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The effect of TaC and NbC hybrid and mono-nanoparticles on AA2024 nanocomposites: Microstructure, strengthening, and artificial aging

  • Essam B. Moustafa EMAIL logo , Ammar H. Elsheikh and Mohammed A. Taha
Published/Copyright: June 28, 2022
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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 11 Issue 1

Abstract

The present work successfully incorporated the composite surface matrices of tantalum carbide (TaC) and niobium carbide (NbC) hybrids and mono-nanoparticles into wrought AA2024 using friction stir processing (FSP). The mechanical, electrical, and microstructural properties were analyzed and evaluated. The microstructure of the refined grains created during the FSP process was observed using polarized optical microscopy. Elongated grains were refined and equiaxed 33 times. Scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analyses showed good dispersion of the reinforcement nanoparticles in the base matrix. The mechanical properties of the hybrid AA2024/TaC_NbC nanocomposites, thus, the ultimate compressive stress showed an improvement of about 15.2, 16.7, and 20.6%, respectively, compared to the base alloy. Aging time significantly affected the hardness behavior of the hybrid nanocomposites; hence, a maximum value of 73% was reached compared to the base alloy. At the same time, the thermal expansion coefficient and electrical conductivity were reduced by 38.5 and 19.5%, respectively.

Keywords: hybrid; AA2024; nanocomposite; mechanical; electrical conductivity; microhardness; artificial aging

1 Introduction

The addition of specific reinforcing particles to metals increases the mechanical properties of the manufactured metal matrix composite (MMC). Aluminum metal matrix composites are currently employed in various technical sectors due to their unique mechanical features [1–3]. Due to its simplicity and ability to develop innovative composites, friction stir processing (FSP) is one of the most effective processes for manufacturing MMC surfaces [4–6]. The FSP process is widely considered among the most effective fabrication processes because it incorporates a wide range of nanoparticles into a base alloy without encountering significant obstacles during the manufacturing surface composite process [7–9]. To obtain ideal microstructural and mechanical characteristics, many FSP parameters, such as rotational and traverse speed, were tested [10,11]. The dispersion and reinforcement fraction are affected by FSP. All of these factors affect the mechanical properties of the composites.

In addition, it has been shown that FSP may be utilized to enhance and change the surface characteristics of treated aluminum by adding reinforcing particles and ceramic materials [12–18]. In the FSP process, the composition and behavior of each impeded nanoparticle are responsible for the improved characterization of the composite material.

Hybrid composites exhibit exceptional strength and homogeneity and significantly enhance mechanical and microstructural characteristics. For example, SiC, Al2O3, and VC nanoparticles have improved an aluminum base alloy’s microhardness and wear resistance [19–22]. FSP and element modifiers may also majorly impact the microstructure and mechanical properties, which can be attributed to grain refinement [23–25]. Moreover, the presence of reinforcing particles has a major impact on the mechanical and physical properties of a material. An Al/TiC composite is extremely hard due to the bonds between the reinforcing TiC particles, the metal matrix, and the reinforcement’s hardness value [26]. Therefore, the composites’ microhardness and tensile strength were improved by adding the TiC, tantalum carbide (TaC), and niobium carbide (NbC) particles to the Al matrix: they formed strong interfacial bonds with uniform distribution, resulting in the improvement of mechanical properties [27,28].

The reinforcing particle and grain size, base matrix electrical conductivity, and grain refinement affect electrical conductivity. The inclusion of reinforcing particles reduces the electrical conductivity of the composite matrix, making electron movement more difficult [29]. Previous studies found that aluminum alloys integrated with TaC and NbC were not sufficiently covered. However, these nanoparticles are important for developing the properties of new nanocomposites. For example, TaC offers exceptional physical qualities, such as melting temperature, rigidity, mechanical properties, thermal conductivity, and high thermal and chemical stability. TaC is commonly employed in the aerospace sector as a sintering aid in ultra-high temperature ceramics or as a ceramic reinforcement is extremely entropic alloy. NbC is an exceptionally hard refractory ceramic substance commonly used to cut commercially available tools. It is commonly used as an inhibitor of grain development in hard metals and is typically treated by sintering. The current work investigated novel hybridizing heavy elements by incorporating TaC and NbC nanoparticles with superior strength properties into AA2024 as hybrid and monocomposite matrices. Furthermore, we assessed the effect of aging time on mechanical properties.

2 Materials and methods

A wrought aluminum alloy (AA2024), 150 mm × 150 mm × 10 mm, was chosen as the base alloy; its chemical composition is shown in Table 1. To produce a hybrid composite matrix, FSP was required. The hybrid TaC_NbC and the NbC and TaC monocomposites were used to reinforce the hybrid composite matrix. FSP was performed using an automatic milling machine (Knuth-VFM5, Germany). Figure 1 shows the typical setup of the FSP approach used to fabricate hybrid composite surfaces. A tool steel H13 was subjected to a special heat treatment intended to increase its hardness and strength, and it was fixed at a 1° tilt angle. After many attempts, the rotation speed of the tool (1,080 rpm) and the machining speed of the ride (30 mm/min) were determined. On the surface of the base metal, nanoparticles were placed into a specified pattern of 4 mm holes, cut by a computer numerical control milling machine. Equivalent hybrid proportions were mixed in each hole at a constant volume fraction. Detailed instructions for calculating the volume fraction of reinforcement can be found in ref. [30]. Many researchers have discussed the effect of the FSP tool pin profile on the quality of the fabricated composites, for example ref. [31]; thus, the authors investigated the effect the pin shape had on processing quality: increasing the number of edges led to a pulsating stirring action increase but decreased the temperature under the given process conditions. We tried three types of pins, threaded conical, square, and triangular pins, and successful results were achieved using the triangular pin.

Table 1

Chemical composition of wrought AA2024 (wt%)

Element Cu Fe Si Mn Mg Zn Ti Al
wt% 4.3 0.6 0.09 0.41 1.2 0.22 0.03 Remain
Figure 1 FSP: (a) experimental setup using a milling machine, (b) schematic drawing of the holes before and after FSP, and (c) FSP tool design.
Figure 1

FSP: (a) experimental setup using a milling machine, (b) schematic drawing of the holes before and after FSP, and (c) FSP tool design.

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was used to investigate the morphology and particle size of the TaC and NbC reinforcements. A compression test was conducted at ambient temperature to obtain the stress–strain curve; it was utilized to calculate the material’s ultimate strength, yield strength (YS), compressive strength (CS), and elongation (E). The microstructure of the fabricated surface sample was examined using an Olympus BX51 optical light microscope (Miami, FL, USA) and a Philips XL30 scanning electron microscope (SEM) (Hillsboro, OR, USA). Prior to etching, the samples were ground and polished according to ref. [32], to obtain essential microstructural information. Vickers microhardness was determined using an ASTM E384-17 compliant Rockwell hardness tester (True Blue United Testing Systems, USA).

The phase compositions of AA2024 and its composites were detected using X-ray diffraction (XRD; Philips PW). According to ref. [33], the full widths at half maximum (B) of the diffraction lines (1, 1, 1), (2, 0, 0), (2, 2, 0), and (2, 3, 0) were used to measure the crystal size (D) and dislocation density (δ) using the Scherrer equation, as follows:

(1) D = 0.9 λ B cos θ ,

(2) Δ =  1 D 2 ,

where λ = 1.54059 1°A (Cu–Ni radiation) and θ is the angle in radians.

The thermal expansion of AA2024 and its composites was measured with a Netzsch DIL 402 PC (Germany) using a heating rate of 5°C/min and 22–500°C rectangular bars. Vickers microhardness (HV) was determined using a Shimadzu HMV (Japan) and the formula described in recent articles [34,35].

All samples were subjected to compressive testing under the ASTM E9-19 standard. The compressive stress–strain curve was used to compute the ultimate strength, YS, and E. Ultimate strength and E were the greatest values of stress and strain on the stress–strain curve, respectively. CS measured the stress at which a fracture occurred, and YS was determined using the 0.2% offset approach.

The electrical conductivity (σ) of the sintered nanocomposites was measured at 22°C using a Keithley 6517B electrometer according to the following formula:

(3) σ = h R A ,

where R, h, and A are the electrical resistance, the diameter of the specimen, and the surface area, respectively.

The aging procedure consisted of three steps. First, the samples were treated in a solution at 500°C for 3 h. Next, they were cooled in water. Finally, they were aged for 1–21 h at 150°C. Microhardness and electrical conductivity were measured at each aging time point. Tests for microhardness, compression, and electrical conductivity were carried out in triplicates to ensure the accuracy of the results.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Microstructure examination

Before fabrication into the metal matrix, TEM was used to inspect and analyze the TaC and NbC nanoparticles’ properties, shapes, and sizes. Both types of particles had average sizes of 160 nm, as shown in Figure 2. The crystal structures of the particles were cubic, and their shapes were not irregular. As seen in Figure 3, which is a thermal image of the fabrication process, plastic deformation and dynamic grain recrystallization (DRX) occurred when AA2024’s melting point reached 80%, resulting in material flow due to the rotation and translation of the plasticized metal from the advanced side to the retread side. FSP-generated friction and extreme plastic deformation warmed the stirred zone (SZ), leading to a DRX structure. As a result, the SZ had a larger proportion of evenly small grains compared to the base alloy. As the nugget zone (NZ) bent, the base metal (BM) elongated the grains upward; thus, both the BM and the NZ were separated by a transitional zone called the thermomechanical affected zone (TMAZ).

Figure 2 TEM images of (a) TaC and (b) NbC nanoparticles and corresponding crystal structures.
Figure 2

TEM images of (a) TaC and (b) NbC nanoparticles and corresponding crystal structures.

Figure 3 Typical thermographic image of the fabricated surface composite using FSP.
Figure 3

Typical thermographic image of the fabricated surface composite using FSP.

The TMAZ was the only zone that distorted and lost its grain structure during the heat cycling process. Adding hybrid nanoparticles to the SZ boosted the refining activity, resulting in fine, equiaxed grain structures in the produced nanocomposite’s SZs. The average grain sizes in the stirred zones of the unreinforced alloy and the hybrid composites are shown in Table 2.

Table 2

Typical BM grain and agitated zone sizes following the addition of different nanoparticle reinforcements and FSP

AA2024 AA2024/NbC AA2024/TaC AA2024/NbC_TaC
Avg. grain size (μm) 165.26 8.05 7.15 5.3
SD (μm) 25.8 1.18 1.43 1.08

The average grain size was also used for the intercept method. First, a random straight line was drawn through a micrograph. Then, the number of grain boundaries intersecting the line was counted. The average grain size was determined by dividing the number of intersections by the actual line length, which was the measured length divided by the magnification used. For example, the average grain sizes of AA2024 and its hybrid composite (AA2024/NbC_TaC) were 165.26 μm and 5.3 μm, respectively, meaning that the average grain size of the fabricated nanocomposite’s surface was reduced by more than 30 times (96.7%). The decreased SD indicates that following FSP, the SZ included homogenous equiaxed grains (Figure 4).

Figure 4 Optical microscope images of the (a) wrought AA2024, (b) orientation of the AA2024/TaC_NbC composite processed zone, and microstructure refinement distributions of the (c) AA2024/TaC and (d) AA2024/NbC monocomposites, and (e) AA2024/TaC_NbC hybrid composite.
Figure 4

Optical microscope images of the (a) wrought AA2024, (b) orientation of the AA2024/TaC_NbC composite processed zone, and microstructure refinement distributions of the (c) AA2024/TaC and (d) AA2024/NbC monocomposites, and (e) AA2024/TaC_NbC hybrid composite.

Packed ceramic particles are attached to the plasticized aluminum alloy through perforations. Because of the density differential between the ceramic particles and the molten aluminum, the reinforcement particles migrated naturally inside the aluminum matrix, resulting in particle segregation and clumping, as shown in Figure 5. The free mobility of the particles created by the density gradient was absent during FSP because it was accomplished in a solid state without liquefying the base alloy.

Figure 5 Illustration of the nanoparticle distribution inside the stirred zone.
Figure 5

Illustration of the nanoparticle distribution inside the stirred zone.

The action of the FSP and the addition of reinforcing nanoparticles resulted in the controlled grain growth of elongated grains in the rolled aluminum alloy. According to the Zener pinning principle, the scattered particles present in the second phase may have helped maintain grain boundaries during shifting due to recrystallization and grain development.

As seen in Figure 6, the reinforcing particle distribution in the composites was generally homogenous, which may be attributed to the processing parameters and hole patterns that allowed particles to be uniformly distributed. Most of the reinforcing particles were restricted inside the grain boundaries, and there was no particle segregation or structure at the grain boundaries. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) was used to analyze the hybrid composite matrix, including the SEM images and the EDS spectra. EDS elemental mapping was used to identify the presence of reinforcing particles, as indicated in Figure 7.

Figure 6 SEM images of the (a) AA2024/TaC monocomposite and (b) AA2024/TaC_NbC hybrid composite.
Figure 6

SEM images of the (a) AA2024/TaC monocomposite and (b) AA2024/TaC_NbC hybrid composite.

Figure 7 SEM images of the (a) AA2024/TaC_NbC hybrid nanocomposite and (b) its elemental map. (c) EDS analysis and element intensity. Elemental maps of (d) carbon, (e) tantalum, and (f) niobium.
Figure 7

SEM images of the (a) AA2024/TaC_NbC hybrid nanocomposite and (b) its elemental map. (c) EDS analysis and element intensity. Elemental maps of (d) carbon, (e) tantalum, and (f) niobium.

The EDS of the hybrid composite was enhanced with equal amounts of TaC and NbC particles. Image mapping indicated that the reinforcing particles were evenly distributed throughout the AA2024 matrix. Table 3 summarizes the distribution of the reinforced particles in the matrix, calculated using ImageJ software.

Table 3

The distribution of the percentage of the reinforced particles in the stirred zone

Base matrix area (%/µm2) Particles (%/µm2) Avg. size (µ2)
AA2024/NbC 87.46 12.54 2.80
AA2024/TaC 88.07 11.93 1.75
AA2024/NbC_TaC 84.42 15.58 18.36

3.2 Phase evolution

In general, XRD analysis is one of the most effective methods for determining the structure of prepared materials. Figure 8 shows the XRD analysis of AA2024, AA2024/TaC, AA2024/NbC, and AA2024/TaC_NbC. According to card number 01-089-4037, the presence of Al (i.e., its cubic crystal structure) is commonly indicated by peaks at 38:43°, 44:68°, 65:07°, and 66:59°. However, some undissolved coarse precipitates distributed on the grain boundaries of the base alloy were identified (intermetallic compounds CuAl2 and CuMgAl2, according to card numbers 89-1981 and 28-0014). In addition, according to card numbers 89-2870 and 89-3830, the TaC and NbC ceramic phases appeared in the AA2024/TaC and AA2024/NbC composite samples, respectively, and both appeared in the hybrid composite. Interestingly, the addition of the ceramic reinforcements resulted in the dissolution of the intermetallic compounds in the Al lattice, which led to a decrease in the Al peaks’ intensity, especially in the hybrid composite (Figure 9). The results showed that the crystallite size tended to decrease. At the same time, dislocation density increased after ceramics were added, especially in the hybrid composite, due to the refinement of the Al grains and their diffusion activation energy [36,37]. The values of the crystallite sizes of the Al alloy, AA2024/TaC, AA2024/NbC, and AA2024/TaC_NbC were 24.04, 20.13, 19.36, and 16.80 nm, respectively, while the dislocation densities were 1.76 × 10−3, 2.48 × 10−3, 2.69 × 10−3, and 3.59 × 10−3%, respectively.

Figure 8 XRD patterns of AA2024, AA2024/TaC, AA2024/NbC, and AA2024/TaC_NbC.
Figure 8

XRD patterns of AA2024, AA2024/TaC, AA2024/NbC, and AA2024/TaC_NbC.

Figure 9 Effect of ceramic reinforcement on (a) crystal size and (b) dislocation density.
Figure 9

Effect of ceramic reinforcement on (a) crystal size and (b) dislocation density.

3.3 Thermal expansion behavior

Figure 10 shows the thermal expansion (ΔL/L) behavior of AA2024 and its composites at temperatures ranging from 22 to 500°C. The ΔL/L value of the base alloy increased with temperature but decreased when ceramics were added, especially in the case of the AA2024/TaC_NbC hybrid. The coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), one of the most significant features of the investigated materials, was obtained by measuring the slopes of the lines in Figure 10 for all samples. The effect of adding TaC, NbC, and TaC_NbC reinforcements on the CTE is shown in Figure 11. For example, the CTE of the base alloy was 22.9 × 10−6/°C; after adding TaC, NbC, and TaC_NbC, the values dropped significantly to 19.8 × 10−6, 18.4 × 10−6, and 15.2 × 10−6/°C, respectively. These decreases in ΔL/L and CTE values were caused by the different CTEs of the ceramic reinforcement, equal to 6.3 × 10−6 and 6.7 × 10−6/°C, respectively, and the base alloy (23.2 × 10−6/°C) [37]. On the other hand, residual stresses generated from the thermal mismatch between the Al alloy and its reinforcements played an active role in determining the prepared composite thermal expansion behavior [38,39].

Figure 10 Thermal expansion behavior of AA2024 and its composites.
Figure 10

Thermal expansion behavior of AA2024 and its composites.

Figure 11 CTE values of AA2024 and its composites.
Figure 11

CTE values of AA2024 and its composites.

Thus, the linear decrease in the CTE of the Al alloy after adding TaC or/and NbC particles is the main reason for the composites’ thermal stability. Notably, the linear reduction in the CTE of AA2024 caused the formation of thermally stable composites, underlining the impact of hybrid composites in significantly increasing the stability of AA2024.

3.4 Mechanical properties

3.4.1 Compressive behavior

Figure 12 displays the stress–strain curve obtained through compression tests of AA2024 and its composites. The CS, YS, ultimate compressive strength (UCS), and E values of the composites are shown in Figure 13. Significant improvements in strength between the composites and AA2024 can be seen. For example, the UCS of the base alloy was 396 MPa; after adding TaC, NbC, and TaC_NbC, the values rose to 456.1, 462, and 477.7 MPa, respectively. In the case of E, the values decreased. It is important to note that the values of UCS, CS, and YS are affected by several parameters [40,41].

Figure 12 Compression curves of AA2024 and its composites.
Figure 12

Compression curves of AA2024 and its composites.

Figure 13. (a) UCS, (b) CS, (c) YS, and (d) E of AA2024 and its composites.
Figure 13.

(a) UCS, (b) CS, (c) YS, and (d) E of AA2024 and its composites.

One common reason why Al alloys harden is that high-strength ceramic phase particles dispersed in a ductile matrix can act as dislocation barriers, resulting in improved mechanical behavior. Orowan strengthening is the mechanism that results from the dispersion of TaC and NbC reinforcements in the Al alloy matrix. Importantly, the inclusion of TaC and/or NbC in the Al alloy matrix prevents dislocation movement during the dispersion strengthening process.

In particular, grain size refinement is one of the most effective techniques used to enhance the strength of materials. As TaC and NbC reinforcements are added to Al alloys, the grain sizes of the composites decrease, and reinforcements are found at the grain boundaries of the Al alloy. The Hall–Petch formula can be used to show the relationship between strength (σ) and grain size (d):

(4) σ = K d − 0.5 ,

where K is the Hall–Petch coefficient.

The huge CTE discrepancy between the TaC and NbC additives (6.3 × 10−6 and 7.83 × 10−6/°C, respectively) and Al (22.8 × 10−6/°C) causes desired geometrical dislocations as well as induced residual thermal stresses. Thermal stresses, when in contact with the reinforcing matrix, cause harder plastic to deform, increasing the microhardness and strength.

Conversely, brittle TaC and/or NbC particles in composites stimulate the formation and propagation of microcracks, resulting in a noticeable elongation decrease. Furthermore, the presence of ceramics reduces the flow capacity of AA2024 and thus reduces elongation more [41]. The decrease in elongation of the hybrid composite was 24.8% greater than the others, which may have been due to the aggregation of the reinforced ceramic particles at the grain boundaries, leading to the increased creation of microcracks.

3.4.2 Hardness behavior

The Vickers microhardness (HV0.1) profiles for AA2024 and the fabricated composite surfaces are shown in Figure 14. The base alloy averaged 132.5 HV0.1, as can be seen. Compared with the base matrix, the AA2024/TaC _NbC hybrid composite’s surface showed a remarkable 51% increase in hardness. The hardness of the composite surface increased dramatically after the FSP because of refinement and the homogeneous distribution of the reinforcements. The mechanical and physical properties of the secondary TaC reinforcement particles are responsible for this. The AA2024/TaC and AA2024/NbC monocomposites’ surfaces exhibited average SZ hardness values of 155 and 163 HV, respectively, corresponding to increases of 17.5 and 23.4%.

Figure 14 Microhardness profile distributions of AA2024 and its composites.
Figure 14

Microhardness profile distributions of AA2024 and its composites.

Figure 15 illustrates the microhardness of AA2024 and its composites when heat-treated at 150°C for different aging periods (1–21 h). Note that for all samples, microhardness increased as time passed but then decreased after individual peaks. We noticed four microhardness stages as a function of artificial aging time [42,43]:

Figure 15 Microhardness of the samples as a function of artificial aging time.
Figure 15

Microhardness of the samples as a function of artificial aging time.

Stage I: At the start of the aging process, the rapid initial microhardness produced by the alloy solution treatment was essentially homogenous, with no large precipitating particles at the grain boundaries (after 1 h).

Stage II: With an increase in aging time, the hardness’s temporary stability indicates the microhardness’s stability (microhardness plateau).

Stage III: The continuing increase in microhardness indicated the formation of gunnier-preston (GP) zones and cohesive intermediate precipitates (θ′ and θ″). Due to the GP zones, almost all copper was removed from the solution, and solution strengthening almost disappeared. Cohesion strains surrounding the GP zones and θ″ precipitates create stresses that limited the dislocation motion in cohesion stress hardening (i.e., peak hardness).

Stage IV: In this final stage, the precipitated particles in the alloy became coarser because of the extended heating period (over-aging). The pinning effect of the coarse particles diminished, allowing dislocation and more free movement. As a result, the microhardness of the alloy decreased.

Surprisingly, the results indicated that adding TaC and/or NbC ceramic reinforcements to the Al alloy reduced the time needed to reach maximal microhardness. For AA2024, the time needed to reach peak hardness was about 14.4 h; its composites containing TaC, NbC, and TaC_NbC required about 12.2, 10.0, and 5.0 h, respectively. This time decrease can be attributed to the dislocation of the Al alloy matrix, which reduced the incubation time for the heterogeneous nucleation of precipitates and the increased diffusion of the solute into a composite matrix. This could be due to the larger number of particle–matrix interfaces (in the case of a composite being reinforced with fine particles), leading to more dislocation (precipitation nucleating sites) and promoting hardening from age, which prevented softening by restricting the coarseness of the precipitate [44,45].

3.5 Electrical conductivity

The effect on AA2024’s electrical conductivity by adding TaC and/or NbC is shown in Figure 16. As shown, the electrical conductivity of the composites was lower than that of the Al alloy, which was caused by the addition of TaC and NbC. Interestingly, TaC by itself has metallic electrical conductivity in magnitude and temperature: this superconductor has an extremely high transition temperature of 10.35 K. Thus, the AA2024/TaC composite demonstrated higher electrical conductivity than the AA2024/NbC and AA2024/TaC_NbC composites. Ceramic particles deformed the structure of the composites and thus led to the formation of barriers that impeded the movement of free electrons, lessening conductivity [46]. Furthermore, the aggregation of ceramic reinforcement particles at the grain boundaries of the Al alloy, which can form a grain boundary phase, increased free electron scattering and caused conductivity to decrease. This was especially the case with the hybrid composite containing both TaC and NbC particles [47].

Figure 16 Electrical conductivity of AA2024 and its composites.
Figure 16

Electrical conductivity of AA2024 and its composites.

Figure 17 shows the relationship between aging time and electrical conductivity. The figure clearly shows that conductivity decreased as time increased but increased again as more time passed. In the initial stage of the aging process, the solution (in this case, a supersaturated solution) had low conductivity because of fewer free electrons due to the particle size mismatch at many local scattering sites between the solute and the solvent. Even as the solute was removed from the Al matrix as time passed, its conductivity continued to decrease because of the formation of coherent GP zones and precipitated phases (i.e., θ′ and θ″). They remained at the grain boundaries, resulting in increased electron scattering (peak hardness). During the averaging phase, the precipitates lost coherency and grew in size. Conductivity increased due to a considerable loss of solute, mainly Cu and Mg, from the Al alloy. Due to the bulky precipitate size, the lattice arrangement over the length became more prominent than the average electron-free path, which enhanced conductivity.

Figure 17 Electrical conductivity of the samples as a function of artificial aging time.
Figure 17

Electrical conductivity of the samples as a function of artificial aging time.

4 Conclusion

The current study successfully fabricated monocomposite and hybrid nanocomposite aluminum matrices using FSP. TaC and NbC played important roles in improving the alloy’s microstructure, mechanical properties, and hardness. From the results, we can conclude the following:

  • TaC and NbC heavy ceramic reinforcing nanoparticles have the primary effect of refining microstructure during FSP. Grain reduction reached 33% in the hybrid nanocomposite AA2024/TaC_NbC. Moreover, homogenous dispersion of these particles in the composite matrix was observed.

  • The addition of ceramic reinforcements was responsible for precipitation (i.e., the temporary formation of Al2Cu and Al2CuMg) and the decrease in the crystal lattice due to dislocation.

  • The CTE of AA2024 was reduced by about 38.5% because of TaC_NbC hybrid reinforcement, indicating high-dimensional stability.

  • The composites showed superior mechanical properties, especially the hybrid, due to the integration and combination of TaC and NbC throughout the nanoparticle manufacturing process.

  • The microhardness and ultimate strength of the hybrid composites equaled 200 HV and 477.7 MPa, respectively, about 1.48 and 1.21 times better than AA2024 (i.e., 134.8 HV and 396 MPa, respectively).

  • The content of the precipitation phases was controlled by the aging period, which caused microhardness to increase and decrease. Electrical conductivity behaved conversely.

  • Compared to AA2024 by itself, adding reinforcements accelerated the composites’ aging process.

  • After 21 h of aging, the maximum electrical conductivities of AA2024 and its composites were 2.25 × 107 and 9.99 × 106 S/m, respectively.

Acknowledgments

The authors extend their appreciation to the Deputyship of Research & Innovation, Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia, for funding this research work through the project number IFPIP:844-135-1442 and King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.

  1. Funding information: Deputyship of Research & Innovation, Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia, for funding this research work through the project number IFPIP:844-135-1442 and King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2022-02-11
Revised: 2022-05-05
Accepted: 2022-06-02
Published Online: 2022-06-28

© 2022 Essam B. Moustafa et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2022-0144
Keywords for this article
hybrid; AA2024; nanocomposite; mechanical; electrical conductivity; microhardness; artificial aging
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Theoretical and experimental investigation of MWCNT dispersion effect on the elastic modulus of flexible PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposites
  3. Mechanical, morphological, and fracture-deformation behavior of MWCNTs-reinforced (Al–Cu–Mg–T351) alloy cast nanocomposites fabricated by optimized mechanical milling and powder metallurgy techniques
  4. Flammability and physical stability of sugar palm crystalline nanocellulose reinforced thermoplastic sugar palm starch/poly(lactic acid) blend bionanocomposites
  5. Glutathione-loaded non-ionic surfactant niosomes: A new approach to improve oral bioavailability and hepatoprotective efficacy of glutathione
  6. Relationship between mechano-bactericidal activity and nanoblades density on chemically strengthened glass
  7. In situ regulation of microstructure and microwave-absorbing properties of FeSiAl through HNO3 oxidation
  8. Research on a mechanical model of magnetorheological fluid different diameter particles
  9. Nanomechanical and dynamic mechanical properties of rubber–wood–plastic composites
  10. Investigative properties of CeO2 doped with niobium: A combined characterization and DFT studies
  11. Miniaturized peptidomimetics and nano-vesiculation in endothelin types through probable nano-disk formation and structure property relationships of endothelins’ fragments
  12. N/S co-doped CoSe/C nanocubes as anode materials for Li-ion batteries
  13. Synergistic effects of halloysite nanotubes with metal and phosphorus additives on the optimal design of eco-friendly sandwich panels with maximum flame resistance and minimum weight
  14. Octreotide-conjugated silver nanoparticles for active targeting of somatostatin receptors and their application in a nebulized rat model
  15. Controllable morphology of Bi2S3 nanostructures formed via hydrothermal vulcanization of Bi2O3 thin-film layer and their photoelectrocatalytic performances
  16. Development of (−)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate-loaded folate receptor-targeted nanoparticles for prostate cancer treatment
  17. Enhancement of the mechanical properties of HDPE mineral nanocomposites by filler particles modulation of the matrix plastic/elastic behavior
  18. Effect of plasticizers on the properties of sugar palm nanocellulose/cinnamon essential oil reinforced starch bionanocomposite films
  19. Optimization of nano coating to reduce the thermal deformation of ball screws
  20. Preparation of efficient piezoelectric PVDF–HFP/Ni composite films by high electric field poling
  21. MHD dissipative Casson nanofluid liquid film flow due to an unsteady stretching sheet with radiation influence and slip velocity phenomenon
  22. Effects of nano-SiO2 modification on rubberised mortar and concrete with recycled coarse aggregates
  23. Mechanical and microscopic properties of fiber-reinforced coal gangue-based geopolymer concrete
  24. Effect of morphology and size on the thermodynamic stability of cerium oxide nanoparticles: Experiment and molecular dynamics calculation
  25. Mechanical performance of a CFRP composite reinforced via gelatin-CNTs: A study on fiber interfacial enhancement and matrix enhancement
  26. A practical review over surface modification, nanopatterns, emerging materials, drug delivery systems, and their biophysiochemical properties for dental implants: Recent progresses and advances
  27. HTR: An ultra-high speed algorithm for cage recognition of clathrate hydrates
  28. Effects of microalloying elements added by in situ synthesis on the microstructure of WCu composites
  29. A highly sensitive nanobiosensor based on aptamer-conjugated graphene-decorated rhodium nanoparticles for detection of HER2-positive circulating tumor cells
  30. Progressive collapse performance of shear strengthened RC frames by nano CFRP
  31. Core–shell heterostructured composites of carbon nanotubes and imine-linked hyperbranched polymers as metal-free Li-ion anodes
  32. A Galerkin strategy for tri-hybridized mixture in ethylene glycol comprising variable diffusion and thermal conductivity using non-Fourier’s theory
  33. Simple models for tensile modulus of shape memory polymer nanocomposites at ambient temperature
  34. Preparation and morphological studies of tin sulfide nanoparticles and use as efficient photocatalysts for the degradation of rhodamine B and phenol
  35. Polyethyleneimine-impregnated activated carbon nanofiber composited graphene-derived rice husk char for efficient post-combustion CO2 capture
  36. Electrospun nanofibers of Co3O4 nanocrystals encapsulated in cyclized-polyacrylonitrile for lithium storage
  37. Pitting corrosion induced on high-strength high carbon steel wire in high alkaline deaerated chloride electrolyte
  38. Formulation of polymeric nanoparticles loaded sorafenib; evaluation of cytotoxicity, molecular evaluation, and gene expression studies in lung and breast cancer cell lines
  39. Engineered nanocomposites in asphalt binders
  40. Influence of loading voltage, domain ratio, and additional load on the actuation of dielectric elastomer
  41. Thermally induced hex-graphene transitions in 2D carbon crystals
  42. The surface modification effect on the interfacial properties of glass fiber-reinforced epoxy: A molecular dynamics study
  43. Molecular dynamics study of deformation mechanism of interfacial microzone of Cu/Al2Cu/Al composites under tension
  44. Nanocolloid simulators of luminescent solar concentrator photovoltaic windows
  45. Compressive strength and anti-chloride ion penetration assessment of geopolymer mortar merging PVA fiber and nano-SiO2 using RBF–BP composite neural network
  46. Effect of 3-mercapto-1-propane sulfonate sulfonic acid and polyvinylpyrrolidone on the growth of cobalt pillar by electrodeposition
  47. Dynamics of convective slippery constraints on hybrid radiative Sutterby nanofluid flow by Galerkin finite element simulation
  48. Preparation of vanadium by the magnesiothermic self-propagating reduction and process control
  49. Microstructure-dependent photoelectrocatalytic activity of heterogeneous ZnO–ZnS nanosheets
  50. Cytotoxic and pro-inflammatory effects of molybdenum and tungsten disulphide on human bronchial cells
  51. Improving recycled aggregate concrete by compression casting and nano-silica
  52. Chemically reactive Maxwell nanoliquid flow by a stretching surface in the frames of Newtonian heating, nonlinear convection and radiative flux: Nanopolymer flow processing simulation
  53. Nonlinear dynamic and crack behaviors of carbon nanotubes-reinforced composites with various geometries
  54. Biosynthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles and its therapeutic efficacy against colon cancer
  55. Synthesis and characterization of smart stimuli-responsive herbal drug-encapsulated nanoniosome particles for efficient treatment of breast cancer
  56. Homotopic simulation for heat transport phenomenon of the Burgers nanofluids flow over a stretching cylinder with thermal convective and zero mass flux conditions
  57. Incorporation of copper and strontium ions in TiO2 nanotubes via dopamine to enhance hemocompatibility and cytocompatibility
  58. Mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties of starch films incorporated with chitosan nanoparticles
  59. Mechanical properties and microstructure of nano-strengthened recycled aggregate concrete
  60. Glucose-responsive nanogels efficiently maintain the stability and activity of therapeutic enzymes
  61. Tunning matrix rheology and mechanical performance of ultra-high performance concrete using cellulose nanofibers
  62. Flexible MXene/copper/cellulose nanofiber heat spreader films with enhanced thermal conductivity
  63. Promoted charge separation and specific surface area via interlacing of N-doped titanium dioxide nanotubes on carbon nitride nanosheets for photocatalytic degradation of Rhodamine B
  64. Elucidating the role of silicon dioxide and titanium dioxide nanoparticles in mitigating the disease of the eggplant caused by Phomopsis vexans, Ralstonia solanacearum, and root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita
  65. An implication of magnetic dipole in Carreau Yasuda liquid influenced by engine oil using ternary hybrid nanomaterial
  66. Robust synthesis of a composite phase of copper vanadium oxide with enhanced performance for durable aqueous Zn-ion batteries
  67. Tunning self-assembled phases of bovine serum albumin via hydrothermal process to synthesize novel functional hydrogel for skin protection against UVB
  68. A comparative experimental study on damping properties of epoxy nanocomposite beams reinforced with carbon nanotubes and graphene nanoplatelets
  69. Lightweight and hydrophobic Ni/GO/PVA composite aerogels for ultrahigh performance electromagnetic interference shielding
  70. Research on the auxetic behavior and mechanical properties of periodically rotating graphene nanostructures
  71. Repairing performances of novel cement mortar modified with graphene oxide and polyacrylate polymer
  72. Closed-loop recycling and fabrication of hydrophilic CNT films with high performance
  73. Design of thin-film configuration of SnO2–Ag2O composites for NO2 gas-sensing applications
  74. Study on stress distribution of SiC/Al composites based on microstructure models with microns and nanoparticles
  75. PVDF green nanofibers as potential carriers for improving self-healing and mechanical properties of carbon fiber/epoxy prepregs
  76. Osteogenesis capability of three-dimensionally printed poly(lactic acid)-halloysite nanotube scaffolds containing strontium ranelate
  77. Silver nanoparticles induce mitochondria-dependent apoptosis and late non-canonical autophagy in HT-29 colon cancer cells
  78. Preparation and bonding mechanisms of polymer/metal hybrid composite by nano molding technology
  79. Damage self-sensing and strain monitoring of glass-reinforced epoxy composite impregnated with graphene nanoplatelet and multiwalled carbon nanotubes
  80. Thermal analysis characterisation of solar-powered ship using Oldroyd hybrid nanofluids in parabolic trough solar collector: An optimal thermal application
  81. Pyrene-functionalized halloysite nanotubes for simultaneously detecting and separating Hg(ii) in aqueous media: A comprehensive comparison on interparticle and intraparticle excimers
  82. Fabrication of self-assembly CNT flexible film and its piezoresistive sensing behaviors
  83. Thermal valuation and entropy inspection of second-grade nanoscale fluid flow over a stretching surface by applying Koo–Kleinstreuer–Li relation
  84. Mechanical properties and microstructure of nano-SiO2 and basalt-fiber-reinforced recycled aggregate concrete
  85. Characterization and tribology performance of polyaniline-coated nanodiamond lubricant additives
  86. Combined impact of Marangoni convection and thermophoretic particle deposition on chemically reactive transport of nanofluid flow over a stretching surface
  87. Spark plasma extrusion of binder free hydroxyapatite powder
  88. An investigation on thermo-mechanical performance of graphene-oxide-reinforced shape memory polymer
  89. Effect of nanoadditives on the novel leather fiber/recycled poly(ethylene-vinyl-acetate) polymer composites for multifunctional applications: Fabrication, characterizations, and multiobjective optimization using central composite design
  90. Design selection for a hemispherical dimple core sandwich panel using hybrid multi-criteria decision-making methods
  91. Improving tensile strength and impact toughness of plasticized poly(lactic acid) biocomposites by incorporating nanofibrillated cellulose
  92. Green synthesis of spinel copper ferrite (CuFe2O4) nanoparticles and their toxicity
  93. The effect of TaC and NbC hybrid and mono-nanoparticles on AA2024 nanocomposites: Microstructure, strengthening, and artificial aging
  94. Excited-state geometry relaxation of pyrene-modified cellulose nanocrystals under UV-light excitation for detecting Fe3+
  95. Effect of CNTs and MEA on the creep of face-slab concrete at an early age
  96. Effect of deformation conditions on compression phase transformation of AZ31
  97. Application of MXene as a new generation of highly conductive coating materials for electromembrane-surrounded solid-phase microextraction
  98. A comparative study of the elasto-plastic properties for ceramic nanocomposites filled by graphene or graphene oxide nanoplates
  99. Encapsulation strategies for improving the biological behavior of CdS@ZIF-8 nanocomposites
  100. Biosynthesis of ZnO NPs from pumpkin seeds’ extract and elucidation of its anticancer potential against breast cancer
  101. Preliminary trials of the gold nanoparticles conjugated chrysin: An assessment of anti-oxidant, anti-microbial, and in vitro cytotoxic activities of a nanoformulated flavonoid
  102. Effect of micron-scale pores increased by nano-SiO2 sol modification on the strength of cement mortar
  103. Fractional simulations for thermal flow of hybrid nanofluid with aluminum oxide and titanium oxide nanoparticles with water and blood base fluids
  104. The effect of graphene nano-powder on the viscosity of water: An experimental study and artificial neural network modeling
  105. Development of a novel heat- and shear-resistant nano-silica gelling agent
  106. Characterization, biocompatibility and in vivo of nominal MnO2-containing wollastonite glass-ceramic
  107. Entropy production simulation of second-grade magnetic nanomaterials flowing across an expanding surface with viscidness dissipative flux
  108. Enhancement in structural, morphological, and optical properties of copper oxide for optoelectronic device applications
  109. Aptamer-functionalized chitosan-coated gold nanoparticle complex as a suitable targeted drug carrier for improved breast cancer treatment
  110. Performance and overall evaluation of nano-alumina-modified asphalt mixture
  111. Analysis of pure nanofluid (GO/engine oil) and hybrid nanofluid (GO–Fe3O4/engine oil): Novel thermal and magnetic features
  112. Synthesis of Ag@AgCl modified anatase/rutile/brookite mixed phase TiO2 and their photocatalytic property
  113. Mechanisms and influential variables on the abrasion resistance hydraulic concrete
  114. Synergistic reinforcement mechanism of basalt fiber/cellulose nanocrystals/polypropylene composites
  115. Achieving excellent oxidation resistance and mechanical properties of TiB2–B4C/carbon aerogel composites by quick-gelation and mechanical mixing
  116. Microwave-assisted sol–gel template-free synthesis and characterization of silica nanoparticles obtained from South African coal fly ash
  117. Pulsed laser-assisted synthesis of nano nickel(ii) oxide-anchored graphitic carbon nitride: Characterizations and their potential antibacterial/anti-biofilm applications
  118. Effects of nano-ZrSi2 on thermal stability of phenolic resin and thermal reusability of quartz–phenolic composites
  119. Benzaldehyde derivatives on tin electroplating as corrosion resistance for fabricating copper circuit
  120. Mechanical and heat transfer properties of 4D-printed shape memory graphene oxide/epoxy acrylate composites
  121. Coupling the vanadium-induced amorphous/crystalline NiFe2O4 with phosphide heterojunction toward active oxygen evolution reaction catalysts
  122. Graphene-oxide-reinforced cement composites mechanical and microstructural characteristics at elevated temperatures
  123. Gray correlation analysis of factors influencing compressive strength and durability of nano-SiO2 and PVA fiber reinforced geopolymer mortar
  124. Preparation of layered gradient Cu–Cr–Ti alloy with excellent mechanical properties, thermal stability, and electrical conductivity
  125. Recovery of Cr from chrome-containing leather wastes to develop aluminum-based composite material along with Al2O3 ceramic particles: An ingenious approach
  126. Mechanisms of the improved stiffness of flexible polymers under impact loading
  127. Anticancer potential of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) using a battery of in vitro tests
  128. Review Articles
  129. Proposed approaches for coronaviruses elimination from wastewater: Membrane techniques and nanotechnology solutions
  130. Application of Pickering emulsion in oil drilling and production
  131. The contribution of microfluidics to the fight against tuberculosis
  132. Graphene-based biosensors for disease theranostics: Development, applications, and recent advancements
  133. Synthesis and encapsulation of iron oxide nanorods for application in magnetic hyperthermia and photothermal therapy
  134. Contemporary nano-architectured drugs and leads for ανβ3 integrin-based chemotherapy: Rationale and retrospect
  135. State-of-the-art review of fabrication, application, and mechanical properties of functionally graded porous nanocomposite materials
  136. Insights on magnetic spinel ferrites for targeted drug delivery and hyperthermia applications
  137. A review on heterogeneous oxidation of acetaminophen based on micro and nanoparticles catalyzed by different activators
  138. Early diagnosis of lung cancer using magnetic nanoparticles-integrated systems
  139. Advances in ZnO: Manipulation of defects for enhancing their technological potentials
  140. Efficacious nanomedicine track toward combating COVID-19
  141. A review of the design, processes, and properties of Mg-based composites
  142. Green synthesis of nanoparticles for varied applications: Green renewable resources and energy-efficient synthetic routes
  143. Two-dimensional nanomaterial-based polymer composites: Fundamentals and applications
  144. Recent progress and challenges in plasmonic nanomaterials
  145. Apoptotic cell-derived micro/nanosized extracellular vesicles in tissue regeneration
  146. Electronic noses based on metal oxide nanowires: A review
  147. Framework materials for supercapacitors
  148. An overview on the reproductive toxicity of graphene derivatives: Highlighting the importance
  149. Antibacterial nanomaterials: Upcoming hope to overcome antibiotic resistance crisis
  150. Research progress of carbon materials in the field of three-dimensional printing polymer nanocomposites
  151. A review of atomic layer deposition modelling and simulation methodologies: Density functional theory and molecular dynamics
  152. Recent advances in the preparation of PVDF-based piezoelectric materials
  153. Recent developments in tensile properties of friction welding of carbon fiber-reinforced composite: A review
  154. Comprehensive review of the properties of fly ash-based geopolymer with additive of nano-SiO2
  155. Perspectives in biopolymer/graphene-based composite application: Advances, challenges, and recommendations
  156. Graphene-based nanocomposite using new modeling molecular dynamic simulations for proposed neutralizing mechanism and real-time sensing of COVID-19
  157. Nanotechnology application on bamboo materials: A review
  158. Recent developments and future perspectives of biorenewable nanocomposites for advanced applications
  159. Nanostructured lipid carrier system: A compendium of their formulation development approaches, optimization strategies by quality by design, and recent applications in drug delivery
  160. 3D printing customized design of human bone tissue implant and its application
  161. Design, preparation, and functionalization of nanobiomaterials for enhanced efficacy in current and future biomedical applications
  162. A brief review of nanoparticles-doped PEDOT:PSS nanocomposite for OLED and OPV
  163. Nanotechnology interventions as a putative tool for the treatment of dental afflictions
  164. Recent advancements in metal–organic frameworks integrating quantum dots (QDs@MOF) and their potential applications
  165. A focused review of short electrospun nanofiber preparation techniques for composite reinforcement
  166. Microstructural characteristics and nano-modification of interfacial transition zone in concrete: A review
  167. Latest developments in the upconversion nanotechnology for the rapid detection of food safety: A review
  168. Strategic applications of nano-fertilizers for sustainable agriculture: Benefits and bottlenecks
  169. Molecular dynamics application of cocrystal energetic materials: A review
  170. Synthesis and application of nanometer hydroxyapatite in biomedicine
  171. Cutting-edge development in waste-recycled nanomaterials for energy storage and conversion applications
  172. Biological applications of ternary quantum dots: A review
  173. Nanotherapeutics for hydrogen sulfide-involved treatment: An emerging approach for cancer therapy
  174. Application of antibacterial nanoparticles in orthodontic materials
  175. Effect of natural-based biological hydrogels combined with growth factors on skin wound healing
  176. Nanozymes – A route to overcome microbial resistance: A viewpoint
  177. Recent developments and applications of smart nanoparticles in biomedicine
  178. Contemporary review on carbon nanotube (CNT) composites and their impact on multifarious applications
  179. Interfacial interactions and reinforcing mechanisms of cellulose and chitin nanomaterials and starch derivatives for cement and concrete strength and durability enhancement: A review
  180. Diamond-like carbon films for tribological modification of rubber
  181. Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) modified cement-based materials: A systematic review
  182. Recent research progress and advanced applications of silica/polymer nanocomposites
  183. Modeling of supramolecular biopolymers: Leading the in silico revolution of tissue engineering and nanomedicine
  184. Recent advances in perovskites-based optoelectronics
  185. Biogenic synthesis of palladium nanoparticles: New production methods and applications
  186. A comprehensive review of nanofluids with fractional derivatives: Modeling and application
  187. Electrospinning of marine polysaccharides: Processing and chemical aspects, challenges, and future prospects
  188. Electrohydrodynamic printing for demanding devices: A review of processing and applications
  189. Rapid Communications
  190. Structural material with designed thermal twist for a simple actuation
  191. Recent advances in photothermal materials for solar-driven crude oil adsorption
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