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Nanozymes – A route to overcome microbial resistance: A viewpoint

  • Gulnaz Saleem , Xia Chen EMAIL logo , Ruixia Gu EMAIL logo , Muhammad Qasim , Muhammad Usama and Nimra Rajput
Published/Copyright: July 4, 2022
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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 11 Issue 1

Abstract

The bactericide is one of the major objective consequences related to healthcare in the world. Natural enzymes have been broadly utilized in various applications such as biomedical areas due to their broad catalytic activities and substrate particularity. While anticipating, it has drawbacks like higher cost, low stability, and troubles in reprocessing. Additionally, artificial enzymes (nanozymes) have favors above natural enzymes, for example, the effortless yield on a big scale, low costs, and high stability in coarse surrounds. The amount of antibiotic repellent microorganisms has activated big concern in the growth of stuff with essential bactericide potentials such as metal or metal oxide nanoparticles, cationic polymeric compounds, graphene oxide, and other carbon materials that can be used as antibacterial agents by altering cell morphology. In this report, we have summarized catalytic antibacterial strategies by natural enzymes, artificial enzymes, or photocatalytic activity. Furthermore, the demands and hereafter contents about catalytic antibacterial strategies are supposed in this report.

Keywords: antibacterial activity; strategies; natural enzyme; nanozymes

1 Introduction

The developing health troubles due to bacteria is one of the major concerns causing infective diseases conducting to millions of illnesses and demises yearly [1,2,3]. Haunting diseases invariably relate to establishing bacterial colonies [4,5,6]. The bacteria in the exo-polymeric matrix were highly tolerant to formal antibiotics due to developed resistors, controlled dissemination, and deactivation of antibiotics [7,8,9]. To overcome this limitation, significant attempts have been devoted to colloidal materials to defend the world versus diseases caused by bacteria [10,11,12,13,14,15,16]. Due to the lack of bioavailability, they had to be more attentive in their virtual efforts. ROS stands for reactive oxygen species, including chemicals like hydrogen peroxide and superoxide, effective against antibiotic-resistant bacteria [17,18,19,20]. ROS and hydrogen peroxide has affected bacterial structure by disturbing biomolecules that lead to the death of a cell [21,22,23]. Unfortunately, hydrogen peroxide has limitations in applications such as lower efficiency, slow procedure, and eminent concentrations [24]. Particularly, high concentrations of hydrogen peroxide induce immunogenicity and inflammation and have perniciousness extravagantly to healthy tissues and yet delay wound healing [25,26]. Practicality surface modification of nano-stuffs supplies a flexible stage to pattern new disinfectants to fight multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens [27]. Similarly, nanomaterials have limitations over antibacterial activity, such as high doses of AgNPs can affect the mammalian cells. Techniques such as core-shell (Au@AgNPs) material production or surface coating of particles on or in electrospun fibers have been introduced to minimize the toxicity of nanomaterials. However, many researchers are still working to develop a superior antimicrobial infection treatment. Recently, catalytic antimicrobial materials are getting more attention; such materials have enzyme-like activities and are safer for cells. Peroxidase and oxidase in lysosomes can catalyze ROS production to fight bacterial encroachment because the living mechanism has a self-defensive arrangement that can work as a biocatalyst to inhibit bacterium or interrupt biofilm state. Nevertheless, natural enzymes frequently endure underlying defects. Therefore, materials having photocatalytic activity are prominent antibacterial materials due to oxygen reduction and bringing forth ROS as though ˙ O 2 − and hydrogen peroxide [28,29,30]. Enzyme-mimicking catalytic performances of nanomaterials have been reported by Chen et al., in a recent report [31]. Despite lots of fantabulous exploits that have been described, to our know-how, no comprehensive report has been given on catalytic antibacterial strategies. Despite lots of fantabulous exploits that have been described, to our know-how, no comprehensive report has been given on catalytic antibacterial strategies. In this report, the recent developments in the area of catalytic antibacterial strategies have been presented. Briefly, catalytic antibacterial strategies including natural enzymes, nanozymes, and photocatalytic antibacterial strategies have been discussed.

2 Catalytic antibacterial strategies

Serial publications of examinations have been brought out to figure out the antibacterial mechanisms. The most recent reports on performance of nanozymes have been described by Dong et al., Huang et al., and Sun et al. [32,33,34]. Hence, antibacterial strategies have been well described, but it still needs a flick to make them simpler for the research world.

2.1 Enzymes effective antibacterials and antibiofilms

Enzymes are effective biocatalysts and are primarily made up of proteins, although some are catalytic RNA molecules [35,36]. Where distinctive catalysts are frequently employed in coarse considerations like level of temperature and pressure [37,38], they are principally applied to catalyze the salvation of biological specks, and these reactions are generally brought out beneath comparatively modest circumstances [39,40]. Enzymes have been broadly employed in the area of industry, medicine, and biology [41,42,43,44]. The classification of bactericide enzymes is shown in Figure 1. However, it has been depicted that natural enzymes have intrinsic shortcomings or disadvantages. Extremely developed enzymes – lysins have a bacterial effect (Figure 2). Phage lytic enzymes are extremely effective specks that have been purified over decades of evolution. This lysin directs the incorruptibility of the cell wall and is intended to affect one of the five important bonds in the peptidoglycan. However, lysins only exploit gram-positive bacterium because they can interact with the cell wall and are intended to affect one of the five important bonds in the peptidoglycan. However, lysins only exploit gram-positive bacteria because they can interact with the cell wall carbohydrates and peptidoglycan since the gram-negative bacterium defends this contact due to the outer membrane. Furthermore, T4 lysozyme is acknowledged as a bactericide protein having antibacterial activity versus both types of bacteria. The bacterial property of T4 lysozyme is supposed to occupy in its muramidase action that extends to change in the state of the murein layer and reduction of the mechanical intensity of the microbial cell wall and finally leading to death by lysis. It has been detailed on construction and role states the value of amino acid components for the muramidase action of T4 lysozyme. The performance of T4 lysozyme for bacterial membrane degradation or lysis is as detected for respective antimicrobic peptides [45].

Figure 1 Antimicrobial enzymes.
Figure 1

Antimicrobial enzymes.

Figure 2 Lysine-affected bacillus displaying attribution of the cytoplasmic membrane [49].
Figure 2

Lysine-affected bacillus displaying attribution of the cytoplasmic membrane [49].

Aforementioned, one enzyme catalytically should be enough to properly break bonds to inhibit bacteria. Regarding the efficacy of lysin, it only kills the organisms that produced it. Particularly, it is C streptococcal phage that destroys C, A, and E streptococci set, also Streptococcus uberis and the horse-infective bacteria S. equi can be resisted by a bovine infectious agent. Moreover, streptococci did not found effective in the oral cavity. Recently, lysin CF-301 phage has been introduced for the disruption of Staphylococcus aureus biofilm [46]. Figure 3 shows the morphology of control and lysin CF-301 phage biofilm using scanning electron microscopic images. Before and after treatment of lysin CF-301 phage has different morphologies, which means it has an effect on lysin. Bacteriophage as a bicomponent molecule, such as holin and endolysin, allow novel produced phage offspring to depart dead bacterium and occupy early sensitive host bacterium. In the inner membrane of the bacterium kiln, a molecule of permeable enzyme can create pores, thereby inhibiting bacterial growth. Another component of phage disturbs the exo-membrane of cells that demolish the peptidoglycan layer [47]. The clinical testing CF-301 against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is currently complete. Human trials are currently underway to cure patients in hospitals with MRSA germs or inflammation of the endocardium and heart valves [48].

Figure 3 MRSA strain ATCC BAA-42 biofilms developed for 3 days in the catheter lumen against CF-301 [46].
Figure 3

MRSA strain ATCC BAA-42 biofilms developed for 3 days in the catheter lumen against CF-301 [46].

2.2 Nanozymes – effective antibacterials

The name “artificial enzyme” was created verbally by scientists to explain mimic enzyme models [50]. It is a material with sizes of 1–100 nm [51,52]. Artificial enzymes are productively employed as chemical catalysts. Newly published literature is significantly lined up on consideration of nano-size materials that possess the biocatalytic ability. Artificial enzymes have benefits over natural enzymes like low cost, high stability, and so on [29,53,54,55]. Artificial enzymes have contributed to the area of medical science. Subsequently, a number of nanozymes have been found, and from those, some are shown in Figure 4 with types of nanozymes. New scientific findings for artificial enzymes are as follows:

  1. Sensing, ion determination, molecule determination, nucleic acid determination, protein determination, and cancer cell determination.

  2. Environmental intervention and degradation of contamination in the environment.

  3. Nanozymes for cancer treatment and the most important for this report, antibacterial, and antibiofilm. The basic of nanozymes antimicrobial properties was necessary before the antibacterial flick performance of nanozymes.

Figure 4 Types of nanozymes.
Figure 4

Types of nanozymes.

2.2.1 Antibacterial performance of nanozymes

A series of nanozymes have been discovered for antibacterial activities and biofilms such as single atom nanozyme [56], o-carbon nanotubes [13], copper oxide nanorods [57], GQDs [58], gold nanoclusters [59], platinum hollow nanodendrites [58], hybrid GQD AgNPs [60], mesoporous silica/AuNPs or porous Pt/AuNPs [31], PEG-MoS2 nanoflowers [61], CaO2/H-G@alginate [62], IOPs [63], DMAE [64], V2O5 nanowires [31], CeO2−x nanorod [65], PAN/FeNPs nanofibers [108], etc. In brief, the antibacterial mechanism of nanozymes is based on the release of ˙OH and ˙ O 2 − . Figure 5 demonstrates oxidase- and peroxidase-like activity and death of bacteria due to ˙OH release; however, in the absence of light, the dark copper oxide nanorods release lower ROS than visible light and also affect the death rate of bacteria. The bactericide effect of artificial enzymes initiates from their capability to regulate the phase of ROS like –OH and ˙ O 2 − [66]. Due to higher oxidation potentiality, ROS may affect bacteria and biofilms; undiscriminating disturbs the function of biomolecules inside or in the cell resulting in damaging of the cytoplasmic membrane and the death of bacteria. Enhancing the ROS and the death of bacteria faster destroys bacterial cell membrane and makes bacterial resistance rate lower toward nanozyme [30,61,67]. Moreover, it is well known that only hydrogen peroxide can work as an antimicrobial agent, but it may have an effect on tissues as well; therefore, the presence of nanozymes having an activity like peroxidase has fortune in the biomedical era [61,67,68,69].

Figure 5 (i) Illustration of antibacterial mechanism of nanozyme; (ii) transmission electron microscopic images of copper oxide nanorods against E. coli at various treatments: (a) control; (b) copper oxide nanorods with hydrogen peroxide in the absence of light; and (c) copper oxide nanorods with hydrogen peroxide in the presence of light [57].
Figure 5

(i) Illustration of antibacterial mechanism of nanozyme; (ii) transmission electron microscopic images of copper oxide nanorods against E. coli at various treatments: (a) control; (b) copper oxide nanorods with hydrogen peroxide in the absence of light; and (c) copper oxide nanorods with hydrogen peroxide in the presence of light [57].

The catalytic activity of nanozymes can be tuned by altering pH, temperature, ionic changes, light and morphology [70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80]. It is well described in a previous report by Huang et al. [33]. Many factors have been described well but still, nanozyme is a hot research topic and it is gaining importance day by day. Considering these challenges, Gao and co-workers have introduced the impact of metal states and their antimicrobial effects that are predominately little known [81]. Further investigation has shown that copper/carbon is a mimic enzyme material and is described as copper/carbon state-dependent nanozymes; Cu0 has shown better enzyme-like activity than Cu2+. Bactericide performances of copper/carbon hybrid nanozyme showed that ROS and transfer of ions from Cu2+ are responsible for the inhibition of bacteria. However, Cu2+ release can inhibit only gram-negative bacteria, and ROS generation can kill both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria; therefore, controlling the state of metal can be beneficial for selective bacteria destruction. In addition, injury of the intestine caused by S. typhimurium can be treated by copper/carbon artificial enzyme [81]. Furthermore, iron oxide has been used against the influenza virus, which had a great breakthrough in the nanozyme area [82]. An excellent impact on the viral lipid envelope was demonstrated to deactivate it and give shelter from the contagion of the virus. The mechanism of antiviral nanozymes can be understood through the oxidative breakdown of lipids presented in Figure 6. Ag@Fe3O4 core@shell has been developed for antibiofilm activity [83], due to the well-known magnetic property of Fe3O4 antimicrobial activity, which can be enhanced by external magnetic force. Hence, the magnetic property of Fe3O4 and silver ions released from silver are responsible for the killing of microbes [84].

Figure 6 Illustration of viral oxidative breakdown of lipids by iron oxide nanozyme [82].
Figure 6

Illustration of viral oxidative breakdown of lipids by iron oxide nanozyme [82].

2.3 Photocatalysis as an antibacterial agent

Photocatalysis plays an important role in microbial degradation, but it is well known for the degradation of pollutants [85,86]. Herein, we have briefly described the best photocatalytic antimicrobial agent. Ferrite nanoparticles (NPs) have been examined as antibacterial and antibiofilm [87] agent that is an excellent catalyst for many reactions [88]. The CeO2–TiO2 has shown excellent antibacterial effect against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria in the presence of light [89]. However, ferrite NPs and CeO2–TiO2 mechanism has not been described. The possibility of bacterial disruption is due to photocatalytic activity of relevant stuff such as TiO2. TiO2 possesses low antibacterial activity due to a band gap [90], but it can be improved by the addition of substitutes or increasing visible light [91]. Wang et al. have designed photocatalytic CT/poly(vinyl alcoho) (PVA) hydrogel as an antimicrobic agent and wound dressing material [92]. The antibacterial effect of CT/PVA hydrogel is due to the generation of –OH and ROS. Zinc oxide is widely utilized as a photocatalytic and antimicrobial agent due to its unique properties such as being cheaper, atoxic, etc. [93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100,101]. The toxic effect of ZnO is restricted, and bacterial death is usually due to the generation of ROS and disrupting bacteria. Moreover, nano-ZnO is atoxic to mammalian cells and more effective toward bacteria [102,103,104]. Commonly employed organic compounds such as pigments, dyes, and catalysts in organic synthesis are known as Schiff bases. It has been demonstrated with a wide range of antimicrobial activities [105,106]. Recently, it has been studied against MDR bacteria (MDRB), while the mechanism is not well defined [107]. Furthermore, the attachment of groups, such as aldehyde or amino with cell wall of bacteria, could be the reason for bacterial inhibition.

3 Conclusion

In this report, recent development in the area of catalytic antibacterial strategies has been presented. Briefly, catalytic antibacterial strategies including natural enzymes, nanozymes, and photocatalytic antibacterial strategies have been discussed. As a result, ROS, –OH, aldehyde or amino can inhibit microbes and Cu2+ can only inhibit gram-negative bacteria. Iron oxide possesses antiviral activity, and carbon-based material has been reported as a great enzyme mimic material. Yet researchers have many challenges to produce novel antibiotics such as for nCovid-2019.

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  1. Funding information: This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 31972094) and the National Key Research and Development Program of China) (2019YFF0217602).

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2022-01-07
Revised: 2022-02-16
Accepted: 2022-03-21
Published Online: 2022-07-04

© 2022 Gulnaz Saleem et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  158. Recent developments and future perspectives of biorenewable nanocomposites for advanced applications
  159. Nanostructured lipid carrier system: A compendium of their formulation development approaches, optimization strategies by quality by design, and recent applications in drug delivery
  160. 3D printing customized design of human bone tissue implant and its application
  161. Design, preparation, and functionalization of nanobiomaterials for enhanced efficacy in current and future biomedical applications
  162. A brief review of nanoparticles-doped PEDOT:PSS nanocomposite for OLED and OPV
  163. Nanotechnology interventions as a putative tool for the treatment of dental afflictions
  164. Recent advancements in metal–organic frameworks integrating quantum dots (QDs@MOF) and their potential applications
  165. A focused review of short electrospun nanofiber preparation techniques for composite reinforcement
  166. Microstructural characteristics and nano-modification of interfacial transition zone in concrete: A review
  167. Latest developments in the upconversion nanotechnology for the rapid detection of food safety: A review
  168. Strategic applications of nano-fertilizers for sustainable agriculture: Benefits and bottlenecks
  169. Molecular dynamics application of cocrystal energetic materials: A review
  170. Synthesis and application of nanometer hydroxyapatite in biomedicine
  171. Cutting-edge development in waste-recycled nanomaterials for energy storage and conversion applications
  172. Biological applications of ternary quantum dots: A review
  173. Nanotherapeutics for hydrogen sulfide-involved treatment: An emerging approach for cancer therapy
  174. Application of antibacterial nanoparticles in orthodontic materials
  175. Effect of natural-based biological hydrogels combined with growth factors on skin wound healing
  176. Nanozymes – A route to overcome microbial resistance: A viewpoint
  177. Recent developments and applications of smart nanoparticles in biomedicine
  178. Contemporary review on carbon nanotube (CNT) composites and their impact on multifarious applications
  179. Interfacial interactions and reinforcing mechanisms of cellulose and chitin nanomaterials and starch derivatives for cement and concrete strength and durability enhancement: A review
  180. Diamond-like carbon films for tribological modification of rubber
  181. Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) modified cement-based materials: A systematic review
  182. Recent research progress and advanced applications of silica/polymer nanocomposites
  183. Modeling of supramolecular biopolymers: Leading the in silico revolution of tissue engineering and nanomedicine
  184. Recent advances in perovskites-based optoelectronics
  185. Biogenic synthesis of palladium nanoparticles: New production methods and applications
  186. A comprehensive review of nanofluids with fractional derivatives: Modeling and application
  187. Electrospinning of marine polysaccharides: Processing and chemical aspects, challenges, and future prospects
  188. Electrohydrodynamic printing for demanding devices: A review of processing and applications
  189. Rapid Communications
  190. Structural material with designed thermal twist for a simple actuation
  191. Recent advances in photothermal materials for solar-driven crude oil adsorption
https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2022-0128
Keywords for this article
antibacterial activity; strategies; natural enzyme; nanozymes
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  157. Nanotechnology application on bamboo materials: A review
  158. Recent developments and future perspectives of biorenewable nanocomposites for advanced applications
  159. Nanostructured lipid carrier system: A compendium of their formulation development approaches, optimization strategies by quality by design, and recent applications in drug delivery
  160. 3D printing customized design of human bone tissue implant and its application
  161. Design, preparation, and functionalization of nanobiomaterials for enhanced efficacy in current and future biomedical applications
  162. A brief review of nanoparticles-doped PEDOT:PSS nanocomposite for OLED and OPV
  163. Nanotechnology interventions as a putative tool for the treatment of dental afflictions
  164. Recent advancements in metal–organic frameworks integrating quantum dots (QDs@MOF) and their potential applications
  165. A focused review of short electrospun nanofiber preparation techniques for composite reinforcement
  166. Microstructural characteristics and nano-modification of interfacial transition zone in concrete: A review
  167. Latest developments in the upconversion nanotechnology for the rapid detection of food safety: A review
  168. Strategic applications of nano-fertilizers for sustainable agriculture: Benefits and bottlenecks
  169. Molecular dynamics application of cocrystal energetic materials: A review
  170. Synthesis and application of nanometer hydroxyapatite in biomedicine
  171. Cutting-edge development in waste-recycled nanomaterials for energy storage and conversion applications
  172. Biological applications of ternary quantum dots: A review
  173. Nanotherapeutics for hydrogen sulfide-involved treatment: An emerging approach for cancer therapy
  174. Application of antibacterial nanoparticles in orthodontic materials
  175. Effect of natural-based biological hydrogels combined with growth factors on skin wound healing
  176. Nanozymes – A route to overcome microbial resistance: A viewpoint
  177. Recent developments and applications of smart nanoparticles in biomedicine
  178. Contemporary review on carbon nanotube (CNT) composites and their impact on multifarious applications
  179. Interfacial interactions and reinforcing mechanisms of cellulose and chitin nanomaterials and starch derivatives for cement and concrete strength and durability enhancement: A review
  180. Diamond-like carbon films for tribological modification of rubber
  181. Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) modified cement-based materials: A systematic review
  182. Recent research progress and advanced applications of silica/polymer nanocomposites
  183. Modeling of supramolecular biopolymers: Leading the in silico revolution of tissue engineering and nanomedicine
  184. Recent advances in perovskites-based optoelectronics
  185. Biogenic synthesis of palladium nanoparticles: New production methods and applications
  186. A comprehensive review of nanofluids with fractional derivatives: Modeling and application
  187. Electrospinning of marine polysaccharides: Processing and chemical aspects, challenges, and future prospects
  188. Electrohydrodynamic printing for demanding devices: A review of processing and applications
  189. Rapid Communications
  190. Structural material with designed thermal twist for a simple actuation
  191. Recent advances in photothermal materials for solar-driven crude oil adsorption
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