Home Single-step fabrication of Ag2S/poly-2-mercaptoaniline nanoribbon photocathodes for green hydrogen generation from artificial and natural red-sea water
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Single-step fabrication of Ag2S/poly-2-mercaptoaniline nanoribbon photocathodes for green hydrogen generation from artificial and natural red-sea water

  • Eman Aldosari , Mohamed Rabia EMAIL logo , Aimaro Sanna and Osama Farid EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: January 23, 2025
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Open Physics
From the journal Open Physics Volume 23 Issue 1

Abstract

A novel and highly promising Ag2S-P2MA nanoribbon photocathodes are synthesized using a single-step technique based on 2-mercaptoaniline oxidation with (NH4)2S2O8 and AgNO3. This process yields polymer composites with nanoribbon morphologies, typically 150 nm wide and ranging from 500 to 1,000 nm in length. These nanoribbons exhibit excellent absorbance across the entire optical spectrum up to 780 nm. The fabricated Ag2S/P2MA photocathode is designed for water splitting to generate hydrogen gas using two different electrolytes: natural Red Sea water and artificial seawater free from heavy metals. This variation allows observation of the impact of seawater’s heavy metals. Hydrogen gas production is studied using a three-electrode cell with linear sweep voltammetry at room temperature. In both electrolytes, the photocurrent is measured at 0.015 mA/cm2. However, both the current density in light (J ph) and dark (J o) values decrease in artificial seawater compared to natural seawater, with values of −0.033 and −0.017 mA/cm2 in natural seawater and −0.027 and −0.012 mA/cm2 in artificial seawater. The Ag2S-P2MA nanoribbon photocathodes exhibit stable behavior, producing hydrogen at a rate of 12 µmol/cm2 h. Combined with their cost-effectiveness and potential for mass production, this positions them as viable candidates for commercial electrode applications in various industrial settings.

Keywords: poly-2-mercaptoaniline; nanoribbon; green hydrogen; photocathode; renewable energy

1 Introduction

The global energy crisis, particularly due to increasing pollution and the dwindling supply of fossil fuels, has significantly heightened the demand for clean, environmentally friendly energy. Fossil fuels, which are currently a major source of the world’s electricity, contribute significantly to atmospheric pollution, leading to global warming. As a result, there is a growing urgency to shift toward renewable energy sources, with hydrogen gas emerging as one of the most viable and widely used options [1,2].

Hydrogen (H₂) gas is considered the most cost-effective and extensively utilized renewable energy source. Scientists are capable of producing H₂ through photocatalysis from a range of electrolytes, including acidic, basic, and neutral media. This method of production is particularly valuable as hydrogen gas is increasingly being adopted by numerous factories and companies as a cleaner alternative to fossil fuels. By reducing the reliance on fossil fuels, the emission of harmful gases such as sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and carbon dioxide is also minimized, thereby lessening their detrimental impact on the environment. Additionally, H₂ gas demonstrates excellent combustibility and performance, making it an attractive candidate for a sustainable energy source [3,4]. However, the widespread use of hydrogen gas as a clean and sustainable fuel in the future hinges on great efficient photocatalysts. The generation of H₂ gas through water electrolysis faces a significant challenge due to the sluggish oxygen evolution reactions, which require a voltage >1.23 V for the process to occur efficiently. This necessitates the exploration of more effective methods to produce hydrogen [5,6,7].

One promising approach to mitigate the current energy crisis is the production of hydrogen gas through photocatalysis and direct water splitting. This process involves the use of metal sulfides or polymer materials that possess excellent optical properties. These materials are not only beneficial in light-induced reactions but also offer commercial advantages such as the potential for mass production and cost-effectiveness [8,9]. The effectiveness of these materials in producing H₂ gas is largely attributed to their large surface areas, which provide numerous active sites for the reaction. Nanomaterials, nanowires, or nanosheets, in particular, are advantageous because they enhance the efficiency of hydrogen generation by active sites available for the reaction. Improvement in the material’s structural design is crucial for maximizing the production of hydrogen gas, thus making it a more feasible and sustainable alternative to fossil fuels [10,11]. Various applications have been proposed to address this issue, particularly in the field of materials science. Transition metal oxides are employed in the doping process for a range of materials, including carbon-based substances, noble metals, nonmetals, as well as both homo- and heterostructures. These materials are especially significant in electrical devices where polymers are used to create metal-substitutable compounds. The researchers’ aim in synthesizing polymers with an optimal band gap between 1.2 and 1.5 eV, which is crucial for enhancing photon absorption within the molecular structure of these materials [12,13].

Advancements in this area include the development of nanoformulations and composites that utilize additives with a wide spectrum of light-responsive properties. These innovations demonstrate significant progress in the field. Research efforts have also focused on polymer compounds aimed at producing hydrogen gas and facilitating water splitting. However, the predominant methods employed are highly complex and often rely on electrolytes made from harsh, basic, or acidic materials. This approach can lead to increased corrosion within the cells used for these processes, posing a challenge for long-term application and efficiency [14].

Herein, a novel one-pot technique was employed to synthesize Ag2S-P2MA nanoribbon photocathodes. Characterization using SEM and TEM studies revealed the nanoribbons in these nanocomposites, while optical absorbance and analyses such as XRD, FTIR, and XPS provided insights into their optical and chemical structures. These photocathodes were specifically designed for generating hydrogen gas through water splitting using two types of electrolytes: natural Red-sea water and artificial seawater without heavy metals. Testing under various optical conditions demonstrated their efficacy across different energy levels. With their significant hydrogen gas generation, cost-effectiveness, stability, and potential for large-scale production, these photocathodes are highly suitable for commercial electrode applications in diverse industrial sectors.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Materials

2-Mercaptoaniline (99.9%) (P2MA) was obtained from Germany (Merck Co.). Silver nitrate (AgNO3, 99.9%), ammonium persulfate ((NH4)2S2O8, 99.8%), CH3COOH (99.8%), and HCl (36%) were procured from Egypt (Pio-Chem Co.). DMF was supplied by Sigma Aldrich Co., USA.

2.2 One-pot synthesis of the Ag2S/P2MA nanocomposite

The synthesis of the Ag2S/P2MA nanocomposite was conducted using a one-pot technique involving the oxidation of 2-mercaptoaniline with (NH4)2S2O8 and AgNO3. In this process, Ag2S was incorporated within the polymer chains to form Ag2S/P2MA. Initially, 0.06 M 2-mercaptoaniline was vigorously dissolved in 12 ml of CH3COOH. Subsequently, 0.07 M AgNO3 was added under continuous stirring for 30 min. In parallel, 0.15 M (NH4)2S2O8 was dissolved separately. The sudden reaction of the oxidant with the monomer solution initiated the polymerization reaction, resulting in the formation of the Ag2S/P2MA composite. During this addition, a glass slide was inserted, allowing the formation of a composite. This film was then prepared for application within a three-electrode cell intended for the green gas generation reaction.

2.3 Ag2S/P2MA nanoribbon photocathode for green H2 generation

The behavior of the synthesized Ag2S/P2MA nanoribbon photocathode for generating green hydrogen gas is investigated using a three-electrode cell setup. The Ag2S/P2MA photocathode, formed as a thin film (main electrode), supplies electrons for the reduction of natural Red Sea water and an equivalent artificial seawater. The artificial seawater, which lacks metal ions, emphasizes the various ions impact present in Red Sea water, in Hurghada City, Egypt. The artificial seawater consists of NaCl, CaCl2, MgCl2, Na2SO4, and KHCO3 at concentrations of 38.38, 2.43, 19.06, 5.26, and 0.24 g/l, respectively [15].

To complete the electrochemical cell, a calomel reference electrode and a graphite counter electrode are added. All experiments are conducted at 25°C using the CHI608E device. The device is utilized to measure linear sweep voltammetry and chronoamperometry, which are critical for evaluating the photocurrent density (J ph), indicative of the hydrogen gas generation efficiency.

These measurements are performed under different lighting conditions, including full-spectrum light and certain specific monochromatic lights based on sources used to provide specific photon energies achieved by employing optical filters. The photon energies tested include 3.6, 2.8, 2.3, and 1.8 eV. Through this comprehensive approach, the efficiency and behavior of the Ag2S/P2MA nanoribbon photocathode in hydrogen production are analyzed, considering the influence of light conditions and the presence of heavy metals. The hydrogen produced is determined using the Faraday equation (Eq. (1)) [16]. This equation takes into account the oxidation states of hydrogen gas and its molecular weight, and it primarily relies on the values of the photocurrent density (J ph).

(1) H 2 mole = ∫ 0 t J ph ⋅ d t / F .

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Analyses

Figure 1(d) presents the FT-IR spectra of P2MA and the Ag2S/P2MA nanocomposite. In the P2MA spectrum, a stretching peak for N–H and S–H is observed at 3,366/cm. Additional spectral data further validate the structures, as shown in the spectra. Aromatic C–C stretching is also observed at 1,619 and 1,514/cm, with varying values across the spectra. Additionally, the C–N band is identified at 1,310/cm.

Figure 1 Chemical analyses of the synthesized Ag2S/P2MA nanocomposite using the (a) XPS survey, (b) XPS Ag3d, (c) XRD pattern, and (d) FTIR spectroscopy.
Figure 1

Chemical analyses of the synthesized Ag2S/P2MA nanocomposite using the (a) XPS survey, (b) XPS Ag3d, (c) XRD pattern, and (d) FTIR spectroscopy.

For the Ag2S/P2MA nanocomposite, peaks are observed at 3,397, 1,200, 1,628, 1,401, and 1,089/cm, indicating the presence of the nanocomposite. The correlation between these peaks and the corresponding groups is detailed in Table 1. A notable difference is the Ag–O position, which exhibits a high-intensity peak within the composite, contrasting with the small and limited band observed in pristine P2MA.

Table 1

FTIR analysis of band positions: comparison of the Ag2S/P2MA nanocomposite with P2MA polymer

Functional group Group and its value (/cm)
Ag2S/P2MA P2MA
N–H [17] 3,397 3,366
Ag–S and C–H out of plane 875 874
C–H group [18] 1,200 1,126 and 1,221
C–N 1,400 1,310
C–C 1,628 1,514 and 1,619

The chemical composition of the synthesized Ag2S/P2MA nanocomposite is assessed by evaluating the oxidation states and the constituent elements using XPS analysis (Figure 1(a) and (b)) for the survey and Ag 3d orbital, respectively. The survey spectrum verifies the presence of all polymer constituents, detecting the elements sulfur (S), carbon (C), and nitrogen (N) through their respective orbitals. Specifically, sulfur is identified by its 2p orbital at a binding energy of 165 eV, carbon by its 1s orbital at 286 eV, and nitrogen by its 1s orbital at 400 eV. Additionally, the presence of silver (Ag) is confirmed through its 3d orbitals, with Ag3d5/2 and Ag3d3/2 exhibiting binding energies of 368.4 and 374.4 eV, respectively [19,20]. These binding energies are consistent with the formation of silver sulfide (Ag2S), validating the synthesis of the Ag2S/P2MA composite.

For a comprehensive analysis of the synthesized Ag2S/P2MA composite, the XRD pattern shown in Figure 1(c) reveals the formation of crystalline peaks, demonstrating the excellent crystalline properties of the entire composite. The observed peaks for Ag2S at 21.3°, 22.1°, 23.7°, 25.1°, 28.2°, 31.2°, 34.1°, 35.9°, 37.9°, 41.3°, 44.2°, 46.1°, 47.6°, 49.0°, 56.5°, 59.8°, 63.5°, and 64.3° correspond to the growth directions (101), (002), (11-1), (012), (111), (112), (120), (-121), (121), (031), (200), (113), (21-2), (014), (-223), (042), (-134), and (034), respectively [21]. Additionally, other peaks detected at 32.3°, 40.1°, 51.6°, 53.2°, and 66.1° indicate the presence of Ag2O traces within the composite. Ag2O traces contribute to enhanced electrical conductivity and photoabsorbance of the synthesized nanocomposite [22].

Pristine P2MA exhibits four semi-sharp peaks reflecting its semiconducting nature. These peaks are found in the range of 24.6°–29.5°. However, when P2MA is integrated into the composite, these peak shifts are observed in the range of 24.5°–33.5°, indicating the formation of more crystalline materials. Using the Scherrer equation (Eq. (2)) [23,24], the crystalline size (D) is estimated to be 70 nm, based on the peak at 2θ = 22.1°:

(2) D = 0.9 λ / β cos θ .

This equation considers the full width at half-maximum of this peak. The XRD analysis thus confirms the successful synthesis of the Ag2S/P2MA composite with well-defined crystalline properties. The integration of P2MA into the composite and the presence of Ag2O traces enhances the material’s overall electrical and photoresponsive characteristics. The detailed peak analysis underscores the high crystalline quality and the formation of specific crystallographic orientations, which are essential for the composite’s performance in various applications.

The morphology of the synthesized Ag2S/P2MA nanocomposite is shown in Figure 2. The SEM image in Figure 2(a) provides the formation of nanoribbons, resulting from the interaction between Ag2S and P2MA within the composite material. These nanoribbons have a width of approximately 150 nm and lengths varying from 500 to 1,000 nm. Each larger ribbon is composed of small, semispherical particles with an average diameter of 150 nm. The impressive morphology of these nanoribbons includes significant porosity between the particles, which, combined with their geometric structure, results in a large surface area [16,25]. The TEM images in Figure 2(c) and (d) provide a clearer view of the nanoribbons under various morphologies. These images reveal that the nanoribbons consist of tiny particles that aggregate to form a network, enhancing the structural integrity of the nanocomposite. This network-like structure contributes to the overall functionality of the composite by providing a robust and interconnected framework. In contrast, the pristine P2MA polymer displays a porous, spherical morphology, with diameters ranging from 250 to over 1,000 nm, as shown in Figure 2(b). This inherent porosity is advantageous for composite formation, as it facilitates interactions with additional materials during the reaction process. Overall, the SEM and TEM analyses highlight the distinctive morphologies of both the Ag2S/P2MA nanocomposite and pristine P2MA polymer. The nanoribbons formed in the composite exhibit significant porosity and surface area, essential for enhancing the material’s performance in various applications. The spherical, porous structure of pristine P2MA further underscores its potential as a component in composite materials, promoting effective integration and interaction with other substances.

Figure 2 Morphological analyses of the synthesized Ag2S/P2MA nanocomposite: (a) SEM and (c, d) TEM images at various magnifications, and (b) the SEM image of the pristine polymer P2MA.
Figure 2

Morphological analyses of the synthesized Ag2S/P2MA nanocomposite: (a) SEM and (c, d) TEM images at various magnifications, and (b) the SEM image of the pristine polymer P2MA.

The optical behavior of the synthesized Ag2S/P2MA nanocomposite compared to the pristine P2MA polymer is measured using UV, as illustrated in Figure 3(a). The nanocomposite shows promising optical absorbance, covering a significant portion of the optical spectrum up to approximately 780 nm. This makes the Ag2S/P2MA nanocomposite an excellent material for photon trapping and capture, facilitated by its porous structure and produced nanoparticles. The wide absorbance range indicates efficient electron transfer to the upper conducting level upon photon incidence, occurring in both the UV and visible regions. These transferred electrons form a dense cloud, generating an electric field on the surface of the composite material [26,27].

Figure 3 Comparison of the absorbance of the synthesized Ag2S/P2MA composite relative to pristine P2MA, shown by the (a) absorbance spectrum and (b) bandgap evaluation.
Figure 3

Comparison of the absorbance of the synthesized Ag2S/P2MA composite relative to pristine P2MA, shown by the (a) absorbance spectrum and (b) bandgap evaluation.

As the absorbance extends into the IR region, it reflects electron bond vibrations rather than electron transfer due to the lower energy of the IR spectrum. In contrast, the pristine P2MA polymer exhibits lower intensity and a narrower coverage spectrum, extending only to 600 nm, which is a limited spectrum and short compared to the composite material.

The difference in behavior is also evident in the bandgap values, with the composite having a bandgap of 2.16 eV, while the pristine polymer’s bandgap is 2.76 eV, as shown in Figure 3(b). Using Eq. (3) (Tauc equation) [28,29], the bandgap is evaluated, using the absorption coefficient (α) as the primary factor:

(3) α h ν = A ( h ν − E g ) 1 / 2 .

The smaller bandgap of the composite material contributes to its superior photon trapping and electron transfer capabilities, enhancing its overall optical performance.

3.2 Green hydrogen generation using a fabricated Ag2S/P2MA thin film nanoribbon photocathode from natural/artificial seawater

Green hydrogen generation is carried out using a fabricated Ag2S/P2MA thin film nanoribbon photocathode, employing either natural or artificial seawater. Red Sea water, with its unique chemical composition outlined earlier, is used as the electrolyte in this study. This selection offers significant benefits, primarily because it is environmentally sustainable and comes at no cost. A crucial factor in this process is the presence of ions in the seawater, which plays an important role in enhancing the electrolysis reaction. Under the used potential, these ions exhibit increased mobility, which contributes to the water-splitting process. The interaction of these metals with the electric field aids in facilitating the electrochemical reaction, improving the overall efficiency of hydrogen gas generation. Additionally, the natural abundance and availability of Red Sea water make it an ideal choice for large-scale applications, as it reduces the need for synthetic electrolytes, thus minimizing costs and environmental impact. By capitalizing on the inherent properties of Red Sea water, this approach provides a promising route for advancing energy production technologies that are both efficient and eco-friendly.

The entire process hinges on the photocatalytic properties of the Ag2S/P2MA nanocomposite. The synergistic catalytic behavior of these two materials is essential for the photocatalytic activity. Their combined properties enhance photon trapping due to the porous structure of the materials. Furthermore, the small bandgap of 2.16 eV aids in the efficient transfer of electrons, which are then collected in the nanocomposite upper level. These electrons act as active agents, attacking neighboring molecules in the solution and driving the hydrogen gas generation process.

The unique properties of the Ag2S/P2MA nanocomposite facilitate a series of reactions crucial for hydrogen generation. Its small bandgap allows it to efficiently absorb and utilize light, promoting the transfer of electrons. These electrons, once collected in the conducting band, are highly reactive and play a pivotal role in initiating the water-splitting reaction. The porous nature of the material not only enhances its ability to trap photons but also increases the surface area available for catalytic reactions, thereby improving the overall efficiency [30,31].

Utilizing Red Sea water as an electrolyte introduces an eco-friendly and cost-effective component into the system. The chemical composition of seawater, including various heavy metals, contributes to the mobility of ions during the application of the potential. Ion mobility is crucial for the electrolysis process, which splits water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. Heavy metals present in seawater move within the electrolyte solution, facilitating the electrolysis reaction and subsequently leading to hydrogen gas generation. Figure 4(a) illustrates the exceptional photocatalytic performance of the Ag2S/P2MA nanoribbon photocathode. The generated photocurrent is 0.015 mA/cm2, resulting from the difference in current densities between light and dark conditions. Specifically, the photocurrent density (J ph) is −0.034 mA/cm2, while the dark current density (J o) is −0.019 mA/cm2, measured at an applied bias voltage of −0.6 V. This impressive performance in water splitting using seawater, without any additional electrolyte, highlights the superior photocatalytic properties of the Ag2S/P2MA nanocomposite, which exhibits high sensitivity to incident photons. The sensitivity of this photocatalytic material is further demonstrated in Figure 4(b), which shows the chopped behavior of the Ag2S/P2MA nanocomposite. The high responsivity to variations in J ph values indicates its strong photocatalytic nature. This curve also showcases the stability and reproducibility of the Ag2S/P2MA nanocomposite. Both the inorganic component Ag2S and the polymer P2MA contribute to this stability. The polymer, in particular, provides anticorrosion resistance, ensuring that the produced current density remains consistently stable over time.

Figure 4 Green hydrogen generation using the fabricated Ag2S/P2MA thin film nanoribbon photocathode with natural Red Sea water: (a) linear sweep potentiometry and (b) chopped current under different optical light conditions.
Figure 4

Green hydrogen generation using the fabricated Ag2S/P2MA thin film nanoribbon photocathode with natural Red Sea water: (a) linear sweep potentiometry and (b) chopped current under different optical light conditions.

To further assess the photocatalytic sensitivity of the fabricated Ag2S/P2MA thin film photocathode for green hydrogen provided from Red Sea water, the effect of light wavelength on the photocathode was investigated, as shown in Figure 5(a). Using linear sweep voltammetry, the resulting current densities varied according to the photon energy, ranging from −0.033 to −0.028 mA/cm2 as the light wavelengths decreased from 730 to 340 nm, respectively. Figure 5(b) presents this behavior in column form, highlighting the different responses of the photocathode to various photon energies. As photon wavelengths increase, their energies decrease, leading to a reduction in the photocathode’s efficiency for gas generation, as indicated by the J ph values. This is based on the kinetic energies of the hot electrons, which increase with higher photon energies. These electrons accumulate as dense clouds on the surface of the Ag2S/P2MA nanoribbon photocathode, enhancing its capability to interact with the surrounding solution and generate hydrogen gas. As the photon energy decreases (with increasing wavelength), the kinetic energy of the electrons diminishes, resulting in reduced photocatalytic activity for hydrogen generation.

Figure 5 Green hydrogen generation using the fabricated Ag2S/P2MA thin film nanoribbon photocathode with natural Red Sea water under different photon energies: (a) linear sweep voltammetry and (b) corresponding values derived from this curve.
Figure 5

Green hydrogen generation using the fabricated Ag2S/P2MA thin film nanoribbon photocathode with natural Red Sea water under different photon energies: (a) linear sweep voltammetry and (b) corresponding values derived from this curve.

To ensure that heavy metals contribute to mobility as an electrolyte without consuming charges and thereby affecting the electrolysis process, artificial seawater free from these heavy metals was prepared. This approach allowed for the observation of the inherent photocatalytic behavior of the Ag2S/P2MA thin film nanoribbon photocathode, as shown in Figure 6(a). The produced photocurrent in this setup is −0.015 mA/cm2, similar to that observed with natural Red Sea water. However, there is a decrease in the current density values, with J ph and J o being −0.027 and −0.012 mA/cm2, respectively. This demonstrates that the ions in Red Sea water play a crucial role in effectively activating the hydrogen gas generation reaction without consuming additional charges from the applied potential [3].

Figure 6 (a) Green hydrogen generation using the fabricated Ag2S/P2MA thin film nanoribbon photocathode with artificial seawater under different photon energies, and (b) the estimated hydrogen moles produced using Faraday’s law.
Figure 6

(a) Green hydrogen generation using the fabricated Ag2S/P2MA thin film nanoribbon photocathode with artificial seawater under different photon energies, and (b) the estimated hydrogen moles produced using Faraday’s law.

To quantify the hydrogen gas produced by the Ag2S/P2MA thin film nanoribbon photocathode, Faraday’s law of electrolysis was applied. Figure 6(b) shows that the amount of hydrogen generated is approximately 14 µmol/h cm2. This is a significant amount of hydrogen produced from a thin film surface, surpassing the hydrogen output estimated in previous studies involving polypyrrole/NiO x [32] or polyaniline/PbI2 [33], which has an H2 gas rate of about 2–5 µmol/cm2 h.

The Ag2S/P2MA thin film photocathode, therefore, emerges as a highly promising candidate for hydrogen provided from Red Sea water. Its efficiency, coupled with the potential for mass production and low cost, makes it a strong contender for industrial utilization (Table 2).

Table 2

Comparison of hydrogen moles generated by the Ag2S/P2MA thin film nanoribbon photocathode with the results from previous studies

Photocathode Electrolyte H2 moles generated (µmol/h cm2)
Polypyrrole/NiO X [32] Wastewater 2
Polyaniline/PbI2 [33] Sanitation water 5
Poly(m-toluidine)/roll-GO [34] Sewage water 4
WO2I2/polypyrrole [35] Seawater 5.2
Ag2S/P2MA nanoribbon photocathode (this study) Natural seawater 14

4 Conclusions

The Ag2S-P2MA nanoribbon photocathodes are synthesized using a one-pot method involving the oxidation of 2-mercaptoaniline with (NH4)2S2O8 and AgNO3. Characterization via SEM and TEM reveals that these nanocomposites exhibit nanoribbon structures, typically measuring a width of 150 nm and lengths ranging from 500 to 1,000 nm. Optical absorbance analyses indicate that the composite absorbs light up to 780 nm, with a bandgap of 2.16 eV.

These photocathodes are engineered for hydrogen gas generation through water splitting using two distinct electrolytes: natural Red Sea water and artificial seawater devoid of heavy metals. The Ag2S-P2MA nanoribbon photocathodes demonstrate stable performance, producing hydrogen at a rate of 12 µmol/cm2 h. In natural seawater, the light-induced J ph and J o values are −0.033 and −0.017 mA/cm2, respectively, while in artificial seawater, these values are −0.027 and −0.012 mA/cm2, respectively. Given their cost-effectiveness, stability, and potential for large-scale production, these photocathodes are well-suited for commercial electrode applications across various industrial sectors.

Acknowledgments

Researchers Supporting Program Number (RSPD2025R845), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  1. Funding information: Researchers Supporting Program Number (RSPD2025R845), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  2. Author contributions: Mohamed Rabia – methodology and writing; Eman Aldosari – writing, supervision, and project management; Aimaro Sanna and Osama Farid – supervision and revising the data. All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

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Received: 2024-09-01
Revised: 2024-10-14
Accepted: 2024-10-29
Published Online: 2025-01-23

© 2025 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  3. Abundant new interaction solutions and nonlinear dynamics for the (3+1)-dimensional Hirota–Satsuma–Ito-like equation
  4. A novel gold and SiO2 material based planar 5-element high HPBW end-fire antenna array for 300 GHz applications
  5. Explicit exact solutions and bifurcation analysis for the mZK equation with truncated M-fractional derivatives utilizing two reliable methods
  6. Optical and laser damage resistance: Role of periodic cylindrical surfaces
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  9. Dynamical wave structures for some diffusion--reaction equations with quadratic and quartic nonlinearities
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  22. Exploring the dynamics of fractional-order nonlinear dispersive wave system through homotopy technique
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  77. Influence of a magnetic field on double-porosity photo-thermoelastic materials under Lord–Shulman theory
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https://doi.org/10.1515/phys-2024-0095
Keywords for this article
poly-2-mercaptoaniline; nanoribbon; green hydrogen; photocathode; renewable energy
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Single-step fabrication of Ag2S/poly-2-mercaptoaniline nanoribbon photocathodes for green hydrogen generation from artificial and natural red-sea water
  3. Abundant new interaction solutions and nonlinear dynamics for the (3+1)-dimensional Hirota–Satsuma–Ito-like equation
  4. A novel gold and SiO2 material based planar 5-element high HPBW end-fire antenna array for 300 GHz applications
  5. Explicit exact solutions and bifurcation analysis for the mZK equation with truncated M-fractional derivatives utilizing two reliable methods
  6. Optical and laser damage resistance: Role of periodic cylindrical surfaces
  7. Numerical study of flow and heat transfer in the air-side metal foam partially filled channels of panel-type radiator under forced convection
  8. Water-based hybrid nanofluid flow containing CNT nanoparticles over an extending surface with velocity slips, thermal convective, and zero-mass flux conditions
  9. Dynamical wave structures for some diffusion--reaction equations with quadratic and quartic nonlinearities
  10. Solving an isotropic grey matter tumour model via a heat transfer equation
  11. Study on the penetration protection of a fiber-reinforced composite structure with CNTs/GFP clip STF/3DKevlar
  12. Influence of Hall current and acoustic pressure on nanostructured DPL thermoelastic plates under ramp heating in a double-temperature model
  13. Applications of the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction–diffusion system: Analytical and numerical approaches
  14. AC electroosmotic flow of Maxwell fluid in a pH-regulated parallel-plate silica nanochannel
  15. Interpreting optical effects with relativistic transformations adopting one-way synchronization to conserve simultaneity and space–time continuity
  16. Modeling and analysis of quantum communication channel in airborne platforms with boundary layer effects
  17. Theoretical and numerical investigation of a memristor system with a piecewise memductance under fractal–fractional derivatives
  18. Tuning the structure and electro-optical properties of α-Cr2O3 films by heat treatment/La doping for optoelectronic applications
  19. High-speed multi-spectral explosion temperature measurement using golden-section accelerated Pearson correlation algorithm
  20. Dynamic behavior and modulation instability of the generalized coupled fractional nonlinear Helmholtz equation with cubic–quintic term
  21. Study on the duration of laser-induced air plasma flash near thin film surface
  22. Exploring the dynamics of fractional-order nonlinear dispersive wave system through homotopy technique
  23. The mechanism of carbon monoxide fluorescence inside a femtosecond laser-induced plasma
  24. Numerical solution of a nonconstant coefficient advection diffusion equation in an irregular domain and analyses of numerical dispersion and dissipation
  25. Numerical examination of the chemically reactive MHD flow of hybrid nanofluids over a two-dimensional stretching surface with the Cattaneo–Christov model and slip conditions
  26. Impacts of sinusoidal heat flux and embraced heated rectangular cavity on natural convection within a square enclosure partially filled with porous medium and Casson-hybrid nanofluid
  27. Stability analysis of unsteady ternary nanofluid flow past a stretching/shrinking wedge
  28. Solitonic wave solutions of a Hamiltonian nonlinear atom chain model through the Hirota bilinear transformation method
  29. Bilinear form and soltion solutions for (3+1)-dimensional negative-order KdV-CBS equation
  30. Solitary chirp pulses and soliton control for variable coefficients cubic–quintic nonlinear Schrödinger equation in nonuniform management system
  31. Influence of decaying heat source and temperature-dependent thermal conductivity on photo-hydro-elasto semiconductor media
  32. Dissipative disorder optimization in the radiative thin film flow of partially ionized non-Newtonian hybrid nanofluid with second-order slip condition
  33. Bifurcation, chaotic behavior, and traveling wave solutions for the fractional (4+1)-dimensional Davey–Stewartson–Kadomtsev–Petviashvili model
  34. New investigation on soliton solutions of two nonlinear PDEs in mathematical physics with a dynamical property: Bifurcation analysis
  35. Mathematical analysis of nanoparticle type and volume fraction on heat transfer efficiency of nanofluids
  36. Creation of single-wing Lorenz-like attractors via a ten-ninths-degree term
  37. Optical soliton solutions, bifurcation analysis, chaotic behaviors of nonlinear Schrödinger equation and modulation instability in optical fiber
  38. Chaotic dynamics and some solutions for the (n + 1)-dimensional modified Zakharov–Kuznetsov equation in plasma physics
  39. Fractal formation and chaotic soliton phenomena in nonlinear conformable Heisenberg ferromagnetic spin chain equation
  40. Single-step fabrication of Mn(iv) oxide-Mn(ii) sulfide/poly-2-mercaptoaniline porous network nanocomposite for pseudo-supercapacitors and charge storage
  41. Novel constructed dynamical analytical solutions and conserved quantities of the new (2+1)-dimensional KdV model describing acoustic wave propagation
  42. Tavis–Cummings model in the presence of a deformed field and time-dependent coupling
  43. Spinning dynamics of stress-dependent viscosity of generalized Cross-nonlinear materials affected by gravitationally swirling disk
  44. Design and prediction of high optical density photovoltaic polymers using machine learning-DFT studies
  45. Robust control and preservation of quantum steering, nonlocality, and coherence in open atomic systems
  46. Coating thickness and process efficiency of reverse roll coating using a magnetized hybrid nanomaterial flow
  47. Dynamic analysis, circuit realization, and its synchronization of a new chaotic hyperjerk system
  48. Decoherence of steerability and coherence dynamics induced by nonlinear qubit–cavity interactions
  49. Finite element analysis of turbulent thermal enhancement in grooved channels with flat- and plus-shaped fins
  50. Modulational instability and associated ion-acoustic modulated envelope solitons in a quantum plasma having ion beams
  51. Statistical inference of constant-stress partially accelerated life tests under type II generalized hybrid censored data from Burr III distribution
  52. On solutions of the Dirac equation for 1D hydrogenic atoms or ions
  53. Entropy optimization for chemically reactive magnetized unsteady thin film hybrid nanofluid flow on inclined surface subject to nonlinear mixed convection and variable temperature
  54. Stability analysis, circuit simulation, and color image encryption of a novel four-dimensional hyperchaotic model with hidden and self-excited attractors
  55. A high-accuracy exponential time integration scheme for the Darcy–Forchheimer Williamson fluid flow with temperature-dependent conductivity
  56. Novel analysis of fractional regularized long-wave equation in plasma dynamics
  57. Development of a photoelectrode based on a bismuth(iii) oxyiodide/intercalated iodide-poly(1H-pyrrole) rough spherical nanocomposite for green hydrogen generation
  58. Investigation of solar radiation effects on the energy performance of the (Al2O3–CuO–Cu)/H2O ternary nanofluidic system through a convectively heated cylinder
  59. Quantum resources for a system of two atoms interacting with a deformed field in the presence of intensity-dependent coupling
  60. Studying bifurcations and chaotic dynamics in the generalized hyperelastic-rod wave equation through Hamiltonian mechanics
  61. A new numerical technique for the solution of time-fractional nonlinear Klein–Gordon equation involving Atangana–Baleanu derivative using cubic B-spline functions
  62. Interaction solutions of high-order breathers and lumps for a (3+1)-dimensional conformable fractional potential-YTSF-like model
  63. Hydraulic fracturing radioactive source tracing technology based on hydraulic fracturing tracing mechanics model
  64. Numerical solution and stability analysis of non-Newtonian hybrid nanofluid flow subject to exponential heat source/sink over a Riga sheet
  65. Numerical investigation of mixed convection and viscous dissipation in couple stress nanofluid flow: A merged Adomian decomposition method and Mohand transform
  66. Effectual quintic B-spline functions for solving the time fractional coupled Boussinesq–Burgers equation arising in shallow water waves
  67. Analysis of MHD hybrid nanofluid flow over cone and wedge with exponential and thermal heat source and activation energy
  68. Solitons and travelling waves structure for M-fractional Kairat-II equation using three explicit methods
  69. Impact of nanoparticle shapes on the heat transfer properties of Cu and CuO nanofluids flowing over a stretching surface with slip effects: A computational study
  70. Computational simulation of heat transfer and nanofluid flow for two-sided lid-driven square cavity under the influence of magnetic field
  71. Irreversibility analysis of a bioconvective two-phase nanofluid in a Maxwell (non-Newtonian) flow induced by a rotating disk with thermal radiation
  72. Hydrodynamic and sensitivity analysis of a polymeric calendering process for non-Newtonian fluids with temperature-dependent viscosity
  73. Exploring the peakon solitons molecules and solitary wave structure to the nonlinear damped Kortewege–de Vries equation through efficient technique
  74. Modeling and heat transfer analysis of magnetized hybrid micropolar blood-based nanofluid flow in Darcy–Forchheimer porous stenosis narrow arteries
  75. Activation energy and cross-diffusion effects on 3D rotating nanofluid flow in a Darcy–Forchheimer porous medium with radiation and convective heating
  76. Insights into chemical reactions occurring in generalized nanomaterials due to spinning surface with melting constraints
  77. Influence of a magnetic field on double-porosity photo-thermoelastic materials under Lord–Shulman theory
  78. Soliton-like solutions for a nonlinear doubly dispersive equation in an elastic Murnaghan's rod via Hirota's bilinear method
  79. Analytical and numerical investigation of exact wave patterns and chaotic dynamics in the extended improved Boussinesq equation
  80. Nonclassical correlation dynamics of Heisenberg XYZ states with (x, y)-spin--orbit interaction, x-magnetic field, and intrinsic decoherence effects
  81. Exact traveling wave and soliton solutions for chemotaxis model and (3+1)-dimensional Boiti–Leon–Manna–Pempinelli equation
  82. Unveiling the transformative role of samarium in ZnO: Exploring structural and optical modifications for advanced functional applications
  83. Review Article
  84. Examination of the gamma radiation shielding properties of different clay and sand materials in the Adrar region
  85. Special Issue on Fundamental Physics from Atoms to Cosmos - Part II
  86. Possible explanation for the neutron lifetime puzzle
  87. Special Issue on Nanomaterial utilization and structural optimization - Part III
  88. Numerical investigation on fluid-thermal-electric performance of a thermoelectric-integrated helically coiled tube heat exchanger for coal mine air cooling
  89. Special Issue on Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos in Physical Systems
  90. Analysis of the fractional relativistic isothermal gas sphere with application to neutron stars
  91. Abundant wave symmetries in the (3+1)-dimensional Chafee–Infante equation through the Hirota bilinear transformation technique
  92. Successive midpoint method for fractional differential equations with nonlocal kernels: Error analysis, stability, and applications
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