Home Biogenic silver nanoparticles of Moringa oleifera leaf extract: Characterization and photocatalytic application
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Biogenic silver nanoparticles of Moringa oleifera leaf extract: Characterization and photocatalytic application

  • Djaber Aouf , Yasmina Khane EMAIL logo , Fares Fenniche , Salim Albukhaty EMAIL logo , Ghassan M. Sulaiman EMAIL logo , Sofiane Khane , Abdallah Henni , Abdelhalim Zoukel , Nadir Dizge , Hamdoon A. Mohammed and Mosleh M. Abomughaid
Published/Copyright: March 26, 2024
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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 13 Issue 1

Abstract

The current study proposed a novel simple and environmentally friendly approach for producing silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using an extract of Moringa oleifera leaves (MOL) and optimizing the different experimental factors required for the formation and stability of AgNPs. The formation of nanoparticles was confirmed by a color change from yellow to reddish-brown with a surface plasmon resonance band at 412 nm. The morphology, size, and elemental composition of AgNPs were investigated by zeta potential dynamic light scattering, field emission scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive X-ray, X-ray diffraction, and transmission electron microscopy analysis, which showed crystalline and spherical AgNPs. The identification of functional groups was supported by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. The photocatalytic activities of AgNPs were assessed in the degradation of organic Malachite green (MG) dye in the aqueous solution. Two kinetic adsorption models, the pseudo-first-order model and the pseudo-second-order model, and three isotherm models, the Langmuir, Freundlich, and Temkin, were used to mathematically characterize the MG degradation process. The pseudo-second-order kinetics and the Freundlich isotherm model were found to be in good agreement with the experimental data. As a result of their synergistic interaction with the MOL extract solution, the photocatalytic activity of AgNPs increases and they can successfully adapt to the photodegradation of organic dyes in industrial effluents.

Keywords: nanotechnology; silver nanoparticles; Moringa oleifera ; reaction kinetics; photodegradation activity

1 Introduction

Due to their longevity, resilience, and potentially devastating effects on human health, organic contaminants are mostly partially responsible for the significant increase in water contamination. Most dyes used in the industry are released straight into water bodies, where they produce serious problems that contribute to pollution, eutrophication, disruption, and restriction of biological processes of aquatic life [1]. These problems prompted researchers to develop novel approaches that fulfill some criteria, such as low toxicity, environmental-friendliness, and cost-effectiveness [2,3]. Organic substances have been removed using a variety of methods. For instance, advanced oxidation procedures are efficient at removing organic pollutants. Photocatalysis’s high efficiency, low cost, and environmentally friendly approach make it a popular choice for the breakdown of organic contaminants [4,5]. Modest technical advancements have been made in developing photocatalytic technology for industrial applications in pollutant treatment. One of the technical challenges hindering the widespread application of photocatalytic technology is the presence of several system factors that require rapid testing [6]. During photocatalysis, certain factors can influence the reaction environment, and thus, the efficiency of the photocatalytic activity needs to be controlled. This includes pH, initial concentration, agitation rate, reaction kinetics, light yield, and the distance between light sources and the medium [7,8]. In recent years, biogenic nanoparticles have been utilized effectively to purge water from a wide range of organic pigments and bacterial infections [9,10]. Metal nanoparticles are of enormous significance for their potential application in catalytic, sensing, optical, and antibacterial materials due to their size- and shape-related characteristics [11,12]. The organic dyes can be photocatalytically degraded using a variety of metal nanoparticles. Because of their cost-effectiveness, appropriate band location, and outstanding plasmonic characteristics, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are effective catalysts compared to other metal nanoparticles [13]. AgNPs are among the metal nanoparticles with the highest demonstrated actions in several areas, including photocatalysis, antioxidants, and antimicrobials [14,15]. In this sense, nanotechnology utilizes green synthesis techniques to create nanoparticles using environmentally friendly molecules [16]. One of these techniques involves the use of natural medicinal plants to produce metallic nanoparticles since they are rich in proteins, carbohydrates, phenol, vitamins, kaempferol, potassium, calcium, and amino acids [17]. Because of their high concentrations of antioxidants such as isoflavones, metabolites, flavones, and phenolic chemicals, these plants are ideal for producing AgNPs from their metal precursors [18]. Moringa is a moderate-sized tree belonging to the family Moringaceae and the order Capparales [19]. It comprises 13 species and are known by various common names depending on the region it grow in. The Moringa oleifera (M. oleifera) plant has been used for biosynthesizing nanoparticles [20,21]. It has been discovered that the leaves of the Moringa tree possess flavonoids such as myricetin, quercetin, kaempferol, isorhamnetin, or rutin, in addition to phenolic acids. Green foliage serves as an excellent reservoir of carotenoids, including lutein, β-carotene, and zeaxanthin. Thus, it is a wise decision to utilize different capping compositions for the in situ synthesis of AgNPs to assess the impact of various surface-bound biomolecules on the size, shape, and antibacterial properties of the nanoparticles [22]. Additionally, Moringa possesses an extensive range of medicinal uses, including antibacterial, antifungal, antiparasitic, antiviral, wound-healing, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and proliferative properties [23]. Therefore, the current study investigates the bio-synthesis of AgNPs using the Moringa oleifera leaves (MOL) aqueous extract. The biosynthesized nanoparticles were characterized using UV-Vis spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and dynamic light scattering (DLS)-zeta potential (ZP) analysis, and further evaluated for their photocatalytic activities to remove Malachite green (MG) dye and the deferring effect of factors such as pH, temperature, and dye concentration. To the best of our knowledge, there is no existing literature that reports on the use of green synthesis to create AgNPs utilizing MOL extract, and its subsequent use as a photocatalyst for the efficient breakdown of MG dye under UV light.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Chemicals

The MG dye and silver nitrate (AgNO3, 99.99%) were acquired from Sigma Aldrich (Germany). Double-distilled water was supplied by the University of Ghardaia, Algeria.

2.2 Selection of M. oleifera

Fresh leaves of M. oleifera were collected in March 2021 from the same tree of AOUF grove in Oasis Ghardaïa, which is a region from the north of the Algerian Sahara. About 100 g of M. oleifera leaves were collected by hand, rinsed multiple times with tap water, and then cleaned again with distilled water to eliminate dust and all possible impurities before being dried for 2 weeks at room temperature (32°C). The obtained dried plant leaves (35 g) were powdered as used for the extraction procedure.

2.3 Aqueous extract of MOL

About 20 g of the M. oleifera dried leaf powder was refluxed in 200 ml of demineralized water at 65°C with stirring for 10 min to obtain an aqueous extract of MOL. The obtained extract was clear, pale yellow in color. The extract was allowed to cool at ambient room temperature and filtered with a qualitative filter paper Ø.47 mm, Grade no 1 Whatman to remove any suspended particles. The first part of the MOL extract was dried at 40°C for 48 h in a vacuum oven to obtain the extract powder, and the other part was refrigerated between 4 and 8°C [20].

2.4 Green synthesis of AgNPs

The green synthesis AgNPs was performed according to a previously published work [24] with some modifications. About 10 mL of the MOL extract was mixed with 90 mL of an aqueous solution of AgNO3. The mixture was stirred at 250 rpm for 20 min at a constant mixing temperature of 60°C, which resulted in a color change from yellow to brown due to the formation of AgNPs. A dark brown precipitate was formed after centrifuging the suspension several times at 20,000 rpm for 15 min. Then, this precipitate was washed three times with sterile water and once with methanol to obtain AgNPs; the powder residue was dried in an oven. To optimize the production of AgNPs with the MOL extract, a series of experiments were conducted, considering various experimental parameters such as the concentration of the leaf extract, the contact time, and the concentration of AgNO3. UV-visible spectroscopy was performed to examine the controlled conditions and study the proportions and form of AgNPs.

2.5 Spectroscopy characterization of MOL-AgNPs

The optical characterization of MOL-AgNPs was performed using a UV-visible spectrophotometer (UviLine 9400C) with 1 nm resolution in the wavelength range from 300 to 800 nm. The chemical bonding and the surface coating of dried MOL were verified by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR; Agilent Cary 640 spectrophotometer, 400–4,000 cm−1, Germany). A Nano Zeta sizer instrument (ZS; Malvern, Instruments Inc., Germany) was used to determine the particle size of AgNPs in MOL and DLS of AgNPs. The crystalline nature of MOL-AgNPs was established using a PW 1710 diffractometer (Philips Diffractometer) set to 40 kV and 40 mA with Cu Ka radiation (wavelength = 1.5406), a 2 h range of 10–60, a step size of 0.03, and a time/step of 0.3 s. A field emission scanning electron microscope with MIRA 3 TESCAN (Brno, Czech Republic), equipped with an energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDX), operated at 20 kV acceleration voltage with a magnification of Images 30000 was used to record the morphology and form of AgNPs. A transmission electron microscope – Zeiss model (Jena, Germany) was also used to visualize the Ag nanoparticles.

3 Results and discussion

In this work, MOL-AgNPs were synthesized using the aqueous solution of M. oleifera leaves, which contain bioactive compounds. Various spectroscopic analyses were employed to track the progress of the process. The parameters (time, pH, temperature, concentration of AgNO3, and plant extract) were optimized for the rapid and maximum synthesis of AgNPs. The pH was maintained at 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11 and optimized with 0.1 N (HCl) and 0.1 N (NaOH). The reaction was monitored from 0 to 60 min for optimal production of AgNPs. The synthesis of AgNPs was monitored at various incubation temperatures (25, 50, 75, and 100°C). The concentration of AgNO3 was optimized at different concentrations (0.50, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 mM). Similarly, the concentration ratio of the plant extract and AgNO3 was optimized by increasing the concentration of the plant extract in a 1 mM AgNO3 solution. The absorbance of nanoparticles was observed within the range of 300–800 nm by a UV–visible spectrophotometer. The parameters time, pH, temperature, concentration of AgNO3, and plant extract were optimized for the rapid and maximum synthesis of AgNPs.

3.1 UV–Visible spectral analysis

Figure 1a shows the follow-up of the bioreduction of Ag+ ions with the MOL extract by UV-vis spectroscopy after different times. The UV-vis spectra of the synthesized nanoparticles showed a single characteristic UV absorption peak at 412 nm. The surface plasmon resonsnce (SPR) is confirmed he formation of AgNPs. The SPR of AgNPs is responsible for the observed shift from a yellow to a reddish-brown hue in the aqueous solution because the free electrons in the metal are excited during the synthesis of AgNPs [25]. When Ag+ ions are exposed to the bioactive components of the plant extract, they are reduced to Ag and then to AgNPs [26]. An increase in the spectrum intensity over time may be attributable to the formation of more AgNPs as a result of a decrease in the concentration of reduced silver ions in the aqueous medium. These results were completely consistent with the most recent published results by Khane et al. [24].

Figure 1 (a) UV-Vis spectra showing the absorbance peak of green synthesized AgNPs using M. oleifera leaf extract after 15, 30, and 45 min of preparation. (b) FT-IR spectra of the plant extract (green line) and synthesized AgNPs (red line). FT-IR: Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy; AgNPs: silver nanoparticles; M. oleifera: Moringa oleifera.
Figure 1

(a) UV-Vis spectra showing the absorbance peak of green synthesized AgNPs using M. oleifera leaf extract after 15, 30, and 45 min of preparation. (b) FT-IR spectra of the plant extract (green line) and synthesized AgNPs (red line). FT-IR: Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy; AgNPs: silver nanoparticles; M. oleifera: Moringa oleifera.

3.2 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy

Figure 1b shows the FT-IR spectra of dried MOL-AgNPs. The spectra provide information about biofunctional groups contributing to the binding and bioreduction of silver ions (Ag+). The FT-IR spectra of the leaf extract show several absorption peaks, which reveal the existence of capping agents (Figure 1). The band at 1044.18 cm−1 was attributed to the –C–O groups of the polyalcohol, the peaks at 1,157, 1478.10, 2320.31 and 1745.64 cm−1 corresponded to N–O stretching, the N–H bond to the primary amines, the C–H stretching to methylene groups, and carbonyl stretching to the –C═O.

The strong bands at 2675.96 and 2656.72 cm−1 were assigned to the presence of the C–H stretching vibration of aromatic compounds [27], and the strong band at 3162.53 cm−1 corresponds to the stretching vibration of the hydroxyl functional groups (–OH) in alcohols, phenolic compounds, and carboxylic acid [28]. The peak at 1,634 cm−1 is due to the amide function from proteins, whereas the band at 1052.50 cm−1 is due to the C–N stretch vibrations of amines [29]. The FT-IR spectra corresponding to the MOL-AgNPs (Figure 1b) revealed a significant change in peaks, and these peaks entirely disappeared or had significantly diminished intensities. Some strong peaks became weak in nanoparticles, which indicates that the bioactive molecules of the extract compounds are involved in reducing silver ions. Owing to their oxidation-reduction potential [30], functional groups like polyphenols and their derivatives are involved in the reduction of Ag+ into Ag0 and the stabilization of AgNPs [31]. The studies suggest that the functional groups in the plant metabolites present in the MOL extract formed a solid coating on the nanoparticles [32].

3.3 X-ray diffractogram analysis

Table 1 presents the XRD analysis data and further shape description by Bragg’s equation (2dsin θ = nλ) and Scherrer’s equation D = Kλ/βcos θ, confirming the crystalline nature of AgNPs synthesized using the aqueous extract of MOL (Figure 2). The diffraction peaks at 2θ of 38.0615, 44.5231, 63.6769, and 63.6769 correspond to the (111), (200), (220), and (311) facets, respectively, and these findings corroborate the crystalline nature and face-centered cubic structure of the AgNPs generated by the reduction of Ag+ ions by the MOL extract, which is in good agreement with the powder data of Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards file no. 84-0713. Some peaks were also seen, which may have been caused by silver oxide or bio-organic phases crystallizing on the nanoparticles’ surfaces. AgNPs produced from the MOL extract [33] and M. oleifera flower extract [34] were reported to have a similar spectrum. By applying the Debye–Scherrer formula to the full width at half-maximum (FWHM) of peaks, we determined that the average crystallite size of MOL-AgNPs is 25.26 nm.

Table 1

Data from the X-ray diffractogram analysis and additional shape description of MOL-AgNPs using Bragg’s equation (2dsin θ = nλ) and Scherrer’s equation D = Kλ/β cos θ

Peak number Scherrer’s equation Bragg’s equation
Peak position 2θ (°) FWHM β (°) D (nm) Average (nm) D-space
1 38.0615 0.44583 19.69 25.26 2.36
2 44.5231 0.61835 14.50 2.03
3 63.6769 0.62052 15.74 1.46
4 77.2154 0.20771 51.12 1.23
Figure 2 XRD diffraction patterns of the synthesized MOL-AgNPs confirm the crystalline nature of AgNPs and show various Bragg’s reflection peaks. 2θ: 2 theta angle ranging from 20 to 90. XRD: X-ray diffractogram; MOL-AgNPs: Moringa oleifera silver nanoparticles.
Figure 2

XRD diffraction patterns of the synthesized MOL-AgNPs confirm the crystalline nature of AgNPs and show various Bragg’s reflection peaks. 2θ: 2 theta angle ranging from 20 to 90. XRD: X-ray diffractogram; MOL-AgNPs: Moringa oleifera silver nanoparticles.

3.4 ZP and DLS characterization

The Zetasizer Nano-ZS can measure both the particle size and the ZP of nanoparticles. Static light scattering is used to determine the thickness of the compounds enveloping the particles and the average particle size distribution in the solution of AgNPs [35]. Figure 3a and Table 2 reveal that the AgNPs made using the MOL extract are of good quality because the polydispersity index (PDI) value was found to be 0.331, which is less than 0.7. This indicates that the nanoparticles have well-defined size and high monodispersity [36]. The mean size of the AgNP dispersion was found to be 25.95 nm. By using ZP estimation, we demonstrated that the AgNPs synthesized using the MOL extract are negatively charged (−16.6 mV). Repulsion acts as an electrostatic stabilizer, with the negative charge perhaps coming from the adsorption of free nitrate ions in the mixture [37].

Figure 3 (a) ZP at −16.6 mV and (b) DLS analysis showed a mean size of 25.95 nm of MOL-AgNPs measured using Zetasizer® software. MOL-AgNPs: Moringa oleifera silver nanoparticles.
Figure 3

(a) ZP at −16.6 mV and (b) DLS analysis showed a mean size of 25.95 nm of MOL-AgNPs measured using Zetasizer® software. MOL-AgNPs: Moringa oleifera silver nanoparticles.

Table 2

Conductivity, surface ZP, particle size distribution, and PDI of MOL-AgNPs at 25°C

T (°C) Conductivity (mS/cm) ZP (mV) z-average size d (nm) PDI
25 0.394 −16.6 25.95 0.331

T: Temperature.

3.5 FE-SEM-EDX and TEM analysis

The morphological shape and surface of the biosynthesized MOL-AgNPs using FE-SEM micrographs are shown clearly in Figure 4a. The detailed structure and characterization demonstrate that the AgNPs synthesized are spherical and very crystalline in structure, with sizes ranging between 7 and 50 nm, which are confirmed by TEM analysis and DLS results. The TEM analysis of biosynthesized AgNPs confirmed their form and size distributions. The TEM images (Figure 4b) revealed both the individual silver particles and the polydispersity of the nanoparticles. The diameters of the produced nanomaterial ranged from 6.82 to 55.28 nm. MOL-AgNPs of different sizes were produced since the amount of reducing agents in the MOL extract decreased throughout the synthesis. Even inside the aggregates, we found little evidence of direct contact between the nanoparticles, suggesting that MOL-AgNPs were protected by a thin layer of functional material derived from organic chemicals [38]. This result was different from the XRD result because XRD provides an approximation of the NPs’ actual size, but FE-SEM and TEM analyses are superior for visualizing particle size. The observation of larger nanoparticles may be attributed to AgNP’s proclivity to agglomerate due to their high surface energy and ultra-fine nanoparticle high surface tension. Due to this phenomenon, most of the nanoparticles in this micrograph have agglomerated. AgNPs derived from a variety of biological sources are of different sizes, with a spherical shape in the majority of these investigations [39]. The elemental make-up of green synthesized AgNPs from MOL is introduced mostly through the EDX patterns. In Figure 4c, a significant signal for Ag properties (lines L and K) was observed around 3 keV and between 2 and 4 keV, with high atomic percent values as shown in Table 3, confirming the production of AgNPs produced using the MOL aqueous extract. EDX analysis showed that there were a few faint signals of carbon, oxygen, sodium, and chlorine in addition to silver, which indicated that the nanoparticles contained plant-bioactive compounds attached to the surface of AgNPs. There is no ionic silver peak in the EDX spectrum, which proves that Ag+ is bio-reduced to stable Ag0 with a good yield. Based on the EDX patterns that were seen, the biosynthesized AgNPs are very pure and crystalline because polyphenols in the water extract of MOL completely bio-reduce the silver ions [40]. Previous reports [41] shared comparable findings and have suggested that capping structures in biomolecules are responsible [42].

Figure 4 (a) FE-SEM micrographs; scale bar, 500 nm. (b) TEM micrographs; scale bar, 40 nm. (c) EDX spectrum showing the elemental composition of green synthesized MOL-AgNPs. FE-SEM: field emission scanning electron microscopy, TEM: transmission scanning electron microscopy; MOL-AgNPs: Moringa oleifera-silver nanoparticles.
Figure 4

(a) FE-SEM micrographs; scale bar, 500 nm. (b) TEM micrographs; scale bar, 40 nm. (c) EDX spectrum showing the elemental composition of green synthesized MOL-AgNPs. FE-SEM: field emission scanning electron microscopy, TEM: transmission scanning electron microscopy; MOL-AgNPs: Moringa oleifera-silver nanoparticles.

Table 3

Elemental composition of biosynthesized MOL-AgNPs, as revealed by EDX

Element Weight % Atomic % Net Int.
C 5.75 18.46 347.8
O 19.65 47.31 789.12
Ag 65.2 23.29 10725.84
Na 1.21 2.03 126.53
Cl 8.19 8.9 2975.52

C: carbon; O: oxygen; Ag: silver; Na: sodium; Cl: chlorine.

3.6 Photocatalytic degradation

AgNPs can be used as a photocatalyst to remove organic pollutants and act as a clean energy source. Photocatalytic activity has garnered more attention due to its simplicity, high efficiency, cost-effectiveness, non-toxicity, good permeability, and reduced secondary pollution. In this study, we have selected MG dyes (4-[(4-dimethyl-aminophenyl)-phenyl-methyl]-N,N-dimethyl-aniline, C23H25ClN2) as pollutants due to their significant characteristics and multiple uses [43]. The triphenylmethane dye, which is a carcinogenic organic molecule, is still illegally used for various purposes, including in aquaculture as a fungicide on larvae and juvenile fish, as a parasiticide in food, textile, and other industries [44].

3.6.1 Photocatalytic degradation process of MG

The MOL-AgNPs were tested for their photocatalytic degradation of MG as a model pollutant utilizing a batch technique and UV irradiation. This dye was degraded when 30 mg of MOL-AgNPs were added to 50 mL of MG with an initial concentration of 2.1 × 105 mol L−1 under optimal conditions of pH = 6.8, duration of 60 min, T = 20°C, and stirring. After mixing thoroughly, the beakers are placed in a dark chamber equipped with two UV lamps (Vilber Company, Germany, 2012) emitting radiation at a wavelength of 360 nm and a radiation intensity of 1 mW/cm2 (Figure 5). The control sample was made without the use of radiation. The absorbance of the MG dye solution was checked using a UV/Visible spectrophotometer at λ max = 625 nm, and the efficiency of decolorization (%) was calculated using the following equation:

Degradation rate  ( % ) = C 0 − C t C 0 × 100 .

Figure 5 Maximum wavelength of the MG dye. The absorbance of MG was measured using a UV-Vis spectrophotometer at λ max = 625 nm. Abs: absorbance; MG: Malachite green.
Figure 5

Maximum wavelength of the MG dye. The absorbance of MG was measured using a UV-Vis spectrophotometer at λ max = 625 nm. Abs: absorbance; MG: Malachite green.

C 0 is the concentration of MG at the equilibrium dark adsorption, and C t is the concentration following treatment with MOL-AgNPs. Origin pro 9.0 data analysis package was used to plot all the graphs and data evaluation.

3.6.2 Factors influencing the photocatalytic degradation of MG

Several studies have highlighted the significance of operational parameters, as the oxidation rate and efficiency of the photocatalytic system are strongly dependent on several operational parameters that govern the photodegradation of organic molecules [45].

3.6.2.1 Effect of solution pH

Because protons affect the degree of protonated dispersion of adsorbents in aqueous solution, the pH of the solution has a profound effect on the photocatalytic degradation of MG from aqueous solutions by adsorption. This, in turn, affects the surface charge of MOL-AgNPs in anionic dye solution, which in turn affects the nature of the ionic species of MOL-AgNPs. Generally, most of the oxidation cycle involves maintaining an acidic environment and a low pH [46]. By adding different amounts of hydrochloric acid solution, H2SO4 (0.1 M) or sodium hydroxide NaOH solution (0.1 M) to the solution, the pH was adjusted from 3.6 to 12 and fixing the other parameters with 2.1 × 105 mol/L of MG concentration at 60 min under UV irradiation at 20°C. Figure 6(a) shows the outcomes of MG’s photodegradation using MOL-AgNPs and illustrates that the percent degradation of MG was found to be 78.2, 86, and 98.4% at pH 12, 7.2, and 3.6, respectively. Then, the degradation of MG is strongly influenced by the pH of the dye solution. The degradation efficiency decreased from 76.2 to 98.4% as a result of the decrease in pH from 12 to 3.6, respectively. In acidic solutions, the interaction between the positively charged MOL-AgNPs and the negatively charged dye (pH < pHpzc) increases, leading to a greater rate of photocatalytic degradation of the anionically configured MG dye. In addition, AgNPs’ surface deposition of metal hydroxide can impede the production of reactive oxygen species and restrict MG elimination [47].

Figure 6 Effect of (a) pH, (b) irradiation intensity, (c) catalyst dose, and (d) the temperature of MOL-AgNPs on the kinetics of MG dye photodegradation using MOL-AgNPs. MOL-AgNPs: Moringa oleifera-silver nanoparticles.
Figure 6

Effect of (a) pH, (b) irradiation intensity, (c) catalyst dose, and (d) the temperature of MOL-AgNPs on the kinetics of MG dye photodegradation using MOL-AgNPs. MOL-AgNPs: Moringa oleifera-silver nanoparticles.

3.6.2.2 Effect of irradiation intensity

The effects of UV irradiation on the photocatalytic of MG with MOL-AgNPs in an aqueous solution are tested using one and two UV lamps (Vilber Company. GERMANY). The UV wavelengths were 365 nm, with an irradiation intensity of 1 mW/cm², fixing all experimental parameters using 30 mg of MOL-AgNPs and under optimal conditions of pH = 6.8 and initial concentration of MG = 2.10 × 10−5 mol/L and at the same reaction time of 60 min. We can observe from the results shown in Figure 6(b) that the photodegradation was increased with an increase in the irradiation intensity of UV light intensity, which increased the rate of reaction because the number of photons striking per unit area also increased [48].

3.6.2.3 Effect of the MOL-AgNP amount

The catalyst dose also affects the photocatalytic process of the dye. To determine the effect of the amount of MOL-AgNPs on the reaction rate, the experiment of photodegradation of MG was carried out using 10–50 mg of MOL-AgNPs and under optimal conditions of pH = 6.8 and initial concentration of MG = 2.1 × 10−5 mol/L and at the same reaction time of 60 min. As shown in Figure 6(c), the degradation rate increased with an increase in several substrates from 10 to 30 mg with a maximum degradation of 98%, which is obviously due to a large surface area for photodegradation, attributed to particular interactions of dye molecules on the active sites. Therefore, the increase in the exposed surface area of photocatalysts with active sites is because the amount of MOL-AgNPs speeds up the reaction of photodegradation of dye [49]. However, as the catalyst dose was increased from 30 to 50 mg, the effectiveness of photodegradation dropped. The slower reaction rate at higher catalyst concentrations may be explained by the fact that activated molecules collided with ground-state catalysts, rendering them inactive due to blockage of multiple active sites [50].

3.6.2.4 Effect of temperature

To study the effect of temperature on the photodegradation of MG in a solution of the MOL-AgNPs, the experiment was performed using one MOL-AgNPs in 50 mL of the MG solution (2.1 × 10−5 mol/L) at different temperatures of 20, 40, and 60°C (Figure 6(d)) for 60 min and pH = 6.8. The percentage of MG degradation was found to increase from 74.52 to 98.46% as the temperature was raised from 20 to 40°C because more MG molecules were being transported from a liquid medium to a nanoadsorbent surface [51]. However, the degradation of Mg reduced to 80% at 60°C, which was due to evaporation of the solution and a decrease in adsorptive pressures between the active sites of the adsorbent and the adsorbate. Dye degradation was shown to be most efficient at 35°C, lending further credence to the endothermic nature of UV light-mediated photocatalytic degradation of MG using MOL-AgNPs. This result agrees with the results reported by Batool et al. [52].

3.6.2.5 Effect of contact time

In order to keep track of the contact time and establish equilibrium, researchers examined the photodegradation of MG using 30 mg over a time range (0 min to 60 min) while holding all other experimental variables constant. As shown in Figure 7(a and b), the photocatalytic effect of MG with MOL-AgNPs was shown to be a highly quick process when exposed to sunlight in first 25 min, which can be attributed to the availability of binding sites on the surface of MOL-AgNPs. This was reflected in a gradual weakening of the dark green hue of the solution as time progressed. However, after 25 min, the rate of photodegradation began to drop and it achieved equilibrium after 45 min due the saturation of the active sites with a maximum amount of dye removal found to be 74.19, 82.65, 97.14, and 98.01% for 5.10 × 10−5, 3.40 × 10−5, 2.10 × 10−5 and 0.86 × 10−5 mol L−1 at 60 min, respectively. Similar findings were reported by Batool et al. [52].

Figure 7 Effect of (a and b) contact time, (c) initial dye concentration, and (d) salinity on the kinetics of MG dye photodegradation using MOL-AgNPs. MOL-AgNPs: Moringa oleifera-silver nanoparticles.
Figure 7

Effect of (a and b) contact time, (c) initial dye concentration, and (d) salinity on the kinetics of MG dye photodegradation using MOL-AgNPs. MOL-AgNPs: Moringa oleifera-silver nanoparticles.

3.6.2.6 Effect of the initial concentration of MG dye

By gradually raising the initial dye concentration from 0.8 × 10−5 to 5.1 × 10−5 mol L−1 and treating the mixture with MOL-AgNPs for 60 min while subjected to UV irradiation, we were able to investigate the effect of the MG concentration on the speed of the photocatalytic degradation reaction. The degradation efficiencies after 60 min of irradiation were 74.19%, 82.65%, 97.14%, and 98.01% for a dye solution of 0.86 × 10−5, 2.10 × 10−5, 3.40 × 10−5, and 5.10 × 10−5 mol L−1, respectively. From Figure 7(c), the degradation efficiency decreased with increasing initial dye concentration. The high dye concentration would have acted as a filter for the incident light, which ultimately decreased the degradation efficiency [53].

3.6.2.7 Effect of salinity

Salinity is also a very significant factor that interferes with the photodegradation efficiency. Treatment procedures like adsorption, photocatalytic degradation, and biological treatment are typically less effective in the presence of auxiliary components like salts, acids, and alkalis in textile dye effluents. The effect of salinity was studied at different concentrations of NaCl from 0.5 to 3.5 g/L, fixing all experimental parameters. The results in Figure 7(d) revealed an increase in photocatalysis of MG from 90.20 to 98.76% as the NaCl concentration is increased from 0.5 to 3.5 g/L. Competitive adsorption is a common mechanism proposed to account for NaCl’s inhibitory impact [54]. In order to neutralize hydroxyl free radicals, chloride ions undergo the following chemical reaction:

OH ˙ + Cl − → Cl ˙ + OH − .

The excess chloride competes with the photocatalyst for the occupancy of active sites on its surface, as the Cl˙ radical is less reactive than the OH˙ radical. The photocatalytic efficacy for MG removal was drastically reduced due to an increase in Cl− ions [55]. One possible explanation for the drop is as follows. Some trapping effects were observed at greater NaCl concentrations due to Cl− ions competing with the oxidizing radicals or active sites of the catalyst. Adsorption of Cl− ions reached equilibrium as NaCl concentration increased; as a result, surplus of free Cl− ions enhanced charge transfer in the photocatalytic reactor, leading to greater electron capture created by exposure to ultraviolet light.

3.7 Kinetic study of MG dye photodegradation using MOL-AgNPs

Modeling kinetics involved incubating MOL-AgNPs for 60 min at room temperature with 50 mL of a dye solution at an initial pH of 6.8. The pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order models were used to analyze these kinetics using kinetic rate equations [56].

Pseudo-first-order kinetic model:

Ln ( Q e − Q t ) = Ln Q e − K 1 ,

where Q e and Q t are the adsorption capacities at equilibrium and at different times (mg/L) and k 1 (min−1) is the rate constant of the pseudo-first-order model.

Pseudo-second-order kinetic model:

t Q t = 1 K 2 Q e 2 + 1 Q e t  and  h = K 2 Q e 2 ,

where Q e and Q t are the adsorption capacities at equilibrium and at different times (mg/L) and k 2 (g mg−1 min−1) is the rate constant of the pseudo-second-order model.

Linear fits to experimental data for pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order models are shown in Figure 8, and their results are summarized in Table 4. According to the results, an excellent linear relationship between the experimental data and the pseudo-second-order kinetic model was found, with correlation coefficient values between 0.992 and 0.999. Table 3 displays good agreement between the theoretical values of photodegradation (Q e cal) and experimental values (Q e exp) compared with pseudo-second-order. The calculated capacities of photodegradation (Q e cal) did not correspond with the experimental Q e values, verifying the applicability of the first pseudo-order model, while the produced graph of the pseudo-second-order kinetic model is linear but the intercept is far from zero.

Figure 8 (a) Pseudo-first-order and (b) pseudo-second-order kinetics plots of MG dye photodegradation using MOL-AgNPs. MOL-AgNPs: Moringa oleifera silver nanoparticles.
Figure 8

(a) Pseudo-first-order and (b) pseudo-second-order kinetics plots of MG dye photodegradation using MOL-AgNPs. MOL-AgNPs: Moringa oleifera silver nanoparticles.

Table 4

Kinetic parameters of MG dye photodegradation using MOL-AgNPs at different initial concentrations of the dye

Kinetic models and their parameters Initial concentrations of MG (C 0, mg/L)
3.14 7.66 12.4 18.6
Experimental
Q e exp (mg/g) 2.89 6.68 9.01 8.23
Pseudo-first-order
Q e cal (mg/g) 2.89 6.12 10.36 8.48
K 1 (min−1) 0.03169 0.03269 0.02341 0.02257
R 2 0.9991 0.99747 0.99691 0.99786
Pseudo-second-order
Q e cal (mg/g) 3.25224405 8.5302397 8.14863103 9.20386562
K 2 (g mg−1 min−1) 0.01595145 0.00278187 0.0028112 0.00385661
h (mg g−1 min−1) 0.16871999 0.20242259 0.18666398 0.3266981
R 2 0.96676 0.86324 0.84056 0.93478

MG: Malachite green.

3.8 Isotherm models of MG dye photodegradation using MOL-AgNPs

Three isotherm models, the Langmuir, Freundlich, and Temkin, were used to fit the photodegradation process in the presence of MOL-AgNPs, with initial MG concentrations ranging from 0.86 × 105 to 5.10 × 105 mol L−1, after 60 min at room temperature (20°C) with an initial pH of 6.8 (Table 5).

Table 5

Equations and constant parameters for the isotherm models

Isotherm mode Linear plot Abbreviation
Langmuir C e q e = ƒ (C e) K L: constant of Langmuir model (L/mg)
q e: adsorption capacity (mg/g)
C e q e = 1 K L q max + 1 q max C e C e: dye concentration at equilibrium (mg/L)
q max: maximum capacity (mg/g)
Timken q e = ƒ( ln C e ) b T: Temkin constant related to the heat of adsorption (J mol−1)
K T: Temkin isotherm constant (L g−1)
q e = RT b T ln K T + RT b T ln C e Ce: dye concentration at equilibrium (mg/L)
R: gas constant (J mol⁻¹ K⁻¹)
T: temperature (K)
Freundlich log q e = ƒ ( log C e ) K F: constant of the Freundlich model and is related to the surface heterogeneity (L mg−1)
log q e = log K F + 1 n log C e n: the degree of linearity

The results are presented in Figure 9 and listed in Table 6. The Langmuir isotherm assumes that adsorption occurs on a monolayer surface and the number of adsorption sites is limited [57]. In adsorption via the Freundlich mechanism, it is assumed in the isotherm that adsorption on a heterogeneous surface occurs in a multilayer fashion. Because of the effects of the biosorbent-adsorbate interaction, the Temkin isotherm model holds true, and the adsorption energy of all molecules reduces linearly with increasing surface coverage [58]. When comparing the results of fitting experimental data, summarized in the supplementary Table 4, we foud that the Freundlich model provides the best fit, revealing that the organic dyes were catalytically degraded by reactants and NPs on their surfaces, and that the multilayer covering of MG on MOL-AgNPs was viable [18]. This is in contrast to the results obtained using the Langmuir and Temkin models, for which the correlation coefficient R 2 is lower. In addition, we observe that when n is between 2 and 10, the Freundlich constant is smaller than 1, indicating a good and favorable adsorption situation.

Figure 9 The linear plot of the Langmuir, Freundlich, and Temkin isotherms for the photodegradation of MG with MOL-AgNPs. MOL-AgNPs: Moringa oleifera-silver nanoparticles.
Figure 9

The linear plot of the Langmuir, Freundlich, and Temkin isotherms for the photodegradation of MG with MOL-AgNPs. MOL-AgNPs: Moringa oleifera-silver nanoparticles.

Table 6

Parameter values of Langmuir, Freundlich, and Temkin isotherms of MG dye photodegradation using MOL-AgNPs (T = 293.15 K)

Parameter values
Langmuir q max (mg/g) K L (L/mg) R 2
1.48066 28.905 0.779
Frendlich K F (mg/g) 1/n n R 2
1.8581 0.19088 5.2388 0.995
Temkin b T (J/mol) K T (L/g) R 2
4965.808 0.998 0.82

MG degradation of the biosynthesized AgNPs is compared to that of reported materials in Table 4. When exposed to UV-light irradiation, the biosynthesized AgNPs displayed higher photocatalytic efficiency than some other catalysts. This finding may be explained by the difference in phytochemical molecules present in the M. oleifera leaf extract and on the nanoparticle surface, which not only prevent the aggregation of nanoparticles during MG degradation but also enhance UV light absorption and inhibit the recombination of photogenerated electrons and holes. Therefore, biosynthesized MOL-AgNPs were more efficient at degrading MG via photocatalysis (Table 7).

Table 7

Comparison of maximum photocatalytic degradation of MG dye using the biosynthesized AgNPs

Biosynthesized AgNPs Light source Dose of catalyst (mg) Concentration of MG Degradation time Degradation (%) Ref.
Moringa oleifera leaf extract UV lamp 30 2.1 10−5 mol/L 60 min 98 Current study
Kinnow mandarin peel extract Sunlight 20 100 mg/L 120 h Maximum [59]
Gooseberry extract Visible light 100 8 10−6 mol/L 100 min 69.23 [60]
Alchornea laxiflora leaf extract Sunlight — — 60 min 94 [61]
Angelica gigas stem extract UV light 5 mg 10 mg/L 4 h 64 [62]
Rhododendron campanulatum tree flowers extract Solar irradiation 10 mg — 90 min 47.22 [63]
Tridax procumbens — — — 180 min 27.45 [64]

3.9 Reusability of the biosynthesized MOL-AgNPs

Under UV light, the biosynthesized MOL-AgNPs were examined for their potential reusability as a photocatalyst for the breakdown of the MG dye. To determine the degradation efficiency, the AgNPs catalyst was washed extensively with a mixture of double-distilled water and ethanol after each reaction cycle to remove any remaining dye molecules from the catalyst surface. Centrifugation was used to recover the catalyst from the reaction mixture. Under the same experimental conditions, the recovered MOL-AgNPs were employed five times for photodegradation tests, including the degradation of MG dye. Taking absorbance readings from small portions of the reaction solution at predetermined intervals allowed us to track the reaction’s development. As shown in Figure 10, the percentage of dye degradation remains consistent across multiple cycles. This indicates that the MOL-AgNPs retain their impressive catalytic efficiency and demonstrate excellent photocatalytic activity up to the third cycle. However, following the third cycle, there was a small decline in activity when the nanocatalyst was reused, which is explained by the deactivation of the reaction sites on the catalyst surface. The findings indicate that the AgNPs produced by phytosynthetic reactions had good stability and showed promise as a catalyst that could effectively reduce degradation rates by more than 50% for over five repetitions. The same results were found, according to David and Moldovan [65].

Figure 10 The relative activity (%) for the photodegradation of MG with MOL-AgNPs performed for five cycles. MOL-AgNPs: Moringa oleifera silver nanoparticles.
Figure 10

The relative activity (%) for the photodegradation of MG with MOL-AgNPs performed for five cycles. MOL-AgNPs: Moringa oleifera silver nanoparticles.

3.10 Mechanism of photodegradation of MG using MOL-AgNPs

Due to their high pore density and extensive surface area, AgNPs are a potent catalyst for the photodegradation of MG dye under UV light irradiation [66]. As shown in Figure 10, in the process of photocatalysis, electrons in the photocatalyst MOL-AgNPs are excited from the valence band to the conduction band, resulting in the creation of electron–hole pairs [67]. Electrons interact with molecular oxygen in water and produce free radicals when they collectively oscillate from the outermost band to a higher energy state as a result of the SPR phenomenon. Then, these electrons transfer the oxygen molecules and hydroxyl ions into oxygen radicals (O2.) and hydroxyl radicals (HO.), respectively. These radicals oxidize MG dye and electron excitation creates positive holes in the d orbital of nanoparticles [68], which then receive an electron from the adsorbed dye, thus reducing the dye. Furthermore, other free radicals created from the oxidation of H+ ions made by the breaking of water molecules then proceed to oxidize the dye. The dye is completely broken down by the hydroxyl radical into harmless byproducts (CO2, H2O, etc.) [69] (Figure 11).

Figure 11 Mechanism of MG dye photodegradation under UV light irradiation using MOL-AgNPs. MOL-AgNPs: Moringa oleifera silver nanoparticles.
Figure 11

Mechanism of MG dye photodegradation under UV light irradiation using MOL-AgNPs. MOL-AgNPs: Moringa oleifera silver nanoparticles.

4 Conclusions

Ag NPs were successfully synthesized utilizing the M. oleifera plant extract by the green method, which is a very simple, rapid, and eco-friendly approach due to the involvement of active compounds found in plants without the use of toxic chemicals. The crystalline nature and the nanoscale size were determined using XRD and ZP, the presence of elemental Ag was determined using EDX, and the shape of the AgNPs was evaluated using FE-SEM and TEM. MOL-AgNPs exhibited strong photocatalytic activity for degrading MB dye. In particular, the electron-hole pairs formed on the nanoparticle surface highlighted a basic mechanism of photocatalytic activity. Under UV light irradiation for 60 min, biosynthesized AgNPs showed excellent photocatalytic ability with a 98% degradation yield. The degradation of MG by UV light revealed that AgNPs mediated by the M. oleifera leaf extract can have high photocatalytic activity.

Acknowledgments

The authors are thankful to the Deanship of Scientific Research at the University of Bisha for supporting this work through the Fast-Track Research Support Program.

  1. Funding information: The authors state no funding involved.

  2. Author contributions: Conceptualization; Djaber Aouf, Yasmina Khane, and Fares Fenniche; formal analysis, Sofiane Khan and Nadir Dizge; investigation and data curation, Salim Albukhaty, Hamdoon A. Mohammed, and Ghassan M. Sulaiman; validation, Abdallah Henni; visualization, Abdelhalim Zoukel; original draft preparation Djaber Aouf, Yasmina Khane, Fares Fenniche, and Nadir Dizge; writing – review and editing, Nadir Dizge, Hamdoon A. Mohammed, and Mosleh M. Abomughaid.; supervision, Salim Albukhaty, and Yasmina khane; project administration, Ghassan M. Sulaiman. All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

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Received: 2023-11-16
Revised: 2024-01-13
Accepted: 2024-03-04
Published Online: 2024-03-26

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  11. Single flake homo p–n diode of MoTe2 enabled by oxygen plasma doping
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  13. Multi-scale alignment to buried atom-scale devices using Kelvin probe force microscopy
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https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2024-0002
Keywords for this article
nanotechnology; silver nanoparticles; Moringa oleifera; reaction kinetics; photodegradation activity
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Tension buckling and postbuckling of nanocomposite laminated plates with in-plane negative Poisson’s ratio
  3. Polyvinylpyrrolidone-stabilised gold nanoparticle coatings inhibit blood protein adsorption
  4. Energy and mass transmission through hybrid nanofluid flow passing over a spinning sphere with magnetic effect and heat source/sink
  5. Surface treatment with nano-silica and magnesium potassium phosphate cement co-action for enhancing recycled aggregate concrete
  6. Numerical investigation of thermal radiation with entropy generation effects in hybrid nanofluid flow over a shrinking/stretching sheet
  7. Enhancing the performance of thermal energy storage by adding nano-particles with paraffin phase change materials
  8. Using nano-CaCO3 and ceramic tile waste to design low-carbon ultra high performance concrete
  9. Numerical analysis of thermophoretic particle deposition in a magneto-Marangoni convective dusty tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow – Thermal and magnetic features
  10. Dual numerical solutions of Casson SA–hybrid nanofluid toward a stagnation point flow over stretching/shrinking cylinder
  11. Single flake homo p–n diode of MoTe2 enabled by oxygen plasma doping
  12. Electrostatic self-assembly effect of Fe3O4 nanoparticles on performance of carbon nanotubes in cement-based materials
  13. Multi-scale alignment to buried atom-scale devices using Kelvin probe force microscopy
  14. Antibacterial, mechanical, and dielectric properties of hydroxyapatite cordierite/zirconia porous nanocomposites for use in bone tissue engineering applications
  15. Time-dependent Darcy–Forchheimer flow of Casson hybrid nanofluid comprising the CNTs through a Riga plate with nonlinear thermal radiation and viscous dissipation
  16. Durability prediction of geopolymer mortar reinforced with nanoparticles and PVA fiber using particle swarm optimized BP neural network
  17. Utilization of zein nano-based system for promoting antibiofilm and anti-virulence activities of curcumin against Pseudomonas aeruginosa
  18. Antibacterial effect of novel dental resin composites containing rod-like zinc oxide
  19. An extended model to assess Jeffery–Hamel blood flow through arteries with iron-oxide (Fe2O3) nanoparticles and melting effects: Entropy optimization analysis
  20. Comparative study of copper nanoparticles over radially stretching sheet with water and silicone oil
  21. Cementitious composites modified by nanocarbon fillers with cooperation effect possessing excellent self-sensing properties
  22. Confinement size effect on dielectric properties, antimicrobial activity, and recycling of TiO2 quantum dots via photodegradation processes of Congo red dye and real industrial textile wastewater
  23. Biogenic silver nanoparticles of Moringa oleifera leaf extract: Characterization and photocatalytic application
  24. Novel integrated structure and function of Mg–Gd neutron shielding materials
  25. Impact of multiple slips on thermally radiative peristaltic transport of Sisko nanofluid with double diffusion convection, viscous dissipation, and induced magnetic field
  26. Magnetized water-based hybrid nanofluid flow over an exponentially stretching sheet with thermal convective and mass flux conditions: HAM solution
  27. A numerical investigation of the two-dimensional magnetohydrodynamic water-based hybrid nanofluid flow composed of Fe3O4 and Au nanoparticles over a heated surface
  28. Development and modeling of an ultra-robust TPU-MWCNT foam with high flexibility and compressibility
  29. Effects of nanofillers on the physical, mechanical, and tribological behavior of carbon/kenaf fiber–reinforced phenolic composites
  30. Polymer nanocomposite for protecting photovoltaic cells from solar ultraviolet in space
  31. Study on the mechanical properties and microstructure of recycled concrete reinforced with basalt fibers and nano-silica in early low-temperature environments
  32. Synergistic effect of carbon nanotubes and polyvinyl alcohol on the mechanical performance and microstructure of cement mortar
  33. CFD analysis of paraffin-based hybrid (Co–Au) and trihybrid (Co–Au–ZrO2) nanofluid flow through a porous medium
  34. Forced convective tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow subject to heat source/sink and Lorentz force over a permeable wedge: Numerical exploration
  35. Physiochemical and electrical activities of nano copper oxides synthesised via hydrothermal method utilising natural reduction agents for solar cell application
  36. A homotopic analysis of the blood-based bioconvection Carreau–Yasuda hybrid nanofluid flow over a stretching sheet with convective conditions
  37. In situ synthesis of reduced graphene oxide/SnIn4S8 nanocomposites with enhanced photocatalytic performance for pollutant degradation
  38. A coarse-grained Poisson–Nernst–Planck model for polyelectrolyte-modified nanofluidic diodes
  39. A numerical investigation of the magnetized water-based hybrid nanofluid flow over an extending sheet with a convective condition: Active and passive controls of nanoparticles
  40. The LyP-1 cyclic peptide modified mesoporous polydopamine nanospheres for targeted delivery of triptolide regulate the macrophage repolarization in atherosclerosis
  41. Synergistic effect of hydroxyapatite-magnetite nanocomposites in magnetic hyperthermia for bone cancer treatment
  42. The significance of quadratic thermal radiative scrutinization of a nanofluid flow across a microchannel with thermophoretic particle deposition effects
  43. Ferromagnetic effect on Casson nanofluid flow and transport phenomena across a bi-directional Riga sensor device: Darcy–Forchheimer model
  44. Performance of carbon nanomaterials incorporated with concrete exposed to high temperature
  45. Multicriteria-based optimization of roller compacted concrete pavement containing crumb rubber and nano-silica
  46. Revisiting hydrotalcite synthesis: Efficient combined mechanochemical/coprecipitation synthesis to design advanced tunable basic catalysts
  47. Exploration of irreversibility process and thermal energy of a tetra hybrid radiative binary nanofluid focusing on solar implementations
  48. Effect of graphene oxide on the properties of ternary limestone clay cement paste
  49. Improved mechanical properties of graphene-modified basalt fibre–epoxy composites
  50. Sodium titanate nanostructured modified by green synthesis of iron oxide for highly efficient photodegradation of dye contaminants
  51. Green synthesis of Vitis vinifera extract-appended magnesium oxide NPs for biomedical applications
  52. Differential study on the thermal–physical properties of metal and its oxide nanoparticle-formed nanofluids: Molecular dynamics simulation investigation of argon-based nanofluids
  53. Heat convection and irreversibility of magneto-micropolar hybrid nanofluids within a porous hexagonal-shaped enclosure having heated obstacle
  54. Numerical simulation and optimization of biological nanocomposite system for enhanced oil recovery
  55. Laser ablation and chemical vapor deposition to prepare a nanostructured PPy layer on the Ti surface
  56. Cilostazol niosomes-loaded transdermal gels: An in vitro and in vivo anti-aggregant and skin permeation activity investigations towards preparing an efficient nanoscale formulation
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  58. Analytical investigation of convective phenomena with nonlinearity characteristics in nanostratified liquid film above an inclined extended sheet
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  68. Effect of annealing time on bending performance and microstructure of C19400 alloy strip
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  82. Effect of temperature and nanoparticle size on the interfacial layer thickness of TiO2–water nanofluids using molecular dynamics
  83. Characteristics of induced magnetic field on the time-dependent MHD nanofluid flow through parallel plates
  84. Flexural and vibration behaviours of novel covered CFRP composite joints with an MWCNT-modified adhesive
  85. Experimental research on mechanically and thermally activation of nano-kaolin to improve the properties of ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete
  86. Analysis of variable fluid properties for three-dimensional flow of ternary hybrid nanofluid on a stretching sheet with MHD effects
  87. Biodegradability of corn starch films containing nanocellulose fiber and thymol
  88. Toxicity assessment of copper oxide nanoparticles: In vivo study
  89. Some measures to enhance the energy output performances of triboelectric nanogenerators
  90. Reinforcement of graphene nanoplatelets on water uptake and thermomechanical behaviour of epoxy adhesive subjected to water ageing conditions
  91. Optimization of preparation parameters and testing verification of carbon nanotube suspensions used in concrete
  92. Max-phase Ti3SiC2 and diverse nanoparticle reinforcements for enhancement of the mechanical, dynamic, and microstructural properties of AA5083 aluminum alloy via FSP
  93. Advancing drug delivery: Neural network perspectives on nanoparticle-mediated treatments for cancerous tissues
  94. PEG-PLGA core–shell nanoparticles for the controlled delivery of picoplatin–hydroxypropyl β-cyclodextrin inclusion complex in triple-negative breast cancer: In vitro and in vivo study
  95. Conduction transportation from graphene to an insulative polymer medium: A novel approach for the conductivity of nanocomposites
  96. Review Articles
  97. Developments of terahertz metasurface biosensors: A literature review
  98. Overview of amorphous carbon memristor device, modeling, and applications for neuromorphic computing
  99. Advances in the synthesis of gold nanoclusters (AuNCs) of proteins extracted from nature
  100. A review of ternary polymer nanocomposites containing clay and calcium carbonate and their biomedical applications
  101. Recent advancements in polyoxometalate-functionalized fiber materials: A review
  102. Special contribution of atomic force microscopy in cell death research
  103. A comprehensive review of oral chitosan drug delivery systems: Applications for oral insulin delivery
  104. Cellular senescence and nanoparticle-based therapies: Current developments and perspectives
  105. Cyclodextrins-block copolymer drug delivery systems: From design and development to preclinical studies
  106. Micelle-based nanoparticles with stimuli-responsive properties for drug delivery
  107. Critical assessment of the thermal stability and degradation of chemically functionalized nanocellulose-based polymer nanocomposites
  108. Research progress in preparation technology of micro and nano titanium alloy powder
  109. Nanoformulations for lysozyme-based additives in animal feed: An alternative to fight antibiotic resistance spread
  110. Incorporation of organic photochromic molecules in mesoporous silica materials: Synthesis and applications
  111. A review on modeling of graphene and associated nanostructures reinforced concrete
  112. A review on strengthening mechanisms of carbon quantum dots-reinforced Cu-matrix nanocomposites
  113. Review on nanocellulose composites and CNFs assembled microfiber toward automotive applications
  114. Nanomaterial coating for layered lithium rich transition metal oxide cathode for lithium-ion battery
  115. Application of AgNPs in biomedicine: An overview and current trends
  116. Nanobiotechnology and microbial influence on cold adaptation in plants
  117. Hepatotoxicity of nanomaterials: From mechanism to therapeutic strategy
  118. Applications of micro-nanobubble and its influence on concrete properties: An in-depth review
  119. A comprehensive systematic literature review of ML in nanotechnology for sustainable development
  120. Exploiting the nanotechnological approaches for traditional Chinese medicine in childhood rhinitis: A review of future perspectives
  121. Twisto-photonics in two-dimensional materials: A comprehensive review
  122. Current advances of anticancer drugs based on solubilization technology
  123. Recent process of using nanoparticles in the T cell-based immunometabolic therapy
  124. Future prospects of gold nanoclusters in hydrogen storage systems and sustainable environmental treatment applications
  125. Preparation, types, and applications of one- and two-dimensional nanochannels and their transport properties for water and ions
  126. Microstructural, mechanical, and corrosion characteristics of Mg–Gd–x systems: A review of recent advancements
  127. Functionalized nanostructures and targeted delivery systems with a focus on plant-derived natural agents for COVID-19 therapy: A review and outlook
  128. Mapping evolution and trends of cell membrane-coated nanoparticles: A bibliometric analysis and scoping review
  129. Nanoparticles and their application in the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma
  130. In situ growth of carbon nanotubes on fly ash substrates
  131. Structural performance of boards through nanoparticle reinforcement: An advance review
  132. Reinforcing mechanisms review of the graphene oxide on cement composites
  133. Seed regeneration aided by nanomaterials in a climate change scenario: A comprehensive review
  134. Surface-engineered quantum dot nanocomposites for neurodegenerative disorder remediation and avenue for neuroimaging
  135. Graphitic carbon nitride hybrid thin films for energy conversion: A mini-review on defect activation with different materials
  136. Nanoparticles and the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma
  137. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part II
  138. Highly safe lithium vanadium oxide anode for fast-charging dendrite-free lithium-ion batteries
  139. Recent progress in nanomaterials of battery energy storage: A patent landscape analysis, technology updates, and future prospects
  140. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part II
  141. Calcium-, magnesium-, and yttrium-doped lithium nickel phosphate nanomaterials as high-performance catalysts for electrochemical water oxidation reaction
  142. Low alkaline vegetation concrete with silica fume and nano-fly ash composites to improve the planting properties and soil ecology
  143. Mesoporous silica-grafted deep eutectic solvent-based mixed matrix membranes for wastewater treatment: Synthesis and emerging pollutant removal performance
  144. Electrochemically prepared ultrathin two-dimensional graphitic nanosheets as cathodes for advanced Zn-based energy storage devices
  145. Enhanced catalytic degradation of amoxicillin by phyto-mediated synthesised ZnO NPs and ZnO-rGO hybrid nanocomposite: Assessment of antioxidant activity, adsorption, and thermodynamic analysis
  146. Incorporating GO in PI matrix to advance nanocomposite coating: An enhancing strategy to prevent corrosion
  147. Synthesis, characterization, thermal stability, and application of microporous hyper cross-linked polyphosphazenes with naphthylamine group for CO2 uptake
  148. Engineering in ceramic albite morphology by the addition of additives: Carbon nanotubes and graphene oxide for energy applications
  149. Nanoscale synergy: Optimizing energy storage with SnO2 quantum dots on ZnO hexagonal prisms for advanced supercapacitors
  150. Aging assessment of silicone rubber materials under corona discharge accompanied by humidity and UV radiation
  151. Tuning structural and electrical properties of Co-precipitated and Cu-incorporated nickel ferrite for energy applications
  152. Sodium alginate-supported AgSr nanoparticles for catalytic degradation of malachite green and methyl orange in aqueous medium
  153. An environmentally greener and reusability approach for bioenergy production using Mallotus philippensis (Kamala) seed oil feedstock via phytonanotechnology
  154. Micro-/nano-alumina trihydrate and -magnesium hydroxide fillers in RTV-SR composites under electrical and environmental stresses
  155. Mechanism exploration of ion-implanted epoxy on surface trap distribution: An approach to augment the vacuum flashover voltages
  156. Nanoscale engineering of semiconductor photocatalysts boosting charge separation for solar-driven H2 production: Recent advances and future perspective
  157. Excellent catalytic performance over reduced graphene-boosted novel nanoparticles for oxidative desulfurization of fuel oil
  158. Special Issue on Advances in Nanotechnology for Agriculture
  159. Deciphering the synergistic potential of mycogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles and bio-slurry formulation on phenology and physiology of Vigna radiata
  160. Nanomaterials: Cross-disciplinary applications in ornamental plants
  161. Special Issue on Catechol Based Nano and Microstructures
  162. Polydopamine films: Versatile but interface-dependent coatings
  163. In vitro anticancer activity of melanin-like nanoparticles for multimodal therapy of glioblastoma
  164. Poly-3,4-dihydroxybenzylidenhydrazine, a different analogue of polydopamine
  165. Chirality and self-assembly of structures derived from optically active 1,2-diaminocyclohexane and catecholamines
  166. Advancing resource sustainability with green photothermal materials: Insights from organic waste-derived and bioderived sources
  167. Bioinspired neuromelanin-like Pt(iv) polymeric nanoparticles for cancer treatment
  168. Special Issue on Implementing Nanotechnology for Smart Healthcare System
  169. Intelligent explainable optical sensing on Internet of nanorobots for disease detection
  170. Special Issue on Green Mono, Bi and Tri Metallic Nanoparticles for Biological and Environmental Applications
  171. Tracking success of interaction of green-synthesized Carbopol nanoemulgel (neomycin-decorated Ag/ZnO nanocomposite) with wound-based MDR bacteria
  172. Green synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles using genus Inula and evaluation of biological therapeutics and environmental applications
  173. Biogenic fabrication and multifunctional therapeutic applications of silver nanoparticles synthesized from rose petal extract
  174. Metal oxides on the frontlines: Antimicrobial activity in plant-derived biometallic nanoparticles
  175. Controlling pore size during the synthesis of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles using CTAB by the sol–gel hydrothermal method and their biological activities
  176. Special Issue on State-of-Art Advanced Nanotechnology for Healthcare
  177. Applications of nanomedicine-integrated phototherapeutic agents in cancer theranostics: A comprehensive review of the current state of research
  178. Smart bionanomaterials for treatment and diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease
  179. Beyond conventional therapy: Synthesis of multifunctional nanoparticles for rheumatoid arthritis therapy
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