Startseite Mechanisms of the improved stiffness of flexible polymers under impact loading
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Mechanisms of the improved stiffness of flexible polymers under impact loading

  • Fengxiao Chen , Jitang Fan EMAIL logo , David Hui , Chao Wang , Fuping Yuan und Xiaolei Wu
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 16. Dezember 2022
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Nanotechnology Reviews
Aus der Zeitschrift Nanotechnology Reviews Band 11 Heft 1

Abstract

The flexible polymers have an outstanding impact-resistant performance because of the improved stiffness upon a high speed loading. At the aspect of microstructure, the soft segments make an important contribution. In this article, molecular dynamics simulation is carried out to reveal the dynamic mechanical behavior of a mono helical soft segment. The tensile loadings at various strain rates are conducted. The stress–strain relations and strain rate dependencies of mechanical properties are derived. The evolution of potential energy with straining accompanied by the disentanglement of molecular chain is characterized. The characteristic molecular chain of dynamic mechanical response is determined. The intrinsic physical origins of straightening of characteristic molecular chain and bond angle expansion are explored. New parameters are defined to quantitatively analyze the micro mechanisms and their rate dependencies, which are linked to the dynamic mechanical properties. This work is full of interest to fill a knowledge gap of the physical origins of dynamic mechanical behavior of flexible polymers.

Keywords: soft segment; flexible polymer; stiffness; strain rate; molecular dynamics

1 Introduction

In recent years, the flexible polymers have been widely used in constructions, transportations, automobiles, aerospace and other engineering fields due to the outstanding impact-resistant performance [1,2,3,4,5,6]. With the further research, many kinds of flexible polymer materials, such as spray film, adhesive gel, flexible wearable and nano composite, have been developed. With their superior properties, they gradually replace the traditional small molecule materials [7,8,9,10]. Generally, they are composed of the hard segments and soft segments in microstructure. The hard segments are comprised of diisocyanate and chain extender, and the soft segments are comprised of oligomeric polyol. Between them, the thermodynamic incompatibility is presented. It makes that the polymer materials have an obvious microstructure of phase separation, in which the soft phases provide elasticity and the hard phases serve to enhance the filling and crosslinking [11,12,13,14]. Studies have suggested that the multi-phase structure is the intrinsic reason of the excellent performance of materials [15,16]. Therefore, it is of great significance to study the phases and microstructure for well knowing the flexible polymers [17,18,19,20,21].

As we know, there are a large number of C–C single bonds in the soft segment of polymer. When the internal rotation degree of freedom is large enough, the change of molecular chain conformation provides “flexibility” for the polymer. Therefore, in the molecular chain of the flexible polymers, the mass proportion of soft segments is usually higher than hard segments, which can be up to 90% [22,23]. Some research results have shown that the structures of soft segments have considerable effects on the mechanical properties of flexible polymers related to low temperature resistance [24,25,26]. Furthermore, several researches have indicated that as polyols’ relative molecular weight increases, tensile strength and tear strength decrease while tensile elongation increases [27,28,29]. They illustrates that the soft segments have an key effect on the mechanical properties of flexible polymers. Therefore, studying the soft segments is valuable for understanding the physical mechanisms linking to mechanical behavior of flexible polymers.

Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations based on Newtonian mechanics theory have a capability to predict the microstructure and mechanical properties of materials under a certain condition. It is helpful to clarify the microlevel mechanisms for understanding the mechanical behavior of flexible polymers [30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37]. MD simulations can observe the polymers at atomic scale and explain the macrolevel dynamic mechanical behavior through the microlevel physical origins. Also, they have the advantages of less testing period, lower cost and so on, which can constantly polish the results through a fast iteration. The mechanisms of mechanical performance of flexible polymers as well as their self-healing behavior have been studied by MD simulations [38,39,40]. The proportion of soft segments and hard segments was obtained to address the self-healing capability of flexible polymers [41]. The method of MD simulations can well elucidate the physical origins of mechanical behavior through describing the soft segments and hard segments. As a result, uncovering the physical mechanisms of impact resistance of flexible polymers is critical.

In this work, the mono soft segment of flexible polymers is studied through using MD simulations and the evolution of mechanical behavior with the increase in strain rate is clarified. By sampling the molecular systems at different strain states, monitoring the atomic motion process and revealing the characteristics of structures and properties, the mechanical behavior is ultimately achieved. The polytetramethylene ether glycol (PTMG) is selected as the research objective, which is a typical soft segment of flexible polymers. The physical mechanisms at molecular scale are revealed and the intrinsic parameters are accompanyingly defined. This work not only describes the evolution process of molecular chain motion upon dynamic tensile loading but also explores the microlevel origins of mechanical behavior at different strain rates. This study plays an important role on improving the knowledge impact on rate dependent mechanical behavior of flexible polymers.

2 Material model and MD simulation method

Materials Studio is used to build the material model of the mono soft segment of flexible polymers. The open-source code of LAMMPS is employed for calculation [42]. The OVITO is implemented to realize the visualization of atomic structure [43]. The applicable COMPASS force field is carried out. Herein, COMPASS means “condensed-phase optimized molecular potential for atomistic simulation studies.” It is the first molecular force field that can unify the force fields of organic molecular system and inorganic molecular system. Generally, the COMPASS force field is able to achieve the simulations of polymer materials [44]. The governing function of COMPASS [45] force field can be expressed as:

(1) E = E b + E θ + E ∅ + E χ + E cross + E ij + E elec .

In this formula, the bonding term is composed as: the energy of bond stretching ( E b ), the energy of bond angle bending ( E θ ), the energy of bond bending ( E ∅ ), the energy of out-of-plane angle bending ( E χ ) and their coupling energy ( E cross ). Besides, the non-bonding term is composed of van der Waals energy ( E ij ) and Coulombic energy ( E elec ). Moreover, the electrostatic interaction can be described by the remaining charge of atoms:

(2) q i = δ i + ∑ j δ i j .

Among these atoms, the bond increment ( δ ij ) is used to represent the remaining charge of atoms j (donor) to i (acceptor).

In this work, the PTMG that can represent the soft segment of flexible polymers is selected for study. A typical microstructure of flexible polymers is shown in Figure 1a. The monomer of butanediol is constructed by adding atoms in Materials Studio [46,47]. Then, the repeating unit in material model is used to construct a single molecular chain of PTMG and a typical molecular structure of soft segment with helical structure is shown in Figure 1b. It is a mono soft segment for study in this work and its molecular formula is OH(C4H8O) n H (see Figure 1c).

Figure 1 Material model of MD simulations: (a) microstructural composition of a flexible polymer; (b) a typical molecular structure of soft segment with helical structure; and (c) molecular formula of the mono soft segment.
Figure 1

Material model of MD simulations: (a) microstructural composition of a flexible polymer; (b) a typical molecular structure of soft segment with helical structure; and (c) molecular formula of the mono soft segment.

Herein, a regular helical structure is built for the calculation and research. The degree of polymerization is set as n = 43 that contains 562 atoms and the total molecular weight is 3,114. Afterwards, the structure of the PTMG is optimized. A reasonable and stable molecular structure can be obtained by the method of energy minimization. Finally, the material model with molecular structure is outputted by coordinate conversion and is turned into an initial configuration file that will be used by LAMMPS. The visual model that is processed by OVITO.

LAMMPS can optimize the simulation data for avoiding the failure of calculation due to unreasonable local structure of material model or excessively high system energy and the rationality of modeling can be achieved. The calculation system is simulated for 1,000 ps using an isothermal–isobaric ensemble (NPT) at 300 K under atmospheric pressure. The environmental conditions are held. The increase in temperature is processed at a step of 25 K from 300 to 1,000 K followed by cooling down to 300 K. Such the treating cycles are conducted for 10 times and a balance state of material system is reached. To study the tensile properties, the material system of PTMG was uniaxial stretched at room temperature (T = 300 K), and the model was relaxed for 1,000 ps at 300 K before loading. Periodic boundary conditions are applied in y- and z-directions while the boundary condition in x-direction is free for deformation. Time step Δt = 1 fs is set during loading process. The different impact velocities are conducted, which are (n) km/s (n = 1, 2 … 20). They correspond to the strain rates of (0.88n) × 1011/s (n = 1, 2 … 20), respectively.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Mechanical properties at various strain rates

The tensile tests within a wide range of strain rates are simulated by using LAMMPS. The mechanical responses under dynamic tensions are characterized. Yielding stress and maximum stress at various strain rates are collected to investigate the effect of strain rate on dynamic mechanical properties, which reveals the strain rate dependency. Besides, according to the simulation results, the effects of strain rate on mechanical behavior are well studied.

Figure 2 shows the representative engineering stress–strain curves of PTMG material model at different strain rates. To ensure that the simulation results can comprehensively analyze the mechanical behavior under tensile loadings, multiple simulations are conducted in the velocity range of 1–20 km/s, that corresponds the strain rate range of (0.88–17.6) × 1011/s. The engineering stress–strain curves show a similar characteristic under different strain rates. They exhibit a linear elastic behavior at beginning of deformation and then present a nonlinear transition to global yielding followed by a large strain and final failure. It is a typical mechanical characteristic of glass-like behavior. It can also be noted that in the process of yielding, with the increase of strain rate, the transition of stress–strain relation tends to be indistinct and the hardening phenomenon becomes obvious. In addition, the strength, stiffness and maximum stress increase with the increase of strain rate. The specific quantitative analysis is shown in Figures 3 and 4, respectively. It means that the material properties have an outstanding rate dependency. Likewise, the material system exhibits dynamic hardening behavior, which contributes to high impact resistance [48,49,50,51].

Figure 2 Stress–strain relations under dynamic tensions at different strain rates.
Figure 2

Stress–strain relations under dynamic tensions at different strain rates.

Figure 3 Relation between strain rate and tangent modulus of the PTMG material model: (a) positive strain rate dependency of tangent modulus and (b) critical strain rate to induce the transition of mechanical behavior of a material from rubber-like behavior at low strain rate to glass-like behavior at high strain rate.
Figure 3

Relation between strain rate and tangent modulus of the PTMG material model: (a) positive strain rate dependency of tangent modulus and (b) critical strain rate to induce the transition of mechanical behavior of a material from rubber-like behavior at low strain rate to glass-like behavior at high strain rate.

Figure 4 Quantitative analysis on the strain rate dependencies of the maximum stress and yield stress.
Figure 4

Quantitative analysis on the strain rate dependencies of the maximum stress and yield stress.

Therefore, the material system presents a mechanical characteristic of glass-like behavior under dynamic loading. To study the origins of this characteristic, the tangent modulus of the material at different strain rates is quantitatively analyzed and the simulation data are fitted. Since yielding occurs under dynamic stress equilibrium of atomic structure, tensile modulus can be roughly estimated by a stress–strain curve. The curve slope is the tangent modulus that can indicate the material stiffness at a corresponding strain rate. Figure 3a shows the relation between the tangent modulus of the material system and strain rate. It is found that tangent modulus increases with the increase of strain rate, which is a positive strain rate sensitivity. By fitting the data points, it can be seen that the increase speed becomes slow and even the tangent modulus becomes a constant when strain rate is high enough. It means that the rate independency of tangent modulus emerges at a high strain rate. Furthermore, a logarithmical abscissa axis of strain rate is transformed and the data points of tangent modulus are fitted into a straight line (see Figure 3b). By extending the fitting line, a point of (0.76, 0) is attained. It indicates that when strain rate is lower than 0.76 × 1011/s, tangent modulus becomes 0, which is a typical mechanical behavior of soft matter. Thus, the strain rate of 0.76 × 1011/s is determined as the transition of mechanical behavior of a material from rubber-like behavior to glass-like behavior with the increase of strain rate [52,53,54,55,56]. The mechanical characteristics upon loading remain similar in the range of the simulated strain rate and occur to transition with the increase of strain rate.

Based on the stress–strain curves in Figure 2, yield stress and maximum stress at different strain rates are measured and their rate dependencies are analyzed quantitatively (see Figure 4). Herein, the point of the minimum stress after linear elastic deformation is taken as yield stress. In general, the strain rate dependency of material properties can be calculated by a formula of σ = B ε ̇ m . Herein, σ is stress; B is a material parameter that is a function of temperature, strain and microstructure; ε ̇ is strain rate; and m is the strain-rate sensitivity index, which is greater than or equal to zero. This equation can accurately represent the strain rate independency of material properties. The fitted curves are shown in Figure 4. The quantitative relations are σ m = 0 . 035 ε ̇ 1 . 18 for the maximum stress and strain rate and σ y = 0 . 002 ε ̇ 2 . 07 for yield stress and strain rate, respectively.

The quantitative analysis shows that both the maximum stress and yield stress have a positive correlation with strain rate and they increase with the increase in strain rate. By comparing, the strain rate dependency of yield stress is higher than that of the maximum stress. The yield stress corresponds to the yielding resistance of a material, which can indicate a material stiffness. It is consistent with the relation between tangent modulus and strain rate as shown in Figure 3. And, the maximum stress corresponds to the fracture resistance of a material, which is related to the strength and cracking resistance of a material. Thus, with the increase in strain rate, the material stiffness, strength, and cracking resistance are significantly increased, which illustrates a high impact-resistant performance.

3.2 Physical mechanisms of strain rate dependency

According to the study in literatures [57,58,59], the potential energy is strongly related to the mechanical properties of a material. To explore the physical mechanisms of the strain rate dependency of mechanical properties, the relation between potential energy and strain rate is analyzed, which is shown in Figure 5. The potential energy evolution with straining at different strain rates is given in Figure 5a. The curves of potential energy and engineering strain also show a similar trend at different strain rates. The potential energy increases rapidly with straining at a given strain rate. In addition, according to the growth rate of the potential energy with straining, two turning points, marked by round and square black dots, can be obviously seen at each strain rate. This phenomenon is similar with that which occurs in the stress–strain relations, as shown in Figure 2. Through linking with the engineering strain, it is found that the engineering strains at these two turning points of potential energy are consistent with the strains, which correspond to yield stress and maximum stress, respectively, as shown in Figure 6. Thus, we can derive that these two turning points of potential energy correspond to the yield stress point and maximum stress point, respectively. Then, the potential energies at yield stress point and maximum stress point are measured at different strain rates (see Figure 5a) and their strain rate dependencies are analyzed quantitatively by curve fitting (see Figure 5b).

Figure 5 Relation between potential energy and strain rate: (a) potential energy with straining at different strain rates and (b) quantitative analysis of strain rate dependencies of the potential energies at yield stress point and maximum stress point.
Figure 5

Relation between potential energy and strain rate: (a) potential energy with straining at different strain rates and (b) quantitative analysis of strain rate dependencies of the potential energies at yield stress point and maximum stress point.

Figure 6 Evolutions of potential energy and stress with straining at a representative strain rate of 1.32 × 1012/s.
Figure 6

Evolutions of potential energy and stress with straining at a representative strain rate of 1.32 × 1012/s.

A power function is employed to characterize the strain rate dependencies. They are E y = 25 . 57 ε ̇ 2 . 27 and E m = 107 . 62 ε ̇ 2 . 14 for the potential energies at yield stress point, E y , and maximum stress point, E m , respectively. Both of them have a positive relation with strain rate that is increased with the increase in strain rate. The potential energies increase and their growth rates also increase with straining. So, the potential energy of the mono soft segment has an obvious strain rate dependency, which will significantly influence the material properties. Due to the high potential energy at a high strain rate, the stressed atoms have no time to relax, which induces the improvement of material strength. Resultantly, strength increases with the increase in strain rate.

In addition, to explore the evolution details of potential energy with stress and strain, one typical loading case at a strain rate of 1.32 × 1012/s is investigated as shown in Figure 6. At the beginning of deformation, a linear stress–strain behavior is processed and the potential energy increases linearly at a lower speed with straining, which is Stage I. When strain reaches 0.53, the stress–strain curve shows yielding behavior and yield stress point is obtained here. Meantime, the curve of potential energy and strain reaches the first turning point. Afterwards, with the continuous increase in strain, the increase in stress becomes faster and, accompanyingly, the increase of potential energy also becomes faster, which is Stage II. Then, a large deformation is processed and the strain reaches 1.31. At this time, the maximum stress point is obtained here. Finally, at Stage III, with the increase in strain, the stress shows a downward trend, while the potential energy continues to increase, but the increase rate slows down. Herein, the failure of material maybe occurs. Therefore, with the increase in strain, the evolutions of stress and potential energy are given in detail.

Along with the above illustrations, the configuration of molecular chain is furthermore studied for exploring the physical mechanisms at atomic scale, as shown in Figure 7. Herein, three representative loading cases at the strain rates of 0.88 × 1011, 7.04 × 1011 and 1.32 × 1012/s are presented and the configurations of molecular chain at the initial, yield and maximum stress points in each loading case are investigated. At the initial state, strain is 0 and the material system is not affected by external force. That means the configuration of molecular chain keeps the original state without any tension and relaxation. When the stress–strain relation arrives at yield point, tensile deformation makes an effect on the configuration of molecular chain. Disentanglement occurs and it is localized at the ending part of the molecular chain, which is determined as the characteristic molecular chain for carrying the dynamic mechanical behavior. Herein, the disentanglement is carried out by the change in bond length and bond angle as well as the straightening of molecular chain rearrangement [21,24,30,38]. The medium position of the molecular chain, on the other hand, appears to have no or very little modification. The relative motion of the segments is observed at both ends of the molecular chain, and this phenomenon becomes more obvious at the maximum stress point. So, the performance of molecular chain upon dynamic loadings at different strain rates is the same, which indicates the intrinsic physical mechanism is the same. However, through comparison, it is found that with the increase in strain rate, the characteristic molecular chains become “straighter” and “longer.” This means the disentanglement of molecular chain becomes more obvious with the increase in loading rate.

Figure 7 Configurations of molecular chain at the initial, yield stress and maximum stress points at different strain rates of 0.88 × 1011, 7.04 × 1011 and 1.32 × 1012/s, respectively.
Figure 7

Configurations of molecular chain at the initial, yield stress and maximum stress points at different strain rates of 0.88 × 1011, 7.04 × 1011 and 1.32 × 1012/s, respectively.

To further study the disentanglement phenomenon of a molecular chain upon dynamic loading as well as the intrinsic physical mechanisms, some new parameters are defined and accordingly a quantitative analysis is conducted. Under dynamic loading, a molecular chain is divided into two parts of disentanglement at the ending part and non-disentanglement at the medium part, which are schematically shown in Figure 8a. This performance is caused by the inertia behavior of matter. They are defined as α and β , respectively. Then, the disentanglement ratio, R d can be described by the formula: R d = [ ( α 1 + α 2 ) / ( α 1 + α 2 + β ) ] × 100 % . Herein, R d is the disentanglement ratio; α 1 and α 2 are the numbers of atoms involved in the disentanglement that occurs at both two ends of molecular chain, respectively; β is the number of atoms contained in the non-disentanglement part that locates in the medium part. Thus, the evolutions of disentanglement ratio with straining at each strain rate of 0.88 × 1011, 7.04 × 1011 and 1.32 × 1012/s are derived as shown in Figure 8b. Two turning points of 0.3 and 0.45 of the disentanglement ratio are emerged. By linking the data of strain, we find that these two turning points correspond to the yield stress point and maximum stress point (see Figure 2) and this phenomenon is also in line with that occurs to the potential energy (see Figure 5). Thus, we can conclude that at a strain rate with straining the mechanical properties of materials, potential energy of atoms and configuration of molecular chains are changed and the specified characteristics are exhibited at both yield stress point and maximum stress point.

Figure 8 Relation between disentanglement ratio and strain rate of the PTMG system: (a) schematic illustration of a molecular chain under dynamic tension loading including the disentanglement part, α ( = α 1 + α 2 ) \alpha {(=\alpha }_{1}\left+{\alpha }_{2}) and non-disentanglement part, β \beta , and (b) evolution of disentanglement ratio with straining at different strain rates of 0.88 × 1011, 7.04 × 1011 and 1.32 × 1012/s.
Figure 8

Relation between disentanglement ratio and strain rate of the PTMG system: (a) schematic illustration of a molecular chain under dynamic tension loading including the disentanglement part, α ( = α 1 + α 2 ) and non-disentanglement part, β , and (b) evolution of disentanglement ratio with straining at different strain rates of 0.88 × 1011, 7.04 × 1011 and 1.32 × 1012/s.

Besides, it is interesting to find that for these three loading cases, the disentanglement ratio is the same at yield stress point as well as at the maximum stress point. That means the disentanglement ratio is not changed by the loading rate, which is strain rate independency. So, 0.3 and 0.45, as the data of disentanglement ratio, are determined to be the characteristic parameters of the mono helical soft PTMG segment for describing the rearrangement of molecular chain at yield stress point and maximum stress point at various strain rates. However, the strain at yield stress point and maximum stress point becomes large with the increase in strain rate (see Figures 2 and 5). Thus, we can derive that the disentanglement degree of molecular chain becomes high with the increase in strain rate, which is mainly operated by the change in bond length and bond angle.

As above illustrations, disentanglement is a natural carrier at micro level as the response of molecular chain upon dynamic loading. The disentanglement part, α ( = α 1 + α 2 ) , marked in Figure 8a, is the characteristic molecular chain that is full of significance to be studied. A zoomed-in observation on the disentanglement part, α , is given in Figure 9.

Figure 9 Zoomed-in observation on the disentanglement part, α \alpha , located at the ending part of a whole molecular chain at the initial, yield stress and maximum stress points at different strain rates of 0.88 × 1011, 7.04 × 1011 and 1.32 × 1012/s, respectively.
Figure 9

Zoomed-in observation on the disentanglement part, α , located at the ending part of a whole molecular chain at the initial, yield stress and maximum stress points at different strain rates of 0.88 × 1011, 7.04 × 1011 and 1.32 × 1012/s, respectively.

The initial configuration at the end of molecular chain is U shape. And, the rearrangements at yield stress point and maximum stress point are also given at the three representative loading cases where strain rates are 0.88 × 1011, 7.04 × 1011 and 1.32 × 1012/s, respectively. By comparison, the U-shape part becomes straighter at maximum stress point than that at yield stress point for a certain loading case. And, at both yield stress point and maximum stress point, the U-shape part also becomes straighter for the loading case at a higher strain rate. So, both straining and strain rate can lead to the straightening of characteristic molecular chain, which results in the increase in disentanglement degree at the ending part of a whole molecular chain. Herein, the straightening of characteristic molecular chain is operated by the motion of atoms, which is the physical origin of the increased stress with the increase in strain and strain rate [60]. So, the stress–strain relations at various strain rates as well as the strain rate dependencies of tangent modulus and strength are produced, as shown in Figures 2–4.

To quantitatively analyze the straightening of characteristic molecular chain upon dynamic loading, the parameters of straightening ratio and bond angle–expansion ratio are defined as shown in Figure 10. A schematic diagram of the straightening of characteristic molecular chain is given in Figure 10a. The straightening ratio, R s , can be calculated as: R s = [ ( l 1 − l 0 ) / l 0 ] × 100 % . Herein, R s is the straightening ratio; l 0 is the initial length of the molecular chain in disentanglement part; and l 1 is the current length of the molecular chain in disentanglement part processed by dynamic loading. Then, at each strain rate, the straightening ratio, R s , at yield stress point and maximum stress point can be obtained. Accordingly, the strain rate dependences of theirs can be derived as shown in Figure 10b. With the increase in strain rate, straightening ratio, R s , at both yield stress point and maximum stress point increase, which show the strain rate dependencies.

Figure 10 Quantitative analysis on the straightening of characteristic molecular chain in the disentanglement part upon dynamic loading: (a) schematic diagram of the straightening of characteristic molecular chain; (b) strain rate dependences of straightening ratio, R s {R}_{{\rm{s}}} , at yield stress point and maximum stress point; (c) schematic diagram of the bond angle expansion among three neighboring atoms; and (d) strain rate dependences of the angle-expansion ratio, R a {R}_{{\rm{a}}} , at yield stress point and maximum stress point.
Figure 10

Quantitative analysis on the straightening of characteristic molecular chain in the disentanglement part upon dynamic loading: (a) schematic diagram of the straightening of characteristic molecular chain; (b) strain rate dependences of straightening ratio, R s , at yield stress point and maximum stress point; (c) schematic diagram of the bond angle expansion among three neighboring atoms; and (d) strain rate dependences of the angle-expansion ratio, R a , at yield stress point and maximum stress point.

The same, the angle–expansion ratio, R a , is defined as: R a = [ ( θ 1 − θ 0 ) / θ 0 ] × 100 % , which is schematically shown in Figure 10c. Herein, R a is the angle–expansion ratio; θ 0 is the initial angle formed among three neighboring atoms; and θ 1 is the current angle formed among the same three neighboring atoms processed by dynamic loading. Also, it is worthy to note that only one direction along the tensile loading is considered and the angle–expansion ratio, R a , measured in this work is an average value. Then, at each strain rate, the angle–expansion ratio, R a , at yield stress point and maximum stress point can be obtained. Accordingly, the strain rate dependences of theirs can be derived as shown in Figure 10d. With the increase in strain rate, the angle–expansion ratio, R a , at both yield stress point and maximum stress point increase, which show the strain rate dependencies.

According to the quantitative analysis in Figure 10b and d, with the increase in strain rate, both straightening ratio and bond angle–expansion ratio increase, which contributes to the disentanglement of molecular chain upon dynamic loading. That means the loading at a higher strain rate can lead to a greater degree of disentanglement, which is mainly conducted by the straightening of characteristic molecular chain and bond angle expansion. Herein, the increase in bond length is deemed to make less effect on the material deformation and it will cause the material failure.

4 Conclusions

The physical origins of dynamic mechanical behavior of flexible polymers are revealed by studying a mono helical soft segment at various strain rates using MD simulation. The stress–strain relations show yield stress point and maximum stress point and both of them as well as the tangent modulus, which can indicate the material stiffness, has a positive strain rate dependency. The evolution of potential energy of atoms with straining is also given and it is in line with the stress–strain relation. A similar strain rate dependency is produced.

Furthermore, disentanglement of molecular chain upon dynamic loading is observed. The disentanglement ratio is defined and found that at the yield stress point and the maximum stress point, it is independent of strain rates, which are 0.3 and 0.45, respectively. Through the quantitative analysis of the straightening and the inherent bond angle expansion of the characteristic molecular chain under different strain rates, it is proved that the bond length and bond angle of the chain segment at the yield stress point and the maximum stress point change more distinctly with the increase in strain rate. When the strain rate is up to 1.76 × 1012/s, the straightening rate and the inherent bond angle expansion at the yield stress point are 1.35 and 0.35, respectively. They are 1.3 and 0.28, respectively, higher than those at a strain rate of 8.8 × 1010/s. The same, at the maximum stress points, they are 2.05 and 0.3 higher, respectively, when comparing the data at these two different strain rates. Thus, the disentanglement degree of the characteristic molecular chain increases with the increase in strain rate. Then, we can deduce the increase in the interaction force between atoms, which can result in the improved strain and stress. Therefore, through the step-by-step exploration and investigation, the physical mechanisms of dynamic mechanical behavior of flexible polymers are clarified.

  1. Funding information: The authors acknowledge the financial supports from the National Natural Science Foundation of China with Grant No. 11602024 and the “111” Project of China with Grant No. G20012017001.

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this article and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: David Hui, who is the co-author of this article, is a current Editorial Board member of Nanotechnology Reviews. This fact did not affect the peer-review process. The authors declare no other conflict of interest.

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Received: 2022-02-03
Revised: 2022-04-24
Accepted: 2022-05-01
Published Online: 2022-12-16

© 2022 Fengxiao Chen et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  168. Strategic applications of nano-fertilizers for sustainable agriculture: Benefits and bottlenecks
  169. Molecular dynamics application of cocrystal energetic materials: A review
  170. Synthesis and application of nanometer hydroxyapatite in biomedicine
  171. Cutting-edge development in waste-recycled nanomaterials for energy storage and conversion applications
  172. Biological applications of ternary quantum dots: A review
  173. Nanotherapeutics for hydrogen sulfide-involved treatment: An emerging approach for cancer therapy
  174. Application of antibacterial nanoparticles in orthodontic materials
  175. Effect of natural-based biological hydrogels combined with growth factors on skin wound healing
  176. Nanozymes – A route to overcome microbial resistance: A viewpoint
  177. Recent developments and applications of smart nanoparticles in biomedicine
  178. Contemporary review on carbon nanotube (CNT) composites and their impact on multifarious applications
  179. Interfacial interactions and reinforcing mechanisms of cellulose and chitin nanomaterials and starch derivatives for cement and concrete strength and durability enhancement: A review
  180. Diamond-like carbon films for tribological modification of rubber
  181. Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) modified cement-based materials: A systematic review
  182. Recent research progress and advanced applications of silica/polymer nanocomposites
  183. Modeling of supramolecular biopolymers: Leading the in silico revolution of tissue engineering and nanomedicine
  184. Recent advances in perovskites-based optoelectronics
  185. Biogenic synthesis of palladium nanoparticles: New production methods and applications
  186. A comprehensive review of nanofluids with fractional derivatives: Modeling and application
  187. Electrospinning of marine polysaccharides: Processing and chemical aspects, challenges, and future prospects
  188. Electrohydrodynamic printing for demanding devices: A review of processing and applications
  189. Rapid Communications
  190. Structural material with designed thermal twist for a simple actuation
  191. Recent advances in photothermal materials for solar-driven crude oil adsorption
https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2022-0437
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
soft segment; flexible polymer; stiffness; strain rate; molecular dynamics
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Research Articles
  2. Theoretical and experimental investigation of MWCNT dispersion effect on the elastic modulus of flexible PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposites
  3. Mechanical, morphological, and fracture-deformation behavior of MWCNTs-reinforced (Al–Cu–Mg–T351) alloy cast nanocomposites fabricated by optimized mechanical milling and powder metallurgy techniques
  4. Flammability and physical stability of sugar palm crystalline nanocellulose reinforced thermoplastic sugar palm starch/poly(lactic acid) blend bionanocomposites
  5. Glutathione-loaded non-ionic surfactant niosomes: A new approach to improve oral bioavailability and hepatoprotective efficacy of glutathione
  6. Relationship between mechano-bactericidal activity and nanoblades density on chemically strengthened glass
  7. In situ regulation of microstructure and microwave-absorbing properties of FeSiAl through HNO3 oxidation
  8. Research on a mechanical model of magnetorheological fluid different diameter particles
  9. Nanomechanical and dynamic mechanical properties of rubber–wood–plastic composites
  10. Investigative properties of CeO2 doped with niobium: A combined characterization and DFT studies
  11. Miniaturized peptidomimetics and nano-vesiculation in endothelin types through probable nano-disk formation and structure property relationships of endothelins’ fragments
  12. N/S co-doped CoSe/C nanocubes as anode materials for Li-ion batteries
  13. Synergistic effects of halloysite nanotubes with metal and phosphorus additives on the optimal design of eco-friendly sandwich panels with maximum flame resistance and minimum weight
  14. Octreotide-conjugated silver nanoparticles for active targeting of somatostatin receptors and their application in a nebulized rat model
  15. Controllable morphology of Bi2S3 nanostructures formed via hydrothermal vulcanization of Bi2O3 thin-film layer and their photoelectrocatalytic performances
  16. Development of (−)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate-loaded folate receptor-targeted nanoparticles for prostate cancer treatment
  17. Enhancement of the mechanical properties of HDPE mineral nanocomposites by filler particles modulation of the matrix plastic/elastic behavior
  18. Effect of plasticizers on the properties of sugar palm nanocellulose/cinnamon essential oil reinforced starch bionanocomposite films
  19. Optimization of nano coating to reduce the thermal deformation of ball screws
  20. Preparation of efficient piezoelectric PVDF–HFP/Ni composite films by high electric field poling
  21. MHD dissipative Casson nanofluid liquid film flow due to an unsteady stretching sheet with radiation influence and slip velocity phenomenon
  22. Effects of nano-SiO2 modification on rubberised mortar and concrete with recycled coarse aggregates
  23. Mechanical and microscopic properties of fiber-reinforced coal gangue-based geopolymer concrete
  24. Effect of morphology and size on the thermodynamic stability of cerium oxide nanoparticles: Experiment and molecular dynamics calculation
  25. Mechanical performance of a CFRP composite reinforced via gelatin-CNTs: A study on fiber interfacial enhancement and matrix enhancement
  26. A practical review over surface modification, nanopatterns, emerging materials, drug delivery systems, and their biophysiochemical properties for dental implants: Recent progresses and advances
  27. HTR: An ultra-high speed algorithm for cage recognition of clathrate hydrates
  28. Effects of microalloying elements added by in situ synthesis on the microstructure of WCu composites
  29. A highly sensitive nanobiosensor based on aptamer-conjugated graphene-decorated rhodium nanoparticles for detection of HER2-positive circulating tumor cells
  30. Progressive collapse performance of shear strengthened RC frames by nano CFRP
  31. Core–shell heterostructured composites of carbon nanotubes and imine-linked hyperbranched polymers as metal-free Li-ion anodes
  32. A Galerkin strategy for tri-hybridized mixture in ethylene glycol comprising variable diffusion and thermal conductivity using non-Fourier’s theory
  33. Simple models for tensile modulus of shape memory polymer nanocomposites at ambient temperature
  34. Preparation and morphological studies of tin sulfide nanoparticles and use as efficient photocatalysts for the degradation of rhodamine B and phenol
  35. Polyethyleneimine-impregnated activated carbon nanofiber composited graphene-derived rice husk char for efficient post-combustion CO2 capture
  36. Electrospun nanofibers of Co3O4 nanocrystals encapsulated in cyclized-polyacrylonitrile for lithium storage
  37. Pitting corrosion induced on high-strength high carbon steel wire in high alkaline deaerated chloride electrolyte
  38. Formulation of polymeric nanoparticles loaded sorafenib; evaluation of cytotoxicity, molecular evaluation, and gene expression studies in lung and breast cancer cell lines
  39. Engineered nanocomposites in asphalt binders
  40. Influence of loading voltage, domain ratio, and additional load on the actuation of dielectric elastomer
  41. Thermally induced hex-graphene transitions in 2D carbon crystals
  42. The surface modification effect on the interfacial properties of glass fiber-reinforced epoxy: A molecular dynamics study
  43. Molecular dynamics study of deformation mechanism of interfacial microzone of Cu/Al2Cu/Al composites under tension
  44. Nanocolloid simulators of luminescent solar concentrator photovoltaic windows
  45. Compressive strength and anti-chloride ion penetration assessment of geopolymer mortar merging PVA fiber and nano-SiO2 using RBF–BP composite neural network
  46. Effect of 3-mercapto-1-propane sulfonate sulfonic acid and polyvinylpyrrolidone on the growth of cobalt pillar by electrodeposition
  47. Dynamics of convective slippery constraints on hybrid radiative Sutterby nanofluid flow by Galerkin finite element simulation
  48. Preparation of vanadium by the magnesiothermic self-propagating reduction and process control
  49. Microstructure-dependent photoelectrocatalytic activity of heterogeneous ZnO–ZnS nanosheets
  50. Cytotoxic and pro-inflammatory effects of molybdenum and tungsten disulphide on human bronchial cells
  51. Improving recycled aggregate concrete by compression casting and nano-silica
  52. Chemically reactive Maxwell nanoliquid flow by a stretching surface in the frames of Newtonian heating, nonlinear convection and radiative flux: Nanopolymer flow processing simulation
  53. Nonlinear dynamic and crack behaviors of carbon nanotubes-reinforced composites with various geometries
  54. Biosynthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles and its therapeutic efficacy against colon cancer
  55. Synthesis and characterization of smart stimuli-responsive herbal drug-encapsulated nanoniosome particles for efficient treatment of breast cancer
  56. Homotopic simulation for heat transport phenomenon of the Burgers nanofluids flow over a stretching cylinder with thermal convective and zero mass flux conditions
  57. Incorporation of copper and strontium ions in TiO2 nanotubes via dopamine to enhance hemocompatibility and cytocompatibility
  58. Mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties of starch films incorporated with chitosan nanoparticles
  59. Mechanical properties and microstructure of nano-strengthened recycled aggregate concrete
  60. Glucose-responsive nanogels efficiently maintain the stability and activity of therapeutic enzymes
  61. Tunning matrix rheology and mechanical performance of ultra-high performance concrete using cellulose nanofibers
  62. Flexible MXene/copper/cellulose nanofiber heat spreader films with enhanced thermal conductivity
  63. Promoted charge separation and specific surface area via interlacing of N-doped titanium dioxide nanotubes on carbon nitride nanosheets for photocatalytic degradation of Rhodamine B
  64. Elucidating the role of silicon dioxide and titanium dioxide nanoparticles in mitigating the disease of the eggplant caused by Phomopsis vexans, Ralstonia solanacearum, and root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita
  65. An implication of magnetic dipole in Carreau Yasuda liquid influenced by engine oil using ternary hybrid nanomaterial
  66. Robust synthesis of a composite phase of copper vanadium oxide with enhanced performance for durable aqueous Zn-ion batteries
  67. Tunning self-assembled phases of bovine serum albumin via hydrothermal process to synthesize novel functional hydrogel for skin protection against UVB
  68. A comparative experimental study on damping properties of epoxy nanocomposite beams reinforced with carbon nanotubes and graphene nanoplatelets
  69. Lightweight and hydrophobic Ni/GO/PVA composite aerogels for ultrahigh performance electromagnetic interference shielding
  70. Research on the auxetic behavior and mechanical properties of periodically rotating graphene nanostructures
  71. Repairing performances of novel cement mortar modified with graphene oxide and polyacrylate polymer
  72. Closed-loop recycling and fabrication of hydrophilic CNT films with high performance
  73. Design of thin-film configuration of SnO2–Ag2O composites for NO2 gas-sensing applications
  74. Study on stress distribution of SiC/Al composites based on microstructure models with microns and nanoparticles
  75. PVDF green nanofibers as potential carriers for improving self-healing and mechanical properties of carbon fiber/epoxy prepregs
  76. Osteogenesis capability of three-dimensionally printed poly(lactic acid)-halloysite nanotube scaffolds containing strontium ranelate
  77. Silver nanoparticles induce mitochondria-dependent apoptosis and late non-canonical autophagy in HT-29 colon cancer cells
  78. Preparation and bonding mechanisms of polymer/metal hybrid composite by nano molding technology
  79. Damage self-sensing and strain monitoring of glass-reinforced epoxy composite impregnated with graphene nanoplatelet and multiwalled carbon nanotubes
  80. Thermal analysis characterisation of solar-powered ship using Oldroyd hybrid nanofluids in parabolic trough solar collector: An optimal thermal application
  81. Pyrene-functionalized halloysite nanotubes for simultaneously detecting and separating Hg(ii) in aqueous media: A comprehensive comparison on interparticle and intraparticle excimers
  82. Fabrication of self-assembly CNT flexible film and its piezoresistive sensing behaviors
  83. Thermal valuation and entropy inspection of second-grade nanoscale fluid flow over a stretching surface by applying Koo–Kleinstreuer–Li relation
  84. Mechanical properties and microstructure of nano-SiO2 and basalt-fiber-reinforced recycled aggregate concrete
  85. Characterization and tribology performance of polyaniline-coated nanodiamond lubricant additives
  86. Combined impact of Marangoni convection and thermophoretic particle deposition on chemically reactive transport of nanofluid flow over a stretching surface
  87. Spark plasma extrusion of binder free hydroxyapatite powder
  88. An investigation on thermo-mechanical performance of graphene-oxide-reinforced shape memory polymer
  89. Effect of nanoadditives on the novel leather fiber/recycled poly(ethylene-vinyl-acetate) polymer composites for multifunctional applications: Fabrication, characterizations, and multiobjective optimization using central composite design
  90. Design selection for a hemispherical dimple core sandwich panel using hybrid multi-criteria decision-making methods
  91. Improving tensile strength and impact toughness of plasticized poly(lactic acid) biocomposites by incorporating nanofibrillated cellulose
  92. Green synthesis of spinel copper ferrite (CuFe2O4) nanoparticles and their toxicity
  93. The effect of TaC and NbC hybrid and mono-nanoparticles on AA2024 nanocomposites: Microstructure, strengthening, and artificial aging
  94. Excited-state geometry relaxation of pyrene-modified cellulose nanocrystals under UV-light excitation for detecting Fe3+
  95. Effect of CNTs and MEA on the creep of face-slab concrete at an early age
  96. Effect of deformation conditions on compression phase transformation of AZ31
  97. Application of MXene as a new generation of highly conductive coating materials for electromembrane-surrounded solid-phase microextraction
  98. A comparative study of the elasto-plastic properties for ceramic nanocomposites filled by graphene or graphene oxide nanoplates
  99. Encapsulation strategies for improving the biological behavior of CdS@ZIF-8 nanocomposites
  100. Biosynthesis of ZnO NPs from pumpkin seeds’ extract and elucidation of its anticancer potential against breast cancer
  101. Preliminary trials of the gold nanoparticles conjugated chrysin: An assessment of anti-oxidant, anti-microbial, and in vitro cytotoxic activities of a nanoformulated flavonoid
  102. Effect of micron-scale pores increased by nano-SiO2 sol modification on the strength of cement mortar
  103. Fractional simulations for thermal flow of hybrid nanofluid with aluminum oxide and titanium oxide nanoparticles with water and blood base fluids
  104. The effect of graphene nano-powder on the viscosity of water: An experimental study and artificial neural network modeling
  105. Development of a novel heat- and shear-resistant nano-silica gelling agent
  106. Characterization, biocompatibility and in vivo of nominal MnO2-containing wollastonite glass-ceramic
  107. Entropy production simulation of second-grade magnetic nanomaterials flowing across an expanding surface with viscidness dissipative flux
  108. Enhancement in structural, morphological, and optical properties of copper oxide for optoelectronic device applications
  109. Aptamer-functionalized chitosan-coated gold nanoparticle complex as a suitable targeted drug carrier for improved breast cancer treatment
  110. Performance and overall evaluation of nano-alumina-modified asphalt mixture
  111. Analysis of pure nanofluid (GO/engine oil) and hybrid nanofluid (GO–Fe3O4/engine oil): Novel thermal and magnetic features
  112. Synthesis of Ag@AgCl modified anatase/rutile/brookite mixed phase TiO2 and their photocatalytic property
  113. Mechanisms and influential variables on the abrasion resistance hydraulic concrete
  114. Synergistic reinforcement mechanism of basalt fiber/cellulose nanocrystals/polypropylene composites
  115. Achieving excellent oxidation resistance and mechanical properties of TiB2–B4C/carbon aerogel composites by quick-gelation and mechanical mixing
  116. Microwave-assisted sol–gel template-free synthesis and characterization of silica nanoparticles obtained from South African coal fly ash
  117. Pulsed laser-assisted synthesis of nano nickel(ii) oxide-anchored graphitic carbon nitride: Characterizations and their potential antibacterial/anti-biofilm applications
  118. Effects of nano-ZrSi2 on thermal stability of phenolic resin and thermal reusability of quartz–phenolic composites
  119. Benzaldehyde derivatives on tin electroplating as corrosion resistance for fabricating copper circuit
  120. Mechanical and heat transfer properties of 4D-printed shape memory graphene oxide/epoxy acrylate composites
  121. Coupling the vanadium-induced amorphous/crystalline NiFe2O4 with phosphide heterojunction toward active oxygen evolution reaction catalysts
  122. Graphene-oxide-reinforced cement composites mechanical and microstructural characteristics at elevated temperatures
  123. Gray correlation analysis of factors influencing compressive strength and durability of nano-SiO2 and PVA fiber reinforced geopolymer mortar
  124. Preparation of layered gradient Cu–Cr–Ti alloy with excellent mechanical properties, thermal stability, and electrical conductivity
  125. Recovery of Cr from chrome-containing leather wastes to develop aluminum-based composite material along with Al2O3 ceramic particles: An ingenious approach
  126. Mechanisms of the improved stiffness of flexible polymers under impact loading
  127. Anticancer potential of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) using a battery of in vitro tests
  128. Review Articles
  129. Proposed approaches for coronaviruses elimination from wastewater: Membrane techniques and nanotechnology solutions
  130. Application of Pickering emulsion in oil drilling and production
  131. The contribution of microfluidics to the fight against tuberculosis
  132. Graphene-based biosensors for disease theranostics: Development, applications, and recent advancements
  133. Synthesis and encapsulation of iron oxide nanorods for application in magnetic hyperthermia and photothermal therapy
  134. Contemporary nano-architectured drugs and leads for ανβ3 integrin-based chemotherapy: Rationale and retrospect
  135. State-of-the-art review of fabrication, application, and mechanical properties of functionally graded porous nanocomposite materials
  136. Insights on magnetic spinel ferrites for targeted drug delivery and hyperthermia applications
  137. A review on heterogeneous oxidation of acetaminophen based on micro and nanoparticles catalyzed by different activators
  138. Early diagnosis of lung cancer using magnetic nanoparticles-integrated systems
  139. Advances in ZnO: Manipulation of defects for enhancing their technological potentials
  140. Efficacious nanomedicine track toward combating COVID-19
  141. A review of the design, processes, and properties of Mg-based composites
  142. Green synthesis of nanoparticles for varied applications: Green renewable resources and energy-efficient synthetic routes
  143. Two-dimensional nanomaterial-based polymer composites: Fundamentals and applications
  144. Recent progress and challenges in plasmonic nanomaterials
  145. Apoptotic cell-derived micro/nanosized extracellular vesicles in tissue regeneration
  146. Electronic noses based on metal oxide nanowires: A review
  147. Framework materials for supercapacitors
  148. An overview on the reproductive toxicity of graphene derivatives: Highlighting the importance
  149. Antibacterial nanomaterials: Upcoming hope to overcome antibiotic resistance crisis
  150. Research progress of carbon materials in the field of three-dimensional printing polymer nanocomposites
  151. A review of atomic layer deposition modelling and simulation methodologies: Density functional theory and molecular dynamics
  152. Recent advances in the preparation of PVDF-based piezoelectric materials
  153. Recent developments in tensile properties of friction welding of carbon fiber-reinforced composite: A review
  154. Comprehensive review of the properties of fly ash-based geopolymer with additive of nano-SiO2
  155. Perspectives in biopolymer/graphene-based composite application: Advances, challenges, and recommendations
  156. Graphene-based nanocomposite using new modeling molecular dynamic simulations for proposed neutralizing mechanism and real-time sensing of COVID-19
  157. Nanotechnology application on bamboo materials: A review
  158. Recent developments and future perspectives of biorenewable nanocomposites for advanced applications
  159. Nanostructured lipid carrier system: A compendium of their formulation development approaches, optimization strategies by quality by design, and recent applications in drug delivery
  160. 3D printing customized design of human bone tissue implant and its application
  161. Design, preparation, and functionalization of nanobiomaterials for enhanced efficacy in current and future biomedical applications
  162. A brief review of nanoparticles-doped PEDOT:PSS nanocomposite for OLED and OPV
  163. Nanotechnology interventions as a putative tool for the treatment of dental afflictions
  164. Recent advancements in metal–organic frameworks integrating quantum dots (QDs@MOF) and their potential applications
  165. A focused review of short electrospun nanofiber preparation techniques for composite reinforcement
  166. Microstructural characteristics and nano-modification of interfacial transition zone in concrete: A review
  167. Latest developments in the upconversion nanotechnology for the rapid detection of food safety: A review
  168. Strategic applications of nano-fertilizers for sustainable agriculture: Benefits and bottlenecks
  169. Molecular dynamics application of cocrystal energetic materials: A review
  170. Synthesis and application of nanometer hydroxyapatite in biomedicine
  171. Cutting-edge development in waste-recycled nanomaterials for energy storage and conversion applications
  172. Biological applications of ternary quantum dots: A review
  173. Nanotherapeutics for hydrogen sulfide-involved treatment: An emerging approach for cancer therapy
  174. Application of antibacterial nanoparticles in orthodontic materials
  175. Effect of natural-based biological hydrogels combined with growth factors on skin wound healing
  176. Nanozymes – A route to overcome microbial resistance: A viewpoint
  177. Recent developments and applications of smart nanoparticles in biomedicine
  178. Contemporary review on carbon nanotube (CNT) composites and their impact on multifarious applications
  179. Interfacial interactions and reinforcing mechanisms of cellulose and chitin nanomaterials and starch derivatives for cement and concrete strength and durability enhancement: A review
  180. Diamond-like carbon films for tribological modification of rubber
  181. Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) modified cement-based materials: A systematic review
  182. Recent research progress and advanced applications of silica/polymer nanocomposites
  183. Modeling of supramolecular biopolymers: Leading the in silico revolution of tissue engineering and nanomedicine
  184. Recent advances in perovskites-based optoelectronics
  185. Biogenic synthesis of palladium nanoparticles: New production methods and applications
  186. A comprehensive review of nanofluids with fractional derivatives: Modeling and application
  187. Electrospinning of marine polysaccharides: Processing and chemical aspects, challenges, and future prospects
  188. Electrohydrodynamic printing for demanding devices: A review of processing and applications
  189. Rapid Communications
  190. Structural material with designed thermal twist for a simple actuation
  191. Recent advances in photothermal materials for solar-driven crude oil adsorption
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Heruntergeladen am 7.9.2025 von https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/ntrev-2022-0437/html?lang=de&srsltid=AfmBOooKFKKmeLqeUDiF-DPr_2UPHNA5YinVShwPhen9YHx41MuBEm73
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