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Recovery of Cr from chrome-containing leather wastes to develop aluminum-based composite material along with Al2O3 ceramic particles: An ingenious approach

  • Shashi Prakash Dwivedi , Michal Petru EMAIL logo , Ambuj Saxena , Shubham Sharma EMAIL logo , Madhulika Mishra , Alokesh Pramanik , Sunpreet Singh , Changhe Li and Rushdan Ahmad Ilyas
Published/Copyright: December 12, 2022
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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 11 Issue 1

Abstract

Leather industries cause soil pollution in terms of leather wastes. Chrome-containing leather wastes (CCLW) also cause various types of pollutions such as air and soil pollution. The utilization of CCLW in the development of aluminum-based composite is the emerging area in the synthesis of materials. In this study, chromium(Cr) in the form of collagen powder was extracted from CCLW. Extracted collagen powder was ball milled with alumina particles for 12.5, 25, 50, 75, and 100 h. The average density of the mixture of ball-milled collagen and alumina particles was reduced by about 1.20% after ball milling for about 100 h. The stir casting technique was employed to develop the aluminum-based composite material. The ball-milled reinforced aluminum-based composite material showed a fair distribution of reinforcement particles as compared without ball-milled reinforced composite material. Tensile strength and hardness of composite material improved by about 35.53 and 46.61%, respectively, after using the mixture of ball-milled 5% collagen powder and 5% alumina particles in the aluminum alloy. However, ductility and toughness were reduced. Corrosion weight loss and thermal expansion of the Al/5% collagen/5% alumina particles with ball-milled composite were found to be 0.022 mg and 5.44 mm3, respectively. X-Ray diffraction of the Al/5% collagen/5% alumina particles with ball-milled composite showed the presence of Al, Al2O3, Cr2O3, and Cr phases. The presence of hard phases such as Al2O3, Cr2O3, and Cr was responsible for enhancing the hardness and tensile strength of the composite. The developed composite material can be utilized in the fabrication of engine blocks, connecting rods, and piston rings.

Keywords: CCLW; collagen; ball milling; recycling; waste material

Abbreviations

AA6061

aluminum alloy 6061

BPR

ball to powder weight ratio

CCLW

chrome-containing leather wastes

Cr

chromium

HMMCM

hybrid metal matrix composite material

MMC

metal matrix composites

NR

natural rubber

SEM

scanning electron microscopy

UTM

universal testing machine

XRD

X-ray diffraction

1 Introduction

Industries are causing lots of pollution in terms of solid wastes in the surrounding. The demolition and dumping of such types of wastes are very costly and difficult. The main disadvantage of such types of wastes comes in the form of degradation of agricultural land. Every year, leather industries have been producing a large amount of such type of waste, which is extremely harmful to the environment. Leather waste containing chrome is a harmful type of waste generated by the leather industry, which is too dangerous for humans and animals. Cr, which is presented in the chrome-containing leather wastes (CCLW), can be taken out in the form of collagen powder from it. According to Gupta et al. [1], the extracted collagen powder can be used as a reinforcement particle in the composite materials. Furthermore, the investigation of Cabeza et al. [2] points out that fertilizers and animal feed additives consist of a large amount of collagen hydrolysates.

Pecha et al. [3] developed a mathematical model that enables technological simulation of the complete process by alkali-enzymatic hydrolysis for chrome shaving utilization. The simulation calculation showed a comparatively thin area between 0.2 and 0.4 wt% of the feedstock dry matter for the enzyme optimal concentration under standard reaction conditions. The results obtained through this engineering approach are valuable for entity waste producers to centralized leather waste processing and the processing plant operation. Zeng et al. [4] presented a facile route for de-crosslinking of chrome-tanned collagen fibers and to realize physically debundling over and above the prepared leather shaving wastes (LSW)/natural rubber (NR) composite by solid-state shear milling (S3M) equipment. The improved interfacial interaction and dispersion allow the merger of 40 wt% LSW to afford the respective NR composites with outstanding stress at 100% strain (S100) and modulus, which are 5.07 and 27.33 MPa, respectively, over and above superior thermal stability and tear strength. Long et al. [5] worked to recover Cr(vi) from tannery sludge and chrome-tanned leather shavings by Na2CO3-segmented calcinations. In this study, thermogravimetric characterization and thermodynamic calculation were used for analyzing chrome tanned leather shavings (CTLs) and the factors affecting recovery of Cr in the calcination process and the theoretical feasibility of calcinating Ts. The results showed that organic compounds in materials and calcination time, temperature, Na2CO3 content, and calcination environment could greatly affect the recovery of Cr(vi) from Ts and CTLs. Zhu et al. [6] fabricated pH-sensitive and chromium(iii)-loaded nanoparticles (Cr-PPAG NPs) as a smart tanning system. Results showed that due to the core–shell structure, these Cr-PPAG NPs exhibit a “Trojan horses” behavior, which can protect Cr3+ from reacting with skin collagen during the penetration process, leading to effective and uniform delivery of Cr3+ to the rawhide’s interior. Cao et al. [7] used collagen-containing solid wastes to prepare biochar. Results showed that the highest surface area of the biochar prepared from wastes reached 967 m2/g. A facile method was reported by Liu et al. [8] by using the S3M process to disengage the cross-linked collagen fibers and developed leather solid waste-based composites which exhibited superior comprehensive properties. The collagen was used by Banerjee et al. [9] for recovering hydrolysate from the leather waste and functioning as a substrate that boosts the growth of hydroxyapatite crystals. With the help of activated carbon which is processed by wet blue leather waste, Luis et al. [10] removed the organic oxidation and hydrogen peroxide from the aqueous medium. Padilha et al. [11] removed phosphorus from thermo-treated footwear leather waste to assemble raw materials for the production of ferrochromium alloys.

The composite material consisting of more than two reinforcement particulates is known as hybrid metal matrix composite. Several problems occur during the mixing of two powders such as SiC, B4C, Al2O3, Si3N4, and graphite before the casting process of hybrid metal matrix composite material (HMMCM). The polymeric and grain structure of hybrid composite material are not uniform and consistent. We can see that for the hybrid composite material, the main reason of losing the mechanical properties is the mismatch densities of reinforcement fragments, which results in the non-uniform microstructure. Aluminum-based alloy is used to develop the composite by using various reinforcement particles for the application in various manufacturing sectors. Mahinroosta and Allahverdi [12] pointed out the number of applications related to lightweight and high strength aluminum such as rotors and some internal parts of brakes, different structural parts, and internal combustion engine piston, and the mechanical testing has been performed to find out the properties of base metal aluminum. Mismatch reinforcement fragments in densities are either float or sink in the melted aluminum alloy. Clustering and agglomeration were observed after the solidification of hybrid composite material. Different techniques must be employed to avoid the agglomeration and clustering of mixed reinforcement fragments. Shaikh et al. [13] reported that the mechanical property of hybrid composite material may be enhanced if reinforcement powders are mixed consistently.

It was noted that not many researchers have used a combination of collagen powder and Al2O3 fragments as a reinforcing particulate with aluminum alloy according to the available literature. Dwivedi et al. [14] and Mandal et al. [15] illustrated collagen-derived composites using collagen as a matrix particulate and Al2O3 as a reinforcing particulate. However, Dwivedi and Srivastava [16] fabricated an aluminum-based composite with collagen powder with Al2O3. Results showed that reinforcement fragments were not distributed uniformly due to density mismatch between collagen powder and Al2O3 ceramic fragment reinforcement. At the surface of the melt matrix material, collagen powder was floating due to the lower density reinforcement fragments compared to aluminum. Also, in the melt matrix material Al2O3 ceramic fragments were settled down due to the higher density compared to aluminum. Finally, a non-uniform microstructure emerged. Also, the mechanical properties were not greatly improved.

From the existing literature, it has been observed that very few researchers used the ball-milled collagen and alumina particles with the aluminum alloy. After the consideration of the above-described facts, in the present investigation, collagen powder and Al2O3 ceramic fragments have been ball milled for certain hours. Furthermore, that mixture is utilized as a reinforcement powder in the aluminum matrix. Finally, a comparison has also been presented between the aluminum-based composites.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Matrix material

Aluminum alloy 6061 (AA6061) has been taken as the matrix material in the present study. AA6061 is considered one of the most significant materials in both automobile and aerospace industries due to its several desirable characteristics such as good specific strength, light weight, and less corrosion loss. Measured mechanical behavior and chemical properties of AA6061 are shown in Tables 1 and 2, respectively.

Table 1

Measured properties of AA6061

S. No. Properties Values
1 Tensile strength (MPa) 132
2 Hardness (BHN) 59
3 Toughness (Joule) 18
4 Ductility (% elongation) 16.5
5 Corrosion weight loss (mg) in 3.5 wt% NaCl for 120 h 0.01
6 Thermal expansion (mm3) for 72 h at 450°C 21.5
7 Density (g/cm3) 2.70
Table 2

Measured chemical properties of AA6061

Mg Si Fe Cu Cr Zn Ti Mn Al
0.8 0.4 0.01 0.15 0.04 0.2 0.1 0.1 98.2

2.2 Primary reinforcing particulate

In the current research, Al2O3 or alumina, ceramic fragments are considered for primary reinforcing particulate, which is a mixture of aluminum and oxygen chemical compositions. The main purpose of using alumina particles with aluminum alloy was to increase the wettability of the collagen powder used in this study. However, ceramic particles SiC and B4C are also used in the development of aluminum-based composite material. Detailed comparative studies of silicon carbide (SiC), alumina (Al2O3), and boron carbide (B4C) for the selection of primary reinforcement material in the present study are shown in Table 3.

Table 3

Comparative studies of SiC, Al2O3, and B4C

Ref. Properties SiC Al2O3 B4C
[17,18,19] Bulk modulus (GPa) 210–260 130–340 190–230
[19,20] Compressive (crushing) strength (MPa) 2,700–3,500 1,900–2,930 1,700–2,200
[19,21] Density (g/cm3) 3.1–3.2 3.42–4.2 2.5–2.65
[19,22] Elastic (Young’s modulus, GPa) 390–460 220–460 380–460
[19,23] Vickers hardness (GPa) 27 26 32
[24,25,26] Flexural strength (MOR): typical (MPa) 460–500 300–690 250–410
[27,28,29] Fracture toughness (MPa m1/2) 6.2 3.5–5.5 4.2
[19,30] Shear modulus (GPa) 190–230 110–190 190–230
[19,31] Stiffness-to-weight ratio: bulk (MN m/kg) 69–82 38–87 74–92
[32,33,34] Stiffness-to-weight ratio: shear (MN m/kg) 62–71 32–48 71–92
[33,35] Stiffness-to-weight ratio: tensile (MN m/kg) 120–140 64–110 140–180
[34,36] Strength-to-weight ratio: compressive (kN m/kg) 870–1,100 550–730 640–880
[36,37,38,39] Strength-to-weight ratio: flexural (kN m/kg) 140–150 87–170 94–160
[40,41,42] Thermal conductivity: ambient (W/m K) 115–150 16–31 50–90
— Cost Cheaper Costly than SiC Very costly

2.3 Secondary reinforcing particulate

Figure 1 depicts the experimental phase of extracting collagen powder from CCLW as Cr. In the present investigation, collagen powder developed from CCLW (a tannery solid biowaste in the leather industry) has been taken as a secondary reinforcing particulate in the casting of aluminum-based composites. Initially, leather waste containing chrome was dechromed using conc. H2SO4. Furthermore, the dechromed samples were treated for 3 days with HCl (pH 8), C2H5OH, and EDTA, a similar type of processing suggested by Mandal et al. [15]. Then the solution was held for 1 day after adding acetic acid in it. The collagen fibrils were then kept aside to settle down for 24 h. Then to obtain the collagen in powder form the solubilized collagen was centrifuged. The average particle size of chrome-containing collagen powder was 55 µm. The percentage of Cr2O3 in collagen powder after extracting from CCLW was found to be 6.58%.

Figure 1 Development of collagen powder from leather waste containing chrome.
Figure 1

Development of collagen powder from leather waste containing chrome.

2.4 Ball milling of reinforcement particles

Figure 2 shows the ball milling set-up. The ball milling process is used in the reinforcement fragment in a single entity. The ball to powder weight ratio (BPR), ball milling time, grinding medium, ball milling speed, ball milling atmosphere, and milling vial are all crucial factors in the ball milling process. However, ball milling time is the crucial parameter in the ball milling process [43,44]. In accordance with the outcomes of the pilot run, the composition of the composite was determined. In the present investigation, Al2O3 ceramic fragments and collagen powder with the mean constituent size of 50 µm have been alloyed mechanically with the help of the ball milling process. The equal weight percentage of Al2O3 ceramic fragments and collagen powder has been ball milled in a stainless-steel milling container with the help of ceramic balls. The BPR and the pace of ball milling have been taken as 5:1 ratio and 200 rpm at the atmospheric environment throughout the experiments.

Figure 2 Line diagram of ball-milling set-up.
Figure 2

Line diagram of ball-milling set-up.

2.5 Development of composite particulates

Figure 3 depicts the fabrication process of an aluminum-based composite reinforced with leather-waste collagen powder and alumina ceramic fragments, with and without ball milling of the reinforcing fragments with the help of a line diagram. The leather industry and a chemical shop provided the collagen powder and alumina ceramic fragments, respectively. In a muffle furnace, fragments of aluminum were melted. In the case of without ball-milled reinforcement fragments, primary reinforcing fragment alumina and secondary reinforcing fragment collagen powder were preheated to achieve great susceptibility to water with matrix content. Before being added to the melt matrix material, the mixture of reinforcing fragments in a single entity obtained from the ball milling phase after 100 h was also preheated. At a temperature of about 670°C, preheated reinforcement fragments (with and without ball milling of reinforcement fragments) were merged into the melted matrix material. Figure 3 shows how the composite material was fused using a stir casting technique. The prepared Al/alumina/collagen powder hybrid composites were moved to a universal testing machine (UTM) in the lumpy zone for pushing hard using the stir casting technique (with and without ball milling of reinforcement fragments). To remove the casting defects such as porosity and shrinkage after solidification, a cylindrical die punch assembly has been used which supplies the high compressed pressure in the spongy and pulpy zone of melt composite material.

Figure 3 Development of hybrid composite material.
Figure 3

Development of hybrid composite material.

The compositions of hybrid composite material which is prepared by stir casting technique are mentioned in Table 4. The composition of the composite was decided based on the pilot run investigation. For the selection of reinforcement percentage (alumina weight percentage and collagen weight percentage), numerous experiments were conducted. In the pilot run, when the weight percentage of alumina and collagen was 1% each, then mechanical properties such as tensile strength and hardness of aluminum alloy were not improved. When the weight percentage of alumina and collagen was 1.25% each, some improvement in the mechanical properties has been observed. However, when mechanical properties of the composite were observed at 7.5% of each alumina and collagen with the aluminum alloy, mechanical properties began to decrease. Therefore, the range of reinforcement weight percentage was from 2.5% (1.25% each of alumina and collagen) to 12.5% (1.25% each of alumina and collagen).

Table 4

Selection of composition

Specimen Composition Alumina (%) Collagen (%)
A1 Al + 0% alumina + 0% collagen 0 0
A2 Al + 1.25% alumina + 1.25% collagen 1.25 1.25
A3 Al + 2.5% alumina + 2.5% collagen 2.5 2.5
A4 Al + 3.75% alumina + 3.75% collagen 3.75 3.75
A5 Al + 5% alumina + 5% collagen 5 5
A6 Al + 6.25% alumina + 6.25% collagen 6.25 6.25

2.6 Material testing

The developed composite materials have been characterized in terms of microstructure, tensile strength, hardness (10 mm × 10 mm × 25 mm), toughness (10 mm × 10 mm × 55 mm with 45° V notch at the center of 2 mm depth according to ASTM A370 standard), thermal expansion, corrosion loss, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) of composite materials. The tensile, hardness, and toughness of thermal expansion samples (average of two samples) were tested on a UTM, hardness testing machine, impact testing machine, and muffle furnace at GL Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Gr. Noida, India. Tensile samples were prepared according to ASTM B557 standard (test methods for tension testing wrought and cast aluminum and magnesium alloy products). Corrosion test was performed in the in-house developed set-up in the laboratory of GL Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management, Gr. Noida, India. The microstructure testing and XRD were performed at the NIRF lab at IIT Delhi. Corrosion test of each sample has been performed in 3.5 wt% NaCl for 120 h. During the thermal expansion experiment, the sample size is taken as 25 mm × 10 mm × 10 mm (2,500 mm3 volume) during the entire test for both cases of ball-milled and without ball-milled reinforcing composites. A thermal expansion test was carried out in a muffle furnace for 72 h at 450 °C.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Density behavior of hybrid reinforcement particulates

The density behavior of hybrid reinforcement particulates has been observed at different ball-milling times. Al2O3 ceramic fragments and collagen powder with equal weight percentage (25 + 25 g) have been ball milled for 12.5, 25, 50, 75, and 100 h. The density of Al2O3 was 3.95 g/cm3. The collagen powder was found to have a density of 3.5 g/cm3. The mean density of Al2O3 ceramic fragments and collagen powder (about 25 g of each reinforcement fragment was taken) was 3.725 g/cm3. The milling time was chosen to acquire a state among fracturing and cold welding of the supportive reinforcing fragments. Figure 4 depicts the density variation of reinforcing fragments (Al2O3 ceramic fragments and collagen powder) with time. Initially, the density of combined reinforcement fragments (Al2O3 ceramic fragments and collagen powder) at 0 h was 3.725 g/cm3. When milling time was increased up to 25 h, combined reinforcement fragment density was 3.768 g/cm3. Results showed that about 1.20% density increased. However, the combined density of reinforcement fragment powder was decreased up to 3.68 g/cm3 after ball milling time for 100 h. If the milling time will be more than 100 h, this will result in the formation of undesirable phases in the combination powder of reinforcement. Therefore, ball milling of reinforcing fragments is necessary for a given interval of time. Due to the increase in van der Waals interactions between the Al2O3 fragments and collagen powder, the density of mixed reinforcing fragments boosted (to 25 h), and due to the increase in van der Waals interactions of reinforcing fragments, it was observed that the ceramic balls and reinforcing particulates collided with greater intensity. Low van der Waals interaction existing in reinforcing fragments, according to Suryanarayana [45], is another factor that contributes to the reduced density at high temperatures. In addition, a mixture of Al2O3 ceramic fragments and collagen powder was ball milled for 100 h, which was studied by Ghadimi et al. [46] to produce composite reinforcement content. Sharma et al. [47] have also estimated the densities of the ball-milled powder. Their results showed good agreement with the results of the present study.

Figure 4 Density variation of reinforcement particles with time.
Figure 4

Density variation of reinforcement particles with time.

3.2 Microstructural analysis

Microstructure images of alumina fragments and collagen powder reinforcing aluminum composites with and without ball milling were taken to determine the allocation of reinforcing fragments in the matrix material. Figure 5 gives the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of without ball-milled reinforced Al/Al2O3/collagen powder composite material. Clustering and agglomeration can be easily observed from the microstructure after the solidification without ball-milling samples. Figure 5 shows the element mapping of Al, Si, C, O, Mg, and Cu for the Al/Al2O3/collagen powder composite material without ball milling. Finer grain structure can be observed from the elemental mapping. Elemental mapping of Al and Si shows the presence of fewer reinforcement particles due to the clustering and agglomeration, as shown in Figure 5(a and b).

Figure 5 SEM images of green hybrid composites without ball-milled reinforcement fragments at different magnifications: (a) element mapping of Al, (b) element mapping of Si, (c) element mapping of C, (d) element mapping of O, (e) element mapping of Mg, and (f) element mapping of Cu.
Figure 5

SEM images of green hybrid composites without ball-milled reinforcement fragments at different magnifications: (a) element mapping of Al, (b) element mapping of Si, (c) element mapping of C, (d) element mapping of O, (e) element mapping of Mg, and (f) element mapping of Cu.

SEM images of composite material with ball-milled reinforcing fragments are shown in Figure 6. The mixture of reinforcing fragments can be seen in a single entity. It was discovered that the distribution of ball-milled reinforcing fragments in a single entity was homogeneous. From the microstructure image, it can be seen that in aluminum-based matrix material there is a homogeneous distribution of alumina-ceramic fragments and collagen powder. The physical characteristics of hybrid composites were diminished due to the non-uniform microstructure of powders that had not been ball milled. It was earlier discussed that a mixture of reinforcement fragments was obtained in a single entity after the ball milling process. Figure 6 shows the element mapping of Al, B, C, O, Mg, Cu, Zn, and Cr for the Al/Al2O3/collagen powder composite material that had been ball milled. Elemental mapping of Al shows the presence of reinforcement particles due to fair distribution, as shown in Figure 6(a). Finer grain structure can be observed from the elemental mapping of C, O, Mg, Cu, Zn, and Cr, as shown in Figure 6(c–h).

Figure 6 SEM images of green hybrid composites with ball-milled reinforcing fragments at different magnification reinforcing fragments: (a) element mapping of Al, (b) element mapping of B, (c) element mapping of C, (d) element mapping of O, (e) element mapping of Mg, (f) element mapping of Cu, (g) element mapping of Zn, and (h) element mapping of Cr.
Figure 6

SEM images of green hybrid composites with ball-milled reinforcing fragments at different magnification reinforcing fragments: (a) element mapping of Al, (b) element mapping of B, (c) element mapping of C, (d) element mapping of O, (e) element mapping of Mg, (f) element mapping of Cu, (g) element mapping of Zn, and (h) element mapping of Cr.

The metallurgical microscopic view of a green hybrid composite material with ball-milled reinforcement fragments is shown in Figure 7. The microstructure of the composite material shows uniform distribution of the mixture of alumina and collagen powder in the aluminum alloy. A proper interfacial reaction layer can also be observed between the reinforcement particles and the matrix material. Shaikh et al. [13] concluded that strong acid and alkali attack has been resisted by Al2O3 ceramic fragments, which also have outstanding dielectric properties with frequency ranges of DC to GHz. As a result, alumina ceramic particles form strong wettability with the matrix material.

Figure 7 (a, b) Metallurgical microscopic view of green hybrid composites with ball-milled reinforcing fragments.
Figure 7

(a, b) Metallurgical microscopic view of green hybrid composites with ball-milled reinforcing fragments.

3.3 Tensile strength analysis

Figure 8(a) depicts the durability or firmness of the composites reinforced with ball-milled alumina ceramic fragments and collagen powder compared to the composite material without ball-milled alumina ceramic fragments and collagen powder. It was seen that the firmness of aluminum-based composites is escalating with the increase in the percentage of combined reinforcing fragments (a mixture of alumina ceramic fragments and collagen powder in equal weight percentage without ball milling). Furthermore, this increase in tensile strength trend is followed only up to the percentage of 3.75% Al2O3 + 3.75% collagen powder in the aluminum matrix composites. Nonetheless, tensile strength started to decline after incorporating 3.75% Al2O3 and 3.75% collagen powder that had not been ball milled.

Figure 8 (a) Tensile strength of composite materials and (b) density of the composite.
Figure 8

(a) Tensile strength of composite materials and (b) density of the composite.

When a mixture of reinforcing fragments in a single entity after ball milling was added in matrix material, the firmness of composites was enhanced favorably. The maximum tensile strength value is 178.9 MPa for aluminum-based composite material, which is reinforced by the combination of 5% Al2O3 + 5% collagen powder. Mismatch densities of alumina ceramic fragments and collagen powder are the main reason for reducing the mechanical properties of hybrid composite material after adding it without ball milling in melt aluminum. Mismatch reinforcement fragments in densities are either floated or sink in the melted aluminum alloy. Due to this, clustering and agglomeration were seen after the solidification of hybrid composite material, the resulting tensile strength does not enhance properly. After the ball milling process, however, a mixture of Al2O3 ceramic fragments and collagen powder was generated in a single entity. Bauxite which contained aluminum hydroxide is the principal ore of aluminum. It is always easier to make composite material with single reinforcement particulate. After being ball milled, a mixture of alumina ceramic fragments and collagen powder was introduced to aluminum as a single entity. In the matrix content, the single entity of reinforcement particle was uniformly addressed. And this uniform distribution of single entity reinforcement fragments can be accounted for enhancing the tensile strength of composite material. Kumar et al. [48] used alumina and eggshell as reinforcement materials with the aluminum alloy. They also ball milled the reinforcement particles (alumina and eggshell) before mixing with the molten aluminum alloy. Their results showed that by adding the ball-milled Al2O3 and eggshell particles (5% eggshell and 5% alumina) in aluminum alloy about 38.06% tensile strength improved. The results of this study showed that tensile strength was enhanced by about 35.53% after using ball-milled reinforcement fragments for composing Al/5% Al2O3/5% collagen powder composites. The results of this study showed good agreement with those of Kumar et al. [48].

Figure 8(b) shows the density behavior of composite material with and without ball milling of reinforcement particles. The theoretical density of the Al/5% Al2O3 + 5% collagen powder composite without ball-milled reinforcement was found to be 2.8025 g/cm3. The density of the Al/5% Al2O3 + 5% collagen powder composite with ball-milled reinforcement was found to be 2.798 g/cm3. Results showed that about 0.16% density of the Al/5% Al2O3 + 5% collagen powder composite was reduced after using the ball-milled reinforcement particles.

3.4 Hardness analysis

Figure 9 demonstrates the hardness of Al/Al2O3/collagen powder hybrid metal matrix composite with and without ball-milled reinforcement fragments. It was noted that the maximum hardness was 73.5 BHN for without ball milling 3.75% Al2O3 and 3.75% collagen powder-reinforced aluminum-based composite material. The maximum hardness of ball-milled reinforcement fragments was accounted to be 86.5 BHN for Al/5% Al2O3/5% collagen powder metal matrix composite (MMC) material. It was noted that hardness is significantly improved after using the ball-milled reinforcement fragments in a single entity. Leather waste containing chrome contains Cr. Collagen was obtained in the form of Cr. The enhancement in the hardness of composite material can be regarded due to the presence of Al2O3 and Cr. And another reason can be that the reinforcement fragments (a mixture of collagen and Al2O3) are uniformly distributed in a single entity in the matrix material. Kumar et al. [48] identified the hardness of the composite material after adding the mixture of ball-milled eggshell and Al2O3 particles in the aluminum alloy. Their results indicated that after using the mixture of 5% alumina and 5% eggshell reinforcement particles after being ball milled, hardness was improved by about 50.84%. The results of this study showed about 46.61% improvement in the hardness after adding the ball-milled 5% collagen and 5% alumina particles in the aluminum alloy.

Figure 9 Hardness of hybrid composite.
Figure 9

Hardness of hybrid composite.

3.5 Toughness (impact strength)

Figure 10 demonstrates the impact strength of Al/Al2O3/collagen powder hybrid metal matrix composite with and without ball-milled reinforcement fragments. From the analysis, it can be observed that on increasing the percentage of alumina ceramic fragments and collagen powder in aluminum for both types of reinforcement particulates (a mixture of with and without ball-milled reinforcement fragments), the toughness is continuously getting reduced. However, for all the compositions, there was an increment in the toughness after using the ball-milled reinforcement fragments. Kumar et al. [48] have also observed the toughness behavior of composite material. Results showed that the addition of hard ceramic particles such as alumina and ceramic particles after ball milling reduced the toughness of the composite material. Reduction in the toughness was observed due to the formation of work-hardened material. The results of this study also showed good agreement with the results of Kumar et al. [48]. The results of this study showed that after adding the mixture of alumina and collagen powder, toughness decreased continuously.

Figure 10 Toughness of hybrid composite.
Figure 10

Toughness of hybrid composite.

3.6 Ductility

Hybrid aluminum-based-MMC ductility has been evaluated in the form of percentage elongation. The comparison of ductility for Al/Al2O3/collagen powder hybrid aluminum-based MMC with and without ball-milled reinforcement fragments is shown in Figure 11. In the results, a continuous decrease in the ductility of hybrid-aluminum-based-MMC has been noticed with the increase in the percentage of Al2O3 and collagen powder. When the mixture of the reinforcement particles was added to the molten aluminum alloy, it was observed that the plastic flow behavior of the material decreased. Lower plastic flow of the developed composite material increased the brittleness behavior of composite material. As a result, the plastic flow of the material after the elastic point was decreased in the Al/Al2O3/collagen powder hybrid composite material. However, it was discovered that using ball-milled reinforcement fragments strengthened the ductility of the hybrid MMCs. Kumar et al. [48] also showed that the ductility of the composite material reduced after adding the hard ceramic particles in the aluminum alloy.

Figure 11 Ductility of hybrid composite.
Figure 11

Ductility of hybrid composite.

3.7 Corrosion behavior

The study of corrosion patterns for hybrid aluminum-based MMC reinforced with alumina ceramic fragments and collagen powder has been carried out. Figure 12 depicts the corrosion weight loss of the investigated products. Hybrid composite samples with a combination of ball-milled 2.5% Al2O3 + 2.5% collagen powder reinforcement show the minimum corrosion loss of 0.011 mg. Furthermore, a direct proportional relationship has been observed between the weight percentage of Al2O3 + collagen powder and corrosion weight loss. The corrosion weight loss continuously increases with an increase in weight percentage of Al2O3 + collagen powder in the aluminum matrix. Figure 13(a) and (b) shows the SEM image of corroded ball-milled reinforced composites and without ball-milled reinforced composite sample. SEM corrosion image of the ball-milled reinforced composite sample shows better corrosion resistance as compared to without ball-milled reinforcing composite sample. Kumar et al. [48] observed the corrosion behavior of Al/eggshell/Al2O3 composite material. It can be observed that by increasing the weight percentage of reinforcement particles (a mixture of eggshell and Al2O3), corrosion resistance of the composite material began to decrease. This decrement was observed due to the formation of Al (OH)3 at the surface of composite in the presence of O2 and OH–. The results of this study also showed that weight loss of the aluminum alloy was increased by increasing the weight percentage of reinforcement particles.

Figure 12 Corrosion weight loss of hybrid composite.
Figure 12

Corrosion weight loss of hybrid composite.

Figure 13 SEM images of corroded: (a) ball-milled reinforcing composites and (b) without ball-milled composite sample.
Figure 13

SEM images of corroded: (a) ball-milled reinforcing composites and (b) without ball-milled composite sample.

3.8 Thermal expansion behavior

The thermal expansion of an HMMCM is shown in Figure 14. The smallest volume variance was found for Al/5% Al2O3/5% collagen powder ball-milled composites. Figure 15(a) and (b) shows the expansion sample after the thermal expansion test of ball-milled reinforced composite material and without ball-milled composite sample, respectively. It has been observed that collagen powder became coarser in size. As a result, composite material contracted more as compared to the ball-milled reinforced composite material. Kumar et al. [48] showed that after the thermal expansion test of the Al/5 wt% eggshell/5 wt% Al2O3 composite material, change in volume of the composite material at 450°C for 24 h was found to be 3.35 mm3. However, the change in volume in the present study at 450 °C for 72 h after adding the 5% Al2O3 and 5% collagen powder into the aluminum alloy was found to be 5.44 mm3.

Figure 14 Thermal expansion of hybrid composites.
Figure 14

Thermal expansion of hybrid composites.

Figure 15 SEM images of thermal expansion sample: (a) ball-milled reinforcing composite material and (b) without ball-milled composite sample.
Figure 15

SEM images of thermal expansion sample: (a) ball-milled reinforcing composite material and (b) without ball-milled composite sample.

3.9 XRD of composites

XRD analysis is a kind of non-destructive testing that is used to obtain structural information of materials. In this method, an X-ray is made to fall on the sample and the intensity of scattered radiation is measured as a function of scattered ray direction. The XRD test aims to observe the different phases produced inside the composite after the solidification. The thickness of the sample before conducting XRD test inspection was 2 mm. Figure 16 depicts XRD of ball-milled Al/5% Al2O3/5% collagen powder composites. XRD of generated composite demonstrates the presence of Al, Al2O3, Cr2O3, and Cr phases. These hard phases may be accountable for giving rise to the physical characteristics of composites such as firmness and hardness.

Figure 16 XRD of ball-milled Al/5% Al2O3/5% collagen powder composites.
Figure 16

XRD of ball-milled Al/5% Al2O3/5% collagen powder composites.

4 Conclusions

Collagen powder after extracting from the CCLW was used as a primary reinforcement material along with alumina ceramic particles in the fabrication of aluminum-based composite material. Alumina ceramic fragments and collagen powder were obtained in a single entity after ball milling for about 100 h. The density of the ball-milled alumina ceramic fragments and collagen powder was decreased by about 1.20%. According to the microstructure findings, there is a homogeneous allocation of reinforcing fragments within a composite material. Also reinforcing fragments in aluminum matrix material were having an appropriate wettability. Tensile strength and hardness were improved after using the ball-milled alumina ceramic fragments and collagen powder. After the corrosion test, the values for dimension change and weight loss were noted to have a minimum value as for Al/5% Al2O3/5% collagen powder ball-milled composites and ball-milled 2.5%, Al2O3, and 2.5% collagen powder reinforcing composites, respectively. XRD of ball-milled Al/5% Al2O3/5% collagen powder composites has been observed. It was observed that there was noticeable progress in the tensile strength and hardness of composites due to the presence of Al2O3, Cr2O3, and Cr phases.

  1. Funding information: The authors state no funding involved.

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2021-09-05
Revised: 2022-01-26
Accepted: 2022-10-03
Published Online: 2022-12-12

© 2022 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  120. Mechanical and heat transfer properties of 4D-printed shape memory graphene oxide/epoxy acrylate composites
  121. Coupling the vanadium-induced amorphous/crystalline NiFe2O4 with phosphide heterojunction toward active oxygen evolution reaction catalysts
  122. Graphene-oxide-reinforced cement composites mechanical and microstructural characteristics at elevated temperatures
  123. Gray correlation analysis of factors influencing compressive strength and durability of nano-SiO2 and PVA fiber reinforced geopolymer mortar
  124. Preparation of layered gradient Cu–Cr–Ti alloy with excellent mechanical properties, thermal stability, and electrical conductivity
  125. Recovery of Cr from chrome-containing leather wastes to develop aluminum-based composite material along with Al2O3 ceramic particles: An ingenious approach
  126. Mechanisms of the improved stiffness of flexible polymers under impact loading
  127. Anticancer potential of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) using a battery of in vitro tests
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  130. Application of Pickering emulsion in oil drilling and production
  131. The contribution of microfluidics to the fight against tuberculosis
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  134. Contemporary nano-architectured drugs and leads for ανβ3 integrin-based chemotherapy: Rationale and retrospect
  135. State-of-the-art review of fabrication, application, and mechanical properties of functionally graded porous nanocomposite materials
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  137. A review on heterogeneous oxidation of acetaminophen based on micro and nanoparticles catalyzed by different activators
  138. Early diagnosis of lung cancer using magnetic nanoparticles-integrated systems
  139. Advances in ZnO: Manipulation of defects for enhancing their technological potentials
  140. Efficacious nanomedicine track toward combating COVID-19
  141. A review of the design, processes, and properties of Mg-based composites
  142. Green synthesis of nanoparticles for varied applications: Green renewable resources and energy-efficient synthetic routes
  143. Two-dimensional nanomaterial-based polymer composites: Fundamentals and applications
  144. Recent progress and challenges in plasmonic nanomaterials
  145. Apoptotic cell-derived micro/nanosized extracellular vesicles in tissue regeneration
  146. Electronic noses based on metal oxide nanowires: A review
  147. Framework materials for supercapacitors
  148. An overview on the reproductive toxicity of graphene derivatives: Highlighting the importance
  149. Antibacterial nanomaterials: Upcoming hope to overcome antibiotic resistance crisis
  150. Research progress of carbon materials in the field of three-dimensional printing polymer nanocomposites
  151. A review of atomic layer deposition modelling and simulation methodologies: Density functional theory and molecular dynamics
  152. Recent advances in the preparation of PVDF-based piezoelectric materials
  153. Recent developments in tensile properties of friction welding of carbon fiber-reinforced composite: A review
  154. Comprehensive review of the properties of fly ash-based geopolymer with additive of nano-SiO2
  155. Perspectives in biopolymer/graphene-based composite application: Advances, challenges, and recommendations
  156. Graphene-based nanocomposite using new modeling molecular dynamic simulations for proposed neutralizing mechanism and real-time sensing of COVID-19
  157. Nanotechnology application on bamboo materials: A review
  158. Recent developments and future perspectives of biorenewable nanocomposites for advanced applications
  159. Nanostructured lipid carrier system: A compendium of their formulation development approaches, optimization strategies by quality by design, and recent applications in drug delivery
  160. 3D printing customized design of human bone tissue implant and its application
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  162. A brief review of nanoparticles-doped PEDOT:PSS nanocomposite for OLED and OPV
  163. Nanotechnology interventions as a putative tool for the treatment of dental afflictions
  164. Recent advancements in metal–organic frameworks integrating quantum dots (QDs@MOF) and their potential applications
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  166. Microstructural characteristics and nano-modification of interfacial transition zone in concrete: A review
  167. Latest developments in the upconversion nanotechnology for the rapid detection of food safety: A review
  168. Strategic applications of nano-fertilizers for sustainable agriculture: Benefits and bottlenecks
  169. Molecular dynamics application of cocrystal energetic materials: A review
  170. Synthesis and application of nanometer hydroxyapatite in biomedicine
  171. Cutting-edge development in waste-recycled nanomaterials for energy storage and conversion applications
  172. Biological applications of ternary quantum dots: A review
  173. Nanotherapeutics for hydrogen sulfide-involved treatment: An emerging approach for cancer therapy
  174. Application of antibacterial nanoparticles in orthodontic materials
  175. Effect of natural-based biological hydrogels combined with growth factors on skin wound healing
  176. Nanozymes – A route to overcome microbial resistance: A viewpoint
  177. Recent developments and applications of smart nanoparticles in biomedicine
  178. Contemporary review on carbon nanotube (CNT) composites and their impact on multifarious applications
  179. Interfacial interactions and reinforcing mechanisms of cellulose and chitin nanomaterials and starch derivatives for cement and concrete strength and durability enhancement: A review
  180. Diamond-like carbon films for tribological modification of rubber
  181. Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) modified cement-based materials: A systematic review
  182. Recent research progress and advanced applications of silica/polymer nanocomposites
  183. Modeling of supramolecular biopolymers: Leading the in silico revolution of tissue engineering and nanomedicine
  184. Recent advances in perovskites-based optoelectronics
  185. Biogenic synthesis of palladium nanoparticles: New production methods and applications
  186. A comprehensive review of nanofluids with fractional derivatives: Modeling and application
  187. Electrospinning of marine polysaccharides: Processing and chemical aspects, challenges, and future prospects
  188. Electrohydrodynamic printing for demanding devices: A review of processing and applications
  189. Rapid Communications
  190. Structural material with designed thermal twist for a simple actuation
  191. Recent advances in photothermal materials for solar-driven crude oil adsorption
https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2022-0406
Keywords for this article
CCLW; collagen; ball milling; recycling; waste material
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BY 4.0

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  141. A review of the design, processes, and properties of Mg-based composites
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  143. Two-dimensional nanomaterial-based polymer composites: Fundamentals and applications
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  145. Apoptotic cell-derived micro/nanosized extracellular vesicles in tissue regeneration
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  158. Recent developments and future perspectives of biorenewable nanocomposites for advanced applications
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  160. 3D printing customized design of human bone tissue implant and its application
  161. Design, preparation, and functionalization of nanobiomaterials for enhanced efficacy in current and future biomedical applications
  162. A brief review of nanoparticles-doped PEDOT:PSS nanocomposite for OLED and OPV
  163. Nanotechnology interventions as a putative tool for the treatment of dental afflictions
  164. Recent advancements in metal–organic frameworks integrating quantum dots (QDs@MOF) and their potential applications
  165. A focused review of short electrospun nanofiber preparation techniques for composite reinforcement
  166. Microstructural characteristics and nano-modification of interfacial transition zone in concrete: A review
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  168. Strategic applications of nano-fertilizers for sustainable agriculture: Benefits and bottlenecks
  169. Molecular dynamics application of cocrystal energetic materials: A review
  170. Synthesis and application of nanometer hydroxyapatite in biomedicine
  171. Cutting-edge development in waste-recycled nanomaterials for energy storage and conversion applications
  172. Biological applications of ternary quantum dots: A review
  173. Nanotherapeutics for hydrogen sulfide-involved treatment: An emerging approach for cancer therapy
  174. Application of antibacterial nanoparticles in orthodontic materials
  175. Effect of natural-based biological hydrogels combined with growth factors on skin wound healing
  176. Nanozymes – A route to overcome microbial resistance: A viewpoint
  177. Recent developments and applications of smart nanoparticles in biomedicine
  178. Contemporary review on carbon nanotube (CNT) composites and their impact on multifarious applications
  179. Interfacial interactions and reinforcing mechanisms of cellulose and chitin nanomaterials and starch derivatives for cement and concrete strength and durability enhancement: A review
  180. Diamond-like carbon films for tribological modification of rubber
  181. Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) modified cement-based materials: A systematic review
  182. Recent research progress and advanced applications of silica/polymer nanocomposites
  183. Modeling of supramolecular biopolymers: Leading the in silico revolution of tissue engineering and nanomedicine
  184. Recent advances in perovskites-based optoelectronics
  185. Biogenic synthesis of palladium nanoparticles: New production methods and applications
  186. A comprehensive review of nanofluids with fractional derivatives: Modeling and application
  187. Electrospinning of marine polysaccharides: Processing and chemical aspects, challenges, and future prospects
  188. Electrohydrodynamic printing for demanding devices: A review of processing and applications
  189. Rapid Communications
  190. Structural material with designed thermal twist for a simple actuation
  191. Recent advances in photothermal materials for solar-driven crude oil adsorption
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