear sweep voltammetry tests (LSV) illustrated that all three brighteners effectively increased the cathode polarization but ethyl vanillin exhibited the best inhibiting performance in the tin deposition. Besides, the adsorption behavior of brighteners on the tin layer also affected the grain morphology and preferred growth orientation of the crystal surface. The corrosion rate and side erosion results both indicated that ethyl vanillin could benefit to form a tin coating with good corrosion performance to meet the requirement of copper circuit fabrication of printed circuit board.

Keywords: tin electroplating; brightener; adsorption behavior; corrosion; copper circuits

1 Introduction

Tin coating with excellent physical and chemical characteristics including low toxicity, outstanding wettability, and high oxidation resistance works as a particularly important metal coating in the production of electronic components and printed circuit board (PCB) [1,2,3,4,5,6]. Generally, the deposited tin coating on the copper circuit pattern could serve as corrosion resistant layer in the subsequent etching process. Therefore, the corrosion-resistant properties of electrodeposited tin coating are significant in the fabrication of fine copper circuits for high-density interconnection.

In order to provide sufficient protection for the reliability of the copper circuit, the tin coating should meet the requirement of being dense, smooth, and corrosion-resisting. However, this demand is difficult to satisfy because of the special electrochemical properties of tin. In an acidic tin electroplating bath, Sn²⁺ with a low electrochemical reaction overpotential is quickly reduced on the surface of the electrode. As a result, the tin coating tends to be deposited at a large reduction rate on the crystal surface with a small overpotential, thereby making the tin coating dominated by only one crystal direction. In this way, tin coating with a dendritic or needle-like morphology would fail to protect the copper circuit pattern [7].

In the past decades, attempts have been made to develop tin plating baths and improve the quality of tin coating [8,9,10,11,12,13]. There are mainly three kinds of additives for tin electroplating in the acid system including surfactants, antioxidants, and brighteners [14,15,16,17,18]. Many additives including brighteners were selected for the tin electroplating process due to their significant role in the control of tin growth [19,20,21,22,23,24]. The effect of decyl glucoside, as a green additive with the heterocyclic ring, on tin electrodeposition in the acid sulfate medium was studied by theoretical and experimental methods [25]. To obtain useful tin coating from the methane sulfonic acid system, Wang et al. [26] selected a triblock copolymer of ethylene oxide and propylene oxide to adsorb on the surface of the cathode and form a barrier film to reduce the diffusion and transfer of Sn²⁺. Xiao et al. [7] found that tartaric acid as an antioxidant could inhibit the stannous reduction by complexing with stannous during tin electroplating. An et al. [6] studied the process of tin electrodeposition and the brightener adsorption behavior of 3-phenylacrylaldehyde and 4-phenylbut-3-en-2-one on the tin surface. The above results indicated that additive molecules adsorbed on the tin surface with the manner of multi-center adsorption via coordinate and feedback bonds. However, researches focusing on the additives involved in tin electrodepositing are still inadequate. Notably, the application of vanillin and ethyl vanillin in electroplating has been reported in zinc-nickel plating and iridium rhenium alloy plating, but their influence on the tin electroplating process remains unexplored [27,28].

In this article, three benzaldehyde derivatives including vanillin, ethyl vanillin, and veratraldehyde were used as the brightener in the tin plating process. The molecular structure, the adsorption process, and electrochemical behavior were discussed to explain the varied properties of the coating. As-deposited tin was employed as corrosion coating against etching solution to form a copper circuit of PCB.

2 Experimental study

2.1 Quantum chemical calculations

Theoretical calculations and molecular dynamics simulation (MD) are widely used to investigate the surface and interface interaction [29,30]. In this study, the geometry optimizations of three brighteners were conducted by density functional theory (DFT) using B3LYP method [31,32,33,34,35,36]. After the optimization, the electron density and orbitals distribution were examined for the highest occupied molecular orbitals (HOMO), the lowest unoccupied molecular orbitals (LUMO), and electrostatic potential (ESP). The values of LUMO and HOMO were named E _LUMO and E _HOMO, respectively, and the energy gap value of the molecule can be calculated by the following formula (1).

(1) Δ E = E LUMO − E HOMO .

2.2 MD simulation

MD Simulation for interaction between the brighteners and Sn surface was conducted in a simulation box with periodic boundary conditions, which contained a single brightener molecule, 100 water molecules, and a layer of tin atoms. And the force field types of atoms in the molecules were assigned manually. Before the dynamic simulation of the box, three brightener molecules were first optimized to pose the most stable configuration. Thereafter, the box was optimized to a favorable geometry. Dynamic simulation proceeded on the condition of constant atoms number, temperature, and volume of the system. Additionally, the temperature of the system was fixed at 25℃, simulation time was set to 300 ps, time step was limited to1 fs, and the tin surface atoms were constrained. The adsorption energy values of additives on the surface of tin are calculated by following formulas (2) and (3). E _ads and E _binding represent the energy value of adsorption and binding of additives on the tin surface, respectively. E _complex, E _Sn, and E _brightener represent the energy value of complex boxes including Sn layer and brighteners, only Sn layer box, and only brightener box, respectively.

(2) E ads = E complex − ( E Sn + E brightener ) ,

(3) E binding = − E ads .

2.3 Electroplating

Electroplating was carried out in a 0.4 L (0.6 × 0.7 × 10 dm³) plating bath with a tin plate as the anode at 25℃. The current density was kept at 5 mA/cm² and the electroplating process lasted for 10 min. The original tin plating bath without brighteners consists of methyl sulfonic acid (120 g/L), stannous mesylate (30 g/L), OP-10 (0.55 g/L), ascorbic acid (3 g/L), and deionized (DI) water. The formulas of four tin plating baths are displayed in Table 1. The samples prepared by the formulas of baths 1–4 shown in Table 1 are recorded as samples 1–4, respectively.

Table 1

Formulas of plating baths

Components	Bath 1	Bath 2	Bath 3	Bath 4
Methyl sulfonic acid	120 g/L	120 g/L	120 g/L	120 g/L
Stannous mesylate	30 g/L	30 g/L	30 g/L	30 g/L
Surfactant (OP-10)	0.55 g/L	0.55 g/L	0.55 g/L	0.55 g/L
Antioxidant (ascorbic acid)	3 g/L	3 g/L	3 g/L	3 g/L
Brightener	—	Vanillin	Ethyl vanillin	Veratraldehyde
Brightener	—	50 mg/L	50 mg/L	50 mg/L

2.4 Characterization

2.4.1 Coating morphology tests

The coatings obtained from different tin baths were observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM, HITAHI S3400) and X-ray diffraction (XRD, Rigaku MINIFLEX 600). SEM photographs were taken at 25 kV, and XRD patterns were obtained using CuKα (λ = 1.5405 Å) radiation, with a scanning angle of 2–100° and a rate of 1 degree per minute.

2.4.2 Electrochemical tests

In this study, the effect of brighteners on the process of tin electrodeposition was studied utilizing linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) test [37]. Besides, with the sample coating as the test object, the corrosion resistance of the coatings formed under the action of additives was measured using the Tafel curve test and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) test. Three tests were performed on an Autolab (PGSTAT302N, Metrohm) with a three-electrode system at 25℃ in a glass electrolytic cell containing 200 mL solution. And the reference electrode was a mercurous sulfate electrode (SSE) (Shanghai ray magnetic instruments Co., Ltd) while the counter electrode was a platinum-wire electrode. Notably, the working electrode (WE) in the LSV test was a rotating disk platinum electrode with a diameter of 3 mm, while the WE was tin coatings samples electrodeposited from plating baths 1–4 during EIS and Tafel curve tests.

Additionally, in the LSV test, the test solutions are shown in Table 1, the rotation speeds of the WE were fixed at 1,500 rpm, and the electrode potential swept from 0 V to −1.6 V with the scanning speed of 5 mV/s. In the EIS test, the test solutions were 5 wt% dilute sulfuric acid, the amplitude of vibration disturbance of sinusoidal voltage applied by the impedance test is 5 mV, and the range of test frequency was 10⁻² to 10⁵ Hz. In the Tafel curve test, the potential scanning range was −0.3 to −1.2 V with a scanning rate of 5 mV/s.

2.4.3 Etching test

As shown in Figure 1, in the typical manufacturing process of PCB, the final step in Figure 1f is to remove the tin coating with the tin stripping solution. The side corrosion morphology of the copper circuit from samples 1–4 after the tin removal process was observed by a metallographic microscope, and the etching factor was calculated to compare the coating corrosion resistance of samples 1–4.

Figure 1

A typical process for PCB manufacturing: (a) mask coating and imaging, (b) copper electroplating, (c) tin electroplating, (d) mask removal, (e) copper etching, and (f) tin removal.

3 Result and discussion

3.1 Quantum chemical computation

Quantum chemical calculation is a useful method to investigate molecular properties and interface interaction of additives in metal electrodeposition, which can help to predict the adsorption sites of additives [38,39]. The molecule structure and optimization results of vanillin, ethyl vanillin, and veratraldehyde are displayed in Figures 2 and 3. It can be seen that the aldehyde carbonyl substituents in the three brighteners are all in the same plane with the benzene ring, which reduces the reaction hindrance of the molecules [40]. Based on the classical chemical bond theory, when the oxygen atom of the aldehyde carbonyl substituent and the benzene ring are in the same plane, the carbonyl group and the benzene ring plane would constitute a conjugated structure, namely π–π conjugation. Similarly, the hydroxyl and alkoxy group and the benzene ring plane form a p–π conjugate. These structures enable the electrons to move around the entire conjugated bond, thus making the molecule more reactive. The three brighteners are all prone to adsorb to the surface with similar adsorption strength. As displayed in Figure 3, the HOMO of the three brighteners is mainly localized on the benzene ring, which is the preferred site for electrophilic attacks. The LUMO of the three brighteners is mainly localized on the oxygen atom of the aldehyde carbonyl substituent and the carbon atom of the benzene ring, which are the preferred sites for nucleophilic attacks. Orbital energies for HOMO and LUMO and ΔE of the three brighteners are illustrated in Figure 3. E _LUMO of vanillin, ethyl vanillin, and veratraldehyde were −2.04, −2.06, and −2.17 eV, respectively, and E _HOMO of vanillin, ethyl vanillin, and veratraldehyde were −6.44, −6.72, and −6.56 eV, respectively. Similar energy values of LUMO and LUMO indicate that the three brighteners have similar capacities to receive electrons from donors and provide electrons to the receptor. On the other hand, the energy gap of the three brighteners is similar as well. The slight difference between ΔE is related to the functional groups of the molecule. It is reported that the functional groups and the surrounding microenvironment both have a great influence on the action mechanism of additives [41,42].

Figure 2

Molecule structure of (a) vanillin, (b) ethyl vanillin, and (c) veratraldehyde; the gray, red, and white spheres represent carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms, respectively.

Figure 3

Simulated LUMO and HOMO of vanillin, ethyl vanillin, and veratraldehyde.

Oxygen atoms of the aldehyde carbonyl substituent group are predicted to be the main adsorption sites of the three brighteners. Figure 4 exhibits the electrostatic potential distribution of three brightener molecules. It can be observed that the areas with the highest electron cloud density of the three brighteners are all distributed on the oxygen atoms of the aldehyde carbonyl substituent group. These red areas with a strong nucleophilic ability tend to combine with metal ions and metal surface vacant orbital in solution to form electrostatic adsorption.

Figure 4

ESP of additives (a) vanillin, (b) ethyl vanillin, and (c) veratraldehyde.

3.2 MD simulation

MD simulation is an intuitive and visual method to analyze the adsorption of additives. The original configuration of the simulation box formed on the surface of tin (101) and (211) presents in Figures 5 and 6. The simulation results illustrate that the kinetic energy and potential energy of the system keep balanced after the 50 ps. Meantime, vanillin, ethyl vanillin, and veratraldehyde all adsorb on tin surface of tin (101) and (211). As shown in Figures 5g–i and 6g–i, the aldehydes carbonyl groups of vanillin, ethyl vanillin, and veratraldehyde, as the adsorption site, are all adsorbed on the surface of the tin (101) and (211) by insertion or adhesion, which is consistent with the ESP chart analysis. This result indicates that spontaneous absorption has occurred between the brighteners and the tin layer. The sites with high electron cloud density on the aldehyde carbonyl group will preferentially absorb on the cathode. Notably, vanillin is tiled on the surface of tin (101) and ethyl vanillin is tiled on the surface of tin (211). The way tiled on the tin surface allows the brightener molecules to cover a larger area of the tin surface and subsequently the exposed tin surface is reduced; thus, the process of tin electrodeposition is inhibited [43].

Figure 5

The initial status and adsorption status of additives (a, d and g) vanillin, (b, e and h) ethyl vanillin and (c, f and i) veratraldehyde on tin (101).

Figure 6

The initial status and adsorption status of additives (a, d and g) vanillin, (b, e and h) ethyl vanillin, and (c, f, and i) veratraldehyde on tin (211).

In addition to qualitative observation from the adsorption state, the adsorption strength of brightener molecules on the tin surface is quantitatively evaluated by calculating the binding energy (E _binding) of the brightener–tin interface interaction system. The high value of E _binding indicates that the additive holds a high affinity to the tin surface. The energy values related to E _binding are listed in Tables 2 and 3. It is inferred that the brighteners in the system change from a metastable state to an energy stable state, which follows the law of thermodynamics. Meanwhile, ethyl vanillin with a relatively high value of E _binding (51.64 kcal/mol) displays the highest stability of its adsorption tin (211). Based on these models of the adsorption state, it is found that the orientation of the absorbed brightener and the crystal surface of tin are important factors for the high E _binding values. A large adsorption area is helpful to obtain a high E _binding.

Table 2

The adsorption energies of the interaction systems on tin (101)

	E _total (kcal/mol)	E _Sn (kcal/mol)	E _brightener (kcal/mol)	E _binding (kcal/mol)
Vanillin	−4947.47	38.92	−4935.47	50.92
Ethyl vanillin	−4946.82	29.86	−4936.04	40.65
Veratraldehyde	−4923.12	56.34	−4938.64	40.82

Table 3

Adsorption energies of the interaction systems on tin (211)

	E _total (kcal/mol)	E _Sn (kcal/mol)	E _brightener (kcal/mol)	E _binding (kcal/mol)
Vanillin	−3738.51	37.75	−3739.04	37.22
Ethyl vanillin	−3839.40	33.56	−3821.32	51.64
Veratraldehyde	−3808.19	56.57	−3816.94	47.82

3.3 Linear sweep voltammetry test

Among the three brighteners, the addition of ethyl vanillin leads to the best result, which is more conducive to obtaining a tin coating with fine grain and good flatness. Figure 7 displays four LSV curves with the test object of baths 1–4. When no brightener is added to the base bath, the initial potential of tin electroplating is −0.92 V. However, after adding the brightener into the basic plating solution, the discharge of Sn²⁺ is hindered. The reduction potential of Sn²⁺ moves negatively, and the initial potential of tin electroplating becomes −0.925 V. By comparing the polarization currents of different LSV curves at the same potential, it is found that the polarization current decreases after the addition of brightener, and the polarization current with the addition of ethyl vanillin is the smallest. The reason for these trends is that the adsorption of the three brighteners on the electrode surface impedes the migration of Sn²⁺ to the electrode surface, reduces the concentration of Sn²⁺ on the reaction interface, and slows down the reduction of Sn²⁺. As a result, the reaction current decreases and the cathode polarization becomes enhanced. It is concluded that all three brighteners can influence the course of charge transfer and crystallization and then inhibit the electroplating of tin.

Figure 7

LSV curves of tin electrodeposition in baths 1–4.

3.4 Surface characteristics of tin coating

The tin surface characteristics are important to the reliability of the copper circuit in PCB. The coating morphology and preferential growth orientation of samples 1–4 were examined using SEM and XRD (Figure 8) According to Figure 8a–d, compared with the coating obtained without brightener, the grain size, coating uniformity, and coating flatness are significantly improved by adding the brightener, which is due to the high reactivity of the three brighteners and the spontaneous adsorption on the tin surface. It can be found that the coating obtained by adding veratraldehyde has the highest density of pores, the least degree of uniformity, and the worst flatness. Without adding a brightener, sample coating 1 has an obvious preferential growth orientation of tin (211) (PDF 04-0673) (Figure 8e). Under the condition of adding ethyl vanillin, sample coating 3 has a preferential growth orientation of tin (101). Combining the earlier results and the values of binding energy shown in Tables 2 and 3, it is confirmed that the crystal orientation of tin coating is significantly related to the adsorption capacity of the three brighteners on tin surface. For example, the crystal orientation (101) of sample coating 2 is concerned with the adsorption strength of ethyl vanillin on the tin (211) and (101) crystal surfaces.

Figure 8

(a–d) SEM images and (e) XRD results of the tin coating for samples 1–4.

3.5 Corrosion resistance test of coating

Table 4 lists parameters in the corrosion test which is analyzed from the data of the Tafel curve (Figure 9). Sample coating 4 has the largest corrosion current, the smallest corrosion resistance, and the largest corrosion rate, but sample coating 3 is the opposite. The result is related to the microstructure of the tin coating. The coating which has the highest density of pores, the least degree of uniformity, and the worst flatness leads to more reactive sites in the occurrence of chemical reactions and consequently accelerates the chemical reaction. Therefore, the addition of ethyl vanillin is beneficial to obtain a tin coating with better corrosion resistance, while the addition of veratraldehyde would cause the corrosion resistance of the tin coating to decline. The preferentially oriented crystal surface of tin (101) is relatively more conducive to the improvement of the coating crystallization and corrosion resistance, which is also reflected in the work of other scholars.

Table 4

Corrosion parameters of samples 1–4 analyzed from the Tafel curve

Sample number	Corrosion potential (V)	Corrosion current (A)	Polarization resistance (Ω)	Corrosion rate (mm/year)
Sample 1	−0.84349	1.7547 × 10⁻⁴	148.50	2.039
Sample 2	−0.84074	1.5667 × 10⁻⁴	166.32	1.8205
Sample 3	−0.83368	1.1342 × 10⁻⁴	229.75	1.3179
Sample 4	−0.85385	2.3828 × 10⁻⁴	109.36	2.7688

Figure 9

(a, b) Tafel curve and (c) EIS test results of tin coating for samples 1–4.

To select a suitable tin coating for actual PCB production, the corrosion resistance of the sample coating was tested in different conditions (Figures 10 and 11). After soaking in tin stripping solution for 10 s, part of the sample in coatings was removed and the weight change of samples 1–4 are shown in Table 5. The SEM test results of sample tin coatings after soaking in tin stripping solution for 30 s are shown in Figure 11a–d. After the removal of sample tin coatings 1–4 in tin stripping solution, the side corrosion morphology of copper circuits with a width of 100 microns from a cross-sectional view was obtained (Figure 11e–h). The etching factors of the copper circuits are calculated and listed in Table 6.

Figure 10

Representation of parameters for calculating the etching factor.

Figure 11

(a–d) SEM results of treated tin coating for samples 1–4 and (e–h) the side corrosion morphology of copper circuits from a cross-sectional view.

Table 5

Corrosion rate of samples 1–4

Sample number	Weight before soaking (g)	Weight after soaking (g)	Rate of corrosion (g/s)
Sample 1	11.020	10.970	5.0 × 10⁻³
Sample 2	10.766	10.717	4.9 × 10⁻³
Sample 3	10.400	10.355	4.5 × 10⁻³
Sample 4	10.687	10.635	5.2 × 10⁻³

Table 6

Etch factors of the copper circuits shown in Figure 11e–h

Circuit number	Side etching width (µm)	Side etching depth (µm)	Etching factor
Figure 11e	5.474	18.801	3.43
Figure 11f	4.545	20.247	4.46
Figure 11g	2.480	17.122	6.90
Figure 11h	6.716	17.975	2.68

After soaking in the tin stripping solution for the same time, sample coating 4 has the largest weight change, but sample coating 3 has the smallest weight change (Table 5). The results indicate that the corrosion resistance of sample 3 is the best. With the protection of the tin layer was gradually lost, the sample surfaces show different degrees of corrosion effect (Figure 11a–d). Among them, after soaking in the tin stripping solution for 30 s, the tin coating of sample 4 was quickly etched, and then, the copper layer was exposed to the tin stripping solution; thus, it is demonstrated in Figure 11d that the copper surface presents mild corrosion morphology, which testified that sample coating 4 has poor corrosion resistance.

In addition, the etch factor is often used as the parameter for evaluating the degree of side erosion [44,45]. The common calculation method of the etching factor is shown in equation (4). The thickness of the copper circuit (h), the width difference of the longest surface of circuits, and the shorter surface of circuits (d ₁ and d ₂) are demonstrated in Figure 10. Moreover, as shown in Figure 11e–h and Table 6, the circuit shown in Figure 11h has the most severe side erosion and the smallest etching factor, while the circuit shown in Figure 11g has the slightest side erosion and the biggest etching factor. The previous results all proved that sample coating 3 has the best corrosion resistance, while sample coating 4 is the opposite; the conclusion is consistent with the results of the Tafel curve and EIS test.

(4) Etch factor = 2 h d 1 + d 2 .

4 Conclusions

In this study, the following conclusions can be drawn:

The three brighteners all have high reactivity, they can spontaneously absorb on tin surface with the site of the oxygen atom on the aldehyde carbonyl group.
The three brighteners exhibit different adsorption properties on different tin crystal surfaces and ethyl vanillin (ethyl vanillin) has a strong inhibition on tin (211) which is conductive to receive a coating with favorable microstructure and good corrosion resistance.
Among the three brighteners, ethyl vanillin has the greatest effect on increasing cathode polarization and decreasing tin deposition rate which is beneficial to obtain a coating in good condition.

The computational and experimental results confirmed the role of ethyl vanillin in the tin plating of the PCB. And this efficient method for the study of adsorption behavior and mechanism opened a new window to investigate or design brightener agents for tin electroplating, and this method would vigorously promote the development of this research region as well.

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 61974020). The work is also supported by the Innovation Team Project of Zhuhai City (No. ZH0405190005PWC).

Funding information: The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 61974020). The work is also supported by the Innovation Team Project of Zhuhai City (No. ZH0405190005PWC).
Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.
Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.
Data availability statement: All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

References

[1] Hao H, Hui D, Lau D. Material advancement in technological development for the 5G wireless communications. Nanotechnol Rev. 2020;9(1):683–99.10.1515/ntrev-2020-0054Search in Google Scholar

[2] Gupta A, Srivastava C. Electrodeposition current density induced texture and grain boundary engineering in Sn coatings for enhanced corrosion resistance. Corros Sci. 2022;194:109945.10.1016/j.corsci.2021.109945Search in Google Scholar

[3] Aranzales D, Wijenberg J, Koper MTM. The effect of naphthalene-based additives on the kinetics of tin electrodeposition on boron-doped diamond electrodes. ChemElectroChem. 2021;8(11):2034–43.10.1002/celc.202100034Search in Google Scholar

[4] Aranzales D, Briliani I, McCrum IT, Wijenberg J, de Vooys ACA, Koper MTM. The effect of naphthalene-based additives on tin electrodeposition on a gold electrode. Electrochim Acta. 2021;368:137606.10.1016/j.electacta.2020.137606Search in Google Scholar

[5] Chen S, Fu S, Liang D, Chen X, Mi X, Liu P, et al. Preparation and properties of 3D interconnected CNTs/Cu composites. Nanotechnol Rev. 2020;9(1):146–54.10.1515/ntrev-2020-0013Search in Google Scholar

[6] An C, An K, Liu C, Qu X. Adsorption behavior of 3-phenylacrylaldehyde on a tin surface during electroplating. Int J Electrochem Sci. 2017;12(11):10542–52.10.20964/2017.11.60Search in Google Scholar

[7] Xiao F-X, Shen X-N, Ren F-Z, Volinsky AA. Additive effects on tin electrodepositing in acid sulfate electrolytes. Int J Miner Metall Mater. 2013;20(5):472–8.10.1007/s12613-013-0753-0Search in Google Scholar

[8] Broggi RL, De Oliveira GM, Barbosa LL, Pallone E, Carlos IA. Study of an alkaline bath for tin deposition in the presence of sorbitol and physical and morphological characterization of tin film. J Appl Electrochem. 2006;36(4):403–9.10.1007/s10800-005-9086-7Search in Google Scholar

[9] Sharma A, Bhattacharya S, Das S, Das K. A study on the effect of pulse electrodeposition parameters on the morphology of pure tin coatings. Metall Mater Trans A-Phys Metall Mater Sci. 2014;45A(10):4610–22.10.1007/s11661-014-2389-8Search in Google Scholar

[10] Maltanava HM, Vorobyova TN, Vrublevskaya ON. Electrodeposition of tin coatings from ethylene glycol and propylene glycol electrolytes. Surf Coat Technol. 2014;254:388–97.10.1016/j.surfcoat.2014.06.049Search in Google Scholar

[11] Rudnik E. Effect of anions on the electrodeposition of tin from acidic gluconate baths. Ionics. 2013;19(7):1047–59.10.1007/s11581-012-0819-4Search in Google Scholar

[12] Rudnik E, Wloch G. Studies on the electrodeposition of tin from acidic chloride-gluconate solutions. Appl Surf Sci. 2013;265:839–49.10.1016/j.apsusc.2012.11.130Search in Google Scholar

[13] Long J, Zhang Z, Guo Z, Zhu X, Huang H, editors. Electrochemical Study of the Additive-effect on Sn Electrodeposition in a Methansulfonate Acid Electrolyte. International Conference on Advanced Materials and its Application (AMA 2012); 2012 Apr 28–29. Changsha: Peoples R China; 2012.Search in Google Scholar

[14] Sekar R, Eagammai C, Jayakrishnan S. Effect of additives on electrodeposition of tin and its structural and corrosion behaviour. J Appl Electrochem. 2010;40(1):49–57.10.1007/s10800-009-9963-6Search in Google Scholar

[15] Zhang W, Guebey J, Toben M, Toben M. A novel electrolyte for the high speed electrodeposition of bright pure tin at elevated temperatures. Met Finish. 2011;109(1):13–9.10.1016/S0026-0576(11)00006-7Search in Google Scholar

[16] He A, Qi L, Ivey DG. Electrodeposition of tin: a simple approach. J Mater Sci Mater Electron. 2008;19(6):553–62.10.1007/s10854-007-9385-3Search in Google Scholar

[17] Survila A, Mockus Z, Kanapeckaite S, Brazinskiene D, Juskenas R. Surfactant effects in Cu–Sn Alloy Deposition. J Electrochem Soc. 2012;159(5):296–302.10.1149/2.084205jesSearch in Google Scholar

[18] Low CTJ, Walsh FC. The stability of an acidic tin methanesulfonate electrolyte in the presence of a hydroquinone antioxidant. Electrochim Acta. 2008;53(16):5280–6.10.1016/j.electacta.2008.01.093Search in Google Scholar

[19] Oniciu L, Muresan L. Some fundamental-aspects of leveling and brightening in metal electrodeposition. J Appl Electrochem. 1991;21(7):565–74.10.1007/BF01024843Search in Google Scholar

[20] Liu A, Ren X, An M, Zhang J, Yang P, Wang B, et al. A combined theoretical and experimental study for silver electroplating. Sci Rep. 2014;4(3837):1–10.10.1038/srep03837Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[21] Huang X, Chen Y, Fu T, Zhang Z, Zhang J. Study of tin electroplating process using electrochemical impedance and noise techniques. J Electrochem Soc. 2013;160(11):D530–7.10.1149/2.055311jesSearch in Google Scholar

[22] Huang X, Chen Y, Zhou J, Zhang Z, Zhang J. Electrochemical nucleation and growth of Sn onto double reduction steel substrate from a stannous fluoborate acid bath. J Electroanal Chem. 2013;709:83–92.10.1016/j.jelechem.2013.09.012Search in Google Scholar

[23] Martyak NM, Seefeldt R. Additive-effects during plating in acid tin methanesulfonate electrolytes. Electrochim Acta. 2004;49(25):4303–11.10.1016/j.electacta.2004.03.039Search in Google Scholar

[24] Ni X, Wang C, Su Y, Luo Y, Ye Y, Su X, et al. Effect of 3-mercapto-1-propane sulfonate sulfonic acid and polyvinylpyrrolidone on the growth of cobalt pillar by electrodeposition. Nanotechnol Rev. 2022;11(1):1209–18.10.1515/ntrev-2022-0071Search in Google Scholar

[25] Bakkali S, Cherkaoui M, Boutouil A, Laamari MR, Touhami ME, Belfakir M, et al. Theoretical and experimental studies of tin electrodeposition. Surf Interfaces. 2020;19:100480.10.1016/j.surfin.2020.100480Search in Google Scholar

[26] Wang Z, Li N, Wang M, Wang X, Li D, Havas D, et al. A block copolymer as an effective additive for electrodepositing ultra-low Sn coatings. RSC Adv. 2015;5(102):83931–5.10.1039/C5RA14341ASearch in Google Scholar

[27] Fan W. Electroplating additive for improving stability of zinc-nickel plating. China Pat. CN108866588-A; 2018-11-23.Search in Google Scholar

[28] Wu W, Ding P, Jiang P. Inventorridium rhenium alloy plating liquid for copper substrate electroplating. China Pat. CN104928733-A; 2015-9-23.Search in Google Scholar

[29] Jiang Q, Tallury SS, Qiu Y, Pasquinelli MA. Interfacial characteristics of a carbon nanotube-polyimide nanocomposite by molecular dynamics simulation. Nanotechnol Rev. 2020;9(1):136–45.10.1515/ntrev-2020-0012Search in Google Scholar

[30] Khan S, Nandi CK. Optimizing the underlying parameters for protein-nanoparticle interaction: advancement in theoretical simulation. Nanotechnol Rev. 2014;3(4):347–59.10.1515/ntrev-2014-0002Search in Google Scholar

[31] Becke. Density-functional exchange-energy approximation with correct asymptotic behavior. Phys Rev A Gen Phys. 1988;38(6):3098–100.10.1103/PhysRevA.38.3098Search in Google Scholar

[32] Sun H, Ren P, Fried JR. The compass force field: parameterization and validation for phosphazenes. Comput Theor Polym Sci. 1998;8(1–2):229–46.10.1016/S1089-3156(98)00042-7Search in Google Scholar

[33] Gece G, Bilgi S. A quantum chemical insight into corrosion inhibition effects of moxifloxacin and betamethasone drugs. Int J Corros Scale Inhibition. 2018;7(4):710–7.10.17675/2305-6894-2018-7-4-16Search in Google Scholar

[34] Sibanda D, Oyinbo ST, Jen TC. A review of atomic layer deposition modelling and simulation methodologies: Density functional theory and molecular dynamics. Nanotechnol Rev. 2022;11(1):1332–63.10.1515/ntrev-2022-0084Search in Google Scholar

[35] Saraireh SA, Altarawneh M, Tarawneh MA. Nanosystem’s density functional theory study of the chlorine adsorption on the Fe(100) surface. Nanotechnol Rev. 2021;10(1):719–27.10.1515/ntrev-2021-0051Search in Google Scholar

[36] Shittu T, Altarawneh M. Investigative properties of CeO2 doped with niobium: A combined characterization and DFT studies. Nanotechnol Rev. 2022;11(1):191–203.10.1515/ntrev-2022-0019Search in Google Scholar

[37] de Rooij MR. Electrochemical methods: fundamentals and applications. Anti-Corrosion Methods Mater. 2003;50(5):25–6.10.1108/acmm.2003.12850eae.001Search in Google Scholar

[38] Lai Z, Wang S, Wang C, Hong Y, Zhou G, Chen Y, et al. A comparison of typical additives for copper electroplating based on theoretical computation. Comput Mater Sci. 2018;147:95–102.10.1016/j.commatsci.2017.11.049Search in Google Scholar

[39] Wang C, An M, Yang P, Zhang J. Prediction of a new leveler (N-butyl-methyl piperidinium bromide) for through-hole electroplating using molecular dynamics simulations. Electrochem Commun. 2012;18:104–7.10.1016/j.elecom.2012.02.028Search in Google Scholar

[40] Wu K, Yang Z, Meng X, Chen R, Huang J, Shao L. Engineering an alcohol dehydrogenase with enhanced activity and stereoselectivity toward diaryl ketones: reduction of steric hindrance and change of the stereocontrol element. Catal Sci Technol. 2020;10(6):1650–60.10.1039/C9CY02444ASearch in Google Scholar

[41] Quinet M, Lallemand F, Ricq L, Hihn JY, Delobelle P, Arnould C, et al. Influence of organic additives on the initial stages of copper electrode position on polycrystalline platinum. Electrochim Acta. 2009;54(5):1529–36.10.1016/j.electacta.2008.09.052Search in Google Scholar

[42] Ko S-L, Lin J-Y, Wang Y-Y, Wan C-C. Effect of the molecular weight of polyethylene glycol as single additive in copper deposition for interconnect metallization. Thin Solid Films. 2008;516(15):5046–51.10.1016/j.tsf.2008.02.040Search in Google Scholar

[43] Zheng L, He W, Zhu K, Wang C, Wang S, Hong Y, et al. Investigation of poly (1-vinyl imidazole co 1, 4-butanediol diglycidyl ether) as a leveler for copper electroplating of through-hole. Electrochim Acta. 2018;283:560–7.10.1016/j.electacta.2018.06.132Search in Google Scholar

[44] Goosey M. Printed circuits handbook. Circuit World. 2010;36(1):150–60.10.1108/cw.2010.21736aae.001Search in Google Scholar

[45] Feng Z, An M, Ren L, Zhang J, Yang P, Chen Z. Corrosion mechanism of nanocrystalline Zn–Ni alloys obtained from a new DMH-based bath as a replacement for Zn and Cd coatings. RSC Adv. 2016;6(69):64726–40.10.1039/C6RA10067HSearch in Google Scholar

Received: 2022-05-06

Revised: 2022-07-21

Accepted: 2022-10-25

Published Online: 2022-11-21

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2022-0497

Keywords for this article

tin electroplating; brightener; adsorption behavior; corrosion; copper circuits

Creative Commons

BY 4.0