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Effect of CNTs and MEA on the creep of face-slab concrete at an early age

  • Zhifang Zhao EMAIL logo , Cong Xiao , Bo Fang , Yongjiu Lu , Tao Shi , Zhigang Zhao and Xiaofeng Gao
Published/Copyright: July 2, 2022
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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 11 Issue 1

Abstract

The creep of face-slab concrete in a rockfill dam is critical for determining the restrained stress and cracking resistance of the concrete at an early age. In this article, the mix proportion of the face-slab concrete for a rockfill dam under construction without any cracking resistance additive was taken as the reference concrete (called JC) mix proportion. The carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and magnesium oxide expansion agent (MEA) were incorporated into JC to prepare face-slab concretes called NC and PC, respectively. The temperature–stress tests under temperature matching curing (TMC) and constant temperature curing (CTC) modes were conducted on these three kinds of concretes to investigate the effects of CNTs and MEA on the early-age creep properties of the face-slab concrete under variable stress conditions. The results showed that the creep performance of NC concrete under CTC mode was lower than that under TMC mode. Combined with mercury intrusion porosimetry test results, the mechanism of the effect of CNTs and MEA on creep was analyzed. The results showed that the temperature change may lead to the CNTs debonding from the cementitious matrix or matrix cracking for the NC concrete. The incorporation of CNTs can increase the early-age creep and improve the cracking resistance of concrete.

Keywords: creep; carbon nanotubes; magnesium oxide expansion agent; temperature–stress test; multi-scale investigation

1 Introduction

The internal stresses caused by the constrained concrete deformation at early age exceeding the concrete tensile strength is a leading cause of concrete cracking at early ages [1]. When constrained, the concrete develops stresses at an early age depending on the temperature variations, autogenous shrinkage, and viscoelastic-creep property, leading to stress relaxation [2]. The tensile creep of concrete is a key factor in accurately evaluating internal stress.

For the constrained early-age concrete, creep can relax more than 60% tensile stress caused by the volume changes [3,4]. Therefore, it is imperative to consider creep when assessing the concrete cracking resistance. At present, the expansive properties of cement with high MgO content or concrete mixed with magnesium oxide expansion agent (MEA) have been widely studied. Hawreen [5] showed by scanning electron microscopy that carbon nanotubes (CNTs) can play a bridging role in concrete and affect micro-cracks extension within the interfacial transition zone. In addition, CNTs had a significant inhibiting effect on the early-age concrete shrinkage and thus affected concrete creep. Nochaiya [6] demonstrated using mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) that CNTs incorporation could effectively reduce the porosity of cementitious materials, making the microstructure denser and more compact. The possible reasons are the bridging effects, fiber pull-out, micro-filling, and accelerated hydration by the CNTs. It can also improve the microstructure of cementitious materials [7]. Chen et al. [8] confirmed that the lower the reactivity of MEA, the stronger the effect of its particle size on the expansion. Ma [9] suggested that for the same dosage incorporation of MEA, the concrete under higher curing temperature exhibited faster expansion and reached greater ultimate expansion during a shorter period. In addition to the study of MEA to improve the concrete cracking resistance [10], Zhang and Deng [11] further conducted an in-depth study on the expansion mechanism of the cement paste incorporating MEA. It was found that the expansion was caused by the generation and growth of Mg(OH)2 crystals. Most creep tests and models presented earlier mainly focused on compressive creep of mature concrete, while there are a few studies on tensile creep of concrete at early ages [12,13]. In recent years, researchers have begun to pay attention to early-age creep with the application of high-performance concrete. However, they still focused on compressive creep and even took the long age compressive creep as early-age tensile creep, so the assessment accuracy of early-age tensile creep decreased and can only be used for the qualitative analysis [14].

The viscoelastic behavior of concrete may be different under tension and compression. So, the tensile creep study is necessary for analyzing the internal stress of concrete. Although some progress has been made by using the CNTs and MEA to improve the mechanical properties and durability of cementitious materials, the effects and mechanisms of the two anti-cracking admixtures on the creep of concrete at an early age are still unclear [15,16]. It is direly needed to investigate the effect of the CNTs and MEA on the early-age creep of the face-slab concrete by multi-scale tests, to elucidate the mechanism of improved cracking resistance. Till now, the research on creep mechanism mainly includes viscoelastic theory, seepage theory, viscous flow theory, plastic flow theory, and micro-crack theory [17,18]. The solidification theory for concrete creep [19,20] combines elastic, viscoelastic, and rheological theories.

It is very difficult to measure early-age tensile creep. Most of the current research uses the following two testing methods. One is to apply a constant load on a concrete specimen using a device [21]. In this method, first, a constant load determined by the early-age tensile strength of concrete is applied to the concrete specimen. However, because of the low tensile strength of early-age concrete, this testing method is more suitable for measuring the tensile creep after 3-day age. The other testing method employs a uniaxial constraint testing device, which can measure creep deformation and restrained stress under different conditions by controlling the restrained degree and temperature variation [22]. The temperature–stress testing machine (TSTM) can be employed to conduct three simulations to study and analyze the cracking resistance of the face-slab concrete at an early age by linking the concrete material to its performance in structures, namely, the simulation for fresh concrete behaviors at an early age starts with mixing, the simulation for the concrete structure being restrained, and the curing temperature simulation for the concrete inside the actual structure. It is a scientific method for testing the physical and mechanical properties and cracking resistance of concrete at an early age from a holistic perspective. In this study, the early-age creeps of the three face-slab concretes – JC for the reference face-slab concrete, NC for the JC incorporation of CNTs, and PC for the JC incorporation of MEA – were experimentally investigated using TSTM and MIP tests.

2 Experimental work

In this study, 0.1 wt% CNT or 5.0 wt% MgO-type expansive agent (MEA) was added to a reference face-slab concrete to prepare three face-slab concrete mixes, and these were termed JC, NC, and PC, respectively. The TST were conducted for both restrained and free three kinds of concrete specimens under temperature matching curing (TMC) mode and constant temperature curing (CTC) mode. In order to investigate the mechanism of CNTs and MEA affecting the early-age creep of face-slab concrete, a MIP experiment was performed to study the effects of the two anti-cracking agents on the pore structure of the face-slab concrete.

2.1 Materials

In this study, Ordinary Portland cement P.O 42.5 and Class F fly ash were used. The chemical composition of the cement is shown in Table 1. The coarse and fine aggregates were all artificial crushed gravel. Crushed sand with a fineness modulus of 2.97 was selected. The apparent density and absorption were determined as 2630 kg/m3 and 1.7%, respectively. The mixture design used two coarse aggregate gradations. The small gravel with a 5–20 mm particle size accounted for 45% of the total coarse aggregate by mass. The medium gravel with a 20–40 mm particle size accounted for another 55%. The apparent density of both the small gravel and medium gravel was found as 2,620 kg/m3, whereas the corresponding water absorption was 0.61 and 0.88%, respectively. Polycarboxylate superplasticizer and air-entraining agent were also used. The properties of the CNTs are given in Table 2. The properties of the MEA and mortar with MEA are shown in Table 3. The other material properties can be found in the reference [23].

Table 1

The chemical compositions of cement

Oxide SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 LOI
Content/% 23.21 5.23 3.70 58.62 2.05 2.78 2.44
Table 2

Physical properties of multi-walled CNTs

Inner diameter (nm) Outer diameter (nm) Length (μm) Purity (%) Specific surface area (m2/g) True density (g/cm3) Electric conductivity (S/cm)
5–15 >50 <10 >95 >40 ∼2.1 >100
Table 3

Properties of MEA and mortar with MEA

Items MgO Content (%) LOI (%) Reaction time (s) Setting time (min) Fineness Restrained expansion rate
Initial Final 1.18-mm-square Hole Sieve Residual (%) 80-μm-square hole sieve residual (%) 7 days in 20°C Water
MEA 86.54 1.20 112 160 200 0 1.6 0.015

Chen and Chen [24] showed that the expansion of concrete increased with the increased dosage of MgO. The concentration of the used MEA was 5% of the binder by mass according to the Chinese industry-standard GB23439-2009 [25]. The optimized concentration of the CNTs is 0.1% [5,26,27]. The same raw materials were employed in all three face-slab concrete mixes. The mix proportions of the three face-slab concrete are shown in Table 4.

Table 4

Mix proportions of the three kinds of concretes (kg/m3)

Concrete mix Unit content (kg/m3)
W/B Water Cement Fly ash Sand Gravel Water-reducer (W.R.) Air-entraining agent (A.E.)
(5–20) mm (20–40) mm
JC 0.48 120 188 63 768 541 661 1.506 0.0100
PC 0.48 120 188 63 768 537 657 1.750 0.0125
NC 0.48 120 188 63 768 541 661 1.875 0.0088

2.2 TST

2.2.1 Curing regime for TSTM test

2.2.1.1 TMC mode test

Based on the ambient temperature and the heat release capacity of the binder of an actual concrete face-slab rockfill dam (CFRD) during its construction period, the TMC history curve was designed to guide the curing of the TSTM specimen, as shown in Figure 1. The casting temperature of the three concretes was set as 11°C to be consistent with the actual pouring conditions of the CFRD project. The face-slab structure is often cured by water on the concrete surface within 90 days with fast heat dissipation. Thus, the semi-adiabatic temperature rise was suggested as the first temperature plateau of the TMC curve [23]. Combined with the pouring temperature, the first temperature plateau values of JC, PC, and NC were 24.0, 24.5, and 24.1°C, respectively. Based on the local maximum ambient temperature over the years at the construction site, a temperature of 38.7°C was adopted as the second temperature plateau value. The lowest setting temperature of the TSTM is –15.0°C. Each experiment took 48 h to raise and maintain the temperature to the designed temperature peak value, and the cooling duration was set to 120 h. The TSTM test lasted for about 312 h.

Figure 1 Schematic diagram of the designed TMC and CTC for guiding TSTM tests of the three face-slab concretes.
Figure 1

Schematic diagram of the designed TMC and CTC for guiding TSTM tests of the three face-slab concretes.

2.2.1.2 CTC mode test

As shown in Figure 1, the constant temperature stage and the cooling stage are the two parts of the CTC mode. At the constant temperature stage, the circulating medium temperature of the template in the TSTM was controlled at 20°C, while the center of the TSTM specimen was kept at the same temperature. The temperature difference between them was kept within ±0.15°C. The cooling start time under CTC mode was determined according to the cooling start time under TMC mode, which kept the face-slab concrete having the same maturity based on the equivalent curing age. Figure 1 shows the temperature history curve input in the computer to guide TST under CTC mode. It took 12.3, 12.4, and 12.3 days, respectively, to keep the JC, PC, and NC at the 20°C CTC stage. The cooling rate under CTC mode was kept the same as that under the TMC mode at the cooling stage. The TSTM specimen was cooled at a rate of 0.45°C/h until the TSTM minimum temperature limit of –15.0°C was reached. It took 3.3 days at the cooling stage.

2.2.2 TSTM test procedure

The HYPY-TSTM-I was employed. The testing principle and method have already been provided in detail [22,28] and are not repeated here to avoid duplication of redundant information. As shown in Figure 2, the TSTM used two dog-bone-shape specimens for a single test, one for the restrained specimen and the other for the free specimen. The sizes of the TSTM specimen are as follows: a center section of 150 mm × 150 mm and an effective length of 1,500 mm. The two specimens were cured under the same temperature history since casting in the TSTM. The two specimens for each test were wrapped with a plastic sheet and sealed in the molds to avoid drying shrinkage. The ambient temperature of the lab was controlled by (20 ± 2)°C. The TSTM was equipped with two molds, a load cell, a temperature-controlled system, temperature sensors, and displacement sensors. This device is the same as the previous work [23]. The concrete temperature, applied load, specimen deformations, and displacement of moving cross-head were automatically recorded by a computer. The testing began immediately after casting, and the test data were recorded every 1 min.

Figure 2 Schematic diagram of the TSTM system [22].
Figure 2

Schematic diagram of the TSTM system [22].

2.3 Pore structure by MIP

A mercury porosimeter-AutoPore IV 9510 was used for the MIP test. Mortar specimens from the corresponding face-slab concrete were used for the tests. The 28 days cured mortar specimen was broken, and the obtained 3–5 mm fragments were stored in ethanol to inhibit the hydration reaction. The three specimens for each face-slab concrete mix were removed after 24 h and dried in a 60°C oven for another 24 h. Subsequently, the pore structure and pore size distribution were characterized by the MIP test.

3 TSTM test results and analysis

3.1 TMC mode test

The measured temperature development curves for the three face-slab concretes under TMC mode are shown in Figure 3, and the free deformation strain and restrained stress development curves are shown in Figure 4.

Figure 3 Measured temperature curves of the three concretes under TMC mode.
Figure 3

Measured temperature curves of the three concretes under TMC mode.

Figure 4 Measured free strain and restrained stress curves of the three concretes under TMC mode: (a) free deformation strain and (b) restrained stress.
Figure 4

Measured free strain and restrained stress curves of the three concretes under TMC mode: (a) free deformation strain and (b) restrained stress.

Figure 4(a) shows that the free strain of JC, PC, and NC increased with the increase in temperature, and the expansion deformation reached 84.2, 75.1, and 145.7 με, respectively, at the first temperature peak and 179.0, 165.7, and 239.0 με at the second temperature peak. At the cooling stage, the contraction rate of JC is slightly faster than that of NC, and PC is the slowest. The maximum shrinkage deformation of JC, PC, and NC is –164.0, –124.3, and –74.5 με, respectively. The thermal expansion deformation of NC was the largest, which may be because the micro-filling effect of CNTs decreased the concrete porosity, making the microstructure denser, refined, and more compact. The expansion due to volume elimination by the pore water and solid materials entering the pores was less, making the early thermal expansion coefficient of concrete higher [29].

The development of restrained stress of three concretes under TMC mode is shown in Figure 4(b). The positive value is for compressive stress, whereas the negative value represents tensile stress. It is shown that all three concretes exhibited compression during the heating and temperature peak stage. The compressive stress increased with the increase in temperature. At the second temperature peak stage, the maximum compressive stresses of 1.55, 1.69, and 1.42 MPa were reached. During the period of temperature peak maintenance, the compressive stress of JC, PC, and NC decreased with age due to the concrete creep. At the cooling stage, the specimen shrank rapidly, and the tensile stress of the concretes developed rapidly after 214 h. The tensile stress of JC reached –1.80 MPa at 303 h, PC reached –1.64 MPa at 301 h, and NC reached –1.44 MPa at 300 h. The cracking stresses of JC, PC, and NC were –2.00, –2.29, and –1.98 MPa, respectively. It can be seen from Figure 3(b) that at the heating stage, the compressive stress development of NC was lower than that of JC and PC, while at the cooling stage, the tensile stress development of NC was also lower than those of JC and PC. The possible reason may be as follows:

  1. The bridging and filling effects of the CNTs improved the stress distribution in concrete and reduced the restrained stress.

  2. The stress relaxation of NC was large, and the compressive creep and tensile creep can relax part of the constrained stress.

3.2 CTC mode test

The measured temperature development curves for the three face-slab concretes under CTC mode are shown in Figure 5, and the free deformation strain and restrained stress development curves are shown in Figure 6.

Figure 5 Measured temperature curves of the three concretes under CTC mode.
Figure 5

Measured temperature curves of the three concretes under CTC mode.

Figure 6 (a) Free deformation strain and (b) restrained stress curves of the three concretes under CTC mode.
Figure 6

(a) Free deformation strain and (b) restrained stress curves of the three concretes under CTC mode.

The free strain curves of the three concretes under CTC mode are shown in Figure 6(a). At the stage of the constant curing temperature of 20°C, JC and NC exhibited a slowly increasing shrinkage deformation due to the autogenous shrinkage of concrete. However, the expansion and shrinkage of the PC concrete were superimposed due to MEA addition, while the free strain of PC oscillated around zero at the constant temperature stage. It shows that the MEA could effectively compensate for the concrete shrinkage and delay the occurrence of tensile stress. Before cooling, the free strain of JC and NC specimens reached –29.8 and –24.8 με, respectively. At the constant temperature maintenance stage, the free strain of NC was reduced by 16.8% compared to JC. It may be due to the CNTs bridging micro-cracks and filling pores, which effectively reduced the autogenous shrinkage of concrete [26]. At the cooling stage, the JC, PC, and NC shrunk rapidly, and the maximum shrinkage deformation values were –158.0, –138.0, and –170.3 με, respectively.

The development curves of restrained stress of the three concretes under CTC mode are shown in Figure 6(b). The initial restrained stresses in JC, PC, and NC were compressive. At the constant temperature stage, the central temperature of the NC specimen fluctuated around 20°C, and the tensile stress increased due to the continuous shrinkage of NC. At the constant temperature stage, the restrained stresses of the JC and NC were very small, within 0.08 MPa to –0.16 MPa. The constrained stress of PC fluctuated around 0 MPa. The three concretes reached the maximum tensile stresses at the cooling stage, including –1.41 MPa at 356.0 h for JC, –1.21 MPa at 354.5 h for PC, and –1.42 MPa at 354.5 h for NC. The cracking stresses in JC, PC, and NC were –1.71, –1.99, and –1.97 MPa, respectively. According to the temperature–stress relationship curves of the three concretes at the cooling stage, the cracking temperatures of JC, PC, and NC were –14.8, –22.3, and –19.4°C, respectively.

Combined with Figures 4 and 6, it can be seen that there were obvious differences between the developments of early-age restrained stress of the three concretes. Under the TMC mode, each concrete group was compressed at the heating and temperature peak maintenance stages (before 192 h). At the cooling stage, the concrete shrank, and the tensile stress began to develop after 214 h. Under the CTC mode, the stresses of the three concretes were almost tensile at the constant temperature stage, and the tensile stress developed rapidly at the cooling stage. The results demonstrated that the cracking stresses of the three concretes under TMC mode were higher than those under CTC mode. The curing temperature significantly affected the development of early-age restrained stress in the concretes.

3.3 Creep and specific creep of the concrete under TMC mode

In this article, the creep is calculated by subtracting the cumulative curve from the free shrinkage using the strain assessment method proposed by Kovler [30]. The tensile creeps of JC, PC, and NC under TMC mode were determined, as shown in Figure 7(a). In order to better evaluate the creep of concrete under variable stress, the specific creep was introduced, namely, the corresponding creep under unit load. The creeps are shown in Figure 7(b).

Figure 7 (a) Tensile creep and (b) specific creep, for three concretes under TMC mode.
Figure 7

(a) Tensile creep and (b) specific creep, for three concretes under TMC mode.

From Figure 7(a), it can be found that the tensile creeps of JC, PC, and NC developed at the ages of 215, 215, and 209 h, respectively. When the curing temperature of TSTM dropped to –15°C, the tensile creeps of the three concretes were 208.6, 177.8, and 217.0 με, respectively. The tensile creep trend was found as NC ＞ JC ＞ PC. From Figure 7(b), when the specific creeps of the three concretes tended to stabilize, the specific creep of NC was greater than those of JC and PC. The specific creep of JC was close to that of PC. It may be because the tensile stress of PC was smaller than those of the other two concretes due to MEA addition.

3.4 Creep and specific creep of the concrete under CTC mode

The tensile creeps and specific creeps of JC, PC, and NC under CTC mode are shown in Figure 8. From Figure 8(a), it can be found that the tensile creeps and development rates of the three concretes under CTC mode were lower than those under TMC mode. This is attributed to the larger thermal expansion deformations and shrinkage deformations of the specimens under TMC mode. It promoted the development of restrained stress. Compared to the properties under TMC mode, the creeps of the three concretes were closer to each other under the CTC mode. From Figure 7(b), when the specific creeps of the three concretes tended to be stable, the order of the specific creep was PC ＞ NC ＞ JC.

Figure 8 (a) Tensile creep and (b) specific creep of three concretes under CTC mode.
Figure 8

(a) Tensile creep and (b) specific creep of three concretes under CTC mode.

The temperature played a dual role in affecting concrete creep [31]. The higher curing temperature accelerated the hydration rate of concrete, promoted the maturity of concrete, and led to the rapid increase of elastic modulus and strength of concrete at an early age [32]. The negative correlation between concrete strength and creep made the creep decrease (negative effect). On the other hand, the increased temperature can decrease the viscosity of water and C–S–H gel, and accelerate the bond breakages and restorations of the C–S–H gel layer [33], thus increasing the creep rate (positive effect). The positive effect usually dominates it, that is, the concrete creep increases with increasing temperature [31]. Comparing Figure 7 with Figure 8, it can be found that the curing temperature has a significant effect on the creep of the concrete.

4 MIP test results and analysis

The MIP tests of the three face-slab concretes were conducted at 28 days of age. The porosity, pore-volume, and pore size distribution curves of the corresponding mortars were obtained, as shown in Figure 9 through Figures 10 and 11. From Figure 9, the total porosity of PC decreased by 6.6%, and that of PC decreased by 9.1% compared to JC, respectively. As shown in Figure 10, the pore volume, average pore diameter, and median pore diameter of JC, PC, and NC decreased. As shown in Figure 11, the pore size distribution curves of JC, PC, and NC had the same trend, and the most probable pore sizes were all 40 nm. As shown in Figure 11(b) and (c), the pores were divided into two categories: the pore size is larger than 50 nm (macropores) and smaller than 50 nm (mesopores). The dV/d(log D) of JC had the peak value and that of NC had the lowest value, which was about 0.11 and 0.09 mL/g, respectively.

Figure 9 Porosity of the three concretes at 28 days.
Figure 9

Porosity of the three concretes at 28 days.

Figure 10 Comparison of (a) pore diameter and (b) pore volume of the three concretes.
Figure 10

Comparison of (a) pore diameter and (b) pore volume of the three concretes.

Figure 11 Pore size distribution and cumulative pore volume of JC, PC, and NC at 28 days: (a) pore size distribution, (b) enlarged pore size distribution, and (c) cumulative pore volume.
Figure 11

Pore size distribution and cumulative pore volume of JC, PC, and NC at 28 days: (a) pore size distribution, (b) enlarged pore size distribution, and (c) cumulative pore volume.

Compared to JC, the porosity, average pore size, pore volume, and dV/d(log D) of PC decreased owing to the denser microstructure. This was because the MgO hydration led to the volume expansion of Mg(OH)2. Compared to JC, the porosity, average pore size, and dV/d(log D) of NC decreased. It may be because the smaller diameter (50 nm) and larger specific surface area of the CNTs can effectively fill the pores between the hydration products and provide larger nucleation sites, namely, the micro-filler and nucleation effects provided by CNTs [34,35,36]. It improved the microstructure of the face-slab concrete and reduced the porosity.

5 Analysis of creep mechanism

5.1 The effect of MEA on the creep

The TSTM test results showed that both MEA and CNTs could improve the early-age creep performance of the face-slab concretes. The MEA used in this study was the light burning type. The light-burning MEA can produce volume expansion and effective expansion energy by the hydration reaction [37]. The expansion of cement paste mixed with MEA was originally due to the formation and growth of Mg(OH)2 crystals [38]. The magnesium hydroxide crystals (brucite) were formed by the hydration of magnesium oxide, and the volume can be increased by 94.0–123.8%. The expansion mainly depended on the location and size of Mg(OH)2 crystals. The direct driving force of the expansion comes from the swelling force and crystallization pressure of Mg(OH)2 crystals. However, as the hydration rate of the MgO was unsteady, so it led to the unstable released expansion energy. The microscopic result of the MEA expansion was to fill and squeeze the original pores of the concrete. So, the porosity, pore diameter, and pore volume for PC were significantly lower than those for JC. At the macro-level, the original cracks of early-age concrete may be filled and squeezed by the MEA hydration products, enhancing the concrete tensile creep and improving the cracking resistance.

5.2 Effect of CNTs on the creep

The TSTM test results showed that the creep of NC under TMC mode was significantly larger than that under CTC mode. Under both curing modes, the creep of NC was larger than that of JC. According to the Chinese testing code [39], the tested thermal expansion coefficient of JC at 180 days was 8.04 × 10−6/°C. It is known that the thermal expansion coefficient of CNTs was about –12.00 × 10−6/°C [40]. Figure 12 is the schematic diagram of the effect of temperature change on the NC. Under TMC mode, CNTs contract with the increasing temperature and expand with the decreasing temperature, whereas the cementitious matrix exhibits the opposite behavior. As shown in Figure 12, the CNTs are tightly wrapped by the matrix since the initial setting moment, and the holes with the same radius as CNTs are formed. When the temperature does not change, the CNTs are embedded and adhere to the holes. As the temperature increases, the holes grow larger with concrete expansion, and CNTs shrink and radially debond with the matrix. When the temperature decreases, the holes tend to shrink. At this time, CNTs expand and squeeze with the matrix, resulting in the concrete cracking by the circumferential tension. When concrete is mixed with a proper amount of CNTs, the porosity and pore structure of the concrete can be improved. Also, it is possible to increase the tensile strength and ultimate tensile strain of concrete with CNT incorporation. On the other hand, the difference in thermal expansion coefficient between the CNTs and concrete will lead to the CNTs debonding or the matrix cracking in concrete when the temperature changes. The multiple factors affected the creep performance of the concrete.

Figure 12 Effect of temperature change on the NC (the dashed line shows the initial position of the matrix before deformation).
Figure 12

Effect of temperature change on the NC (the dashed line shows the initial position of the matrix before deformation).

Besides the material factors affecting concrete creep, for example, cement quality, water/cement ratio, aggregate properties, gradation, and admixtures, there are other factors, such as curing conditions, load level, and specimen size. The theories mentioned earlier failed to explain the concrete creep mechanism due to these multiple factors. By comparing and studying the creep and pore structure of the three concretes under TMC mode, the creep mechanism of the face-slab concrete was explained. Because the hardened cement paste has an extremely high inner surface area, the state of the adsorbed water on the pore surface and the condensed water in the pores will significantly impact the volume stability, mechanical properties, and durability of concrete.

6 Conclusions

Combined with the TSTM test and microscopic test, the effects of the CNTs and MEA on the creep characteristics of the face-slab concrete were investigated in this study. The following conclusions have been drawn from the obtained results.

  1. Under TMC mode, the restrained stress of NC was higher than that of JC and PC. The tensile creep of NC concrete was also higher than that of JC and PC. It indicated that NC concrete had a stronger creep and stress relaxation ability at an early age, and its cracking resistance was better than JC concrete. It was attributed to the difference in thermal and mechanical properties between the CNTs and concrete. When the temperature rises, the concrete expands and the CNTs contract, resulting in radial debonding between the CNTs and concrete. When the temperature decreases, the concrete tends to shrink, and the expansion of CNTs squeezes the concrete, resulting in the concrete cracking by the circumferential tension. The addition of CNTs increased the creep of concrete.

  2. Under CTC mode, the cracking temperature of NC concrete decreased by 4°C and the cracking stress increased by 15.2% compared to JC. The restrained stress development in JC and NC was similar. The tensile creep of NC concrete was 10.7% higher than that of JC. The results showed that NC concrete still had stronger creep, stress relaxation, and early-age cracking resistance under CTC mode. The creep performance of NC concrete under CTC mode was lower than that under TMC mode.

  3. The results showed that the MEA had a slight advantage as an anti-cracking agent, but its stability was not as good as the CNTs. Although the activity and fineness of the MEA can be controlled within the standard range, the consistency of surface morphology and particle size distribution of the MgO particles was not as good as the nanoscale CNTs, and its reaction time and expansion effect were not controllable. Compared to the MEA, CNTs can play the micro-filling and bridging roles due to their excellent physical and mechanical properties, which are beneficial to the cracking resistance of the face-slab concrete.

  1. Funding information: This work was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 51879235, 51479178, No. 52078460, and No. 52009123).

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2021-12-11
Revised: 2022-06-07
Accepted: 2022-06-09
Published Online: 2022-07-02

© 2022 Zhifang Zhao et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2022-0145
Keywords for this article
creep; carbon nanotubes; magnesium oxide expansion agent; temperature–stress test; multi-scale investigation
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Theoretical and experimental investigation of MWCNT dispersion effect on the elastic modulus of flexible PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposites
  3. Mechanical, morphological, and fracture-deformation behavior of MWCNTs-reinforced (Al–Cu–Mg–T351) alloy cast nanocomposites fabricated by optimized mechanical milling and powder metallurgy techniques
  4. Flammability and physical stability of sugar palm crystalline nanocellulose reinforced thermoplastic sugar palm starch/poly(lactic acid) blend bionanocomposites
  5. Glutathione-loaded non-ionic surfactant niosomes: A new approach to improve oral bioavailability and hepatoprotective efficacy of glutathione
  6. Relationship between mechano-bactericidal activity and nanoblades density on chemically strengthened glass
  7. In situ regulation of microstructure and microwave-absorbing properties of FeSiAl through HNO3 oxidation
  8. Research on a mechanical model of magnetorheological fluid different diameter particles
  9. Nanomechanical and dynamic mechanical properties of rubber–wood–plastic composites
  10. Investigative properties of CeO2 doped with niobium: A combined characterization and DFT studies
  11. Miniaturized peptidomimetics and nano-vesiculation in endothelin types through probable nano-disk formation and structure property relationships of endothelins’ fragments
  12. N/S co-doped CoSe/C nanocubes as anode materials for Li-ion batteries
  13. Synergistic effects of halloysite nanotubes with metal and phosphorus additives on the optimal design of eco-friendly sandwich panels with maximum flame resistance and minimum weight
  14. Octreotide-conjugated silver nanoparticles for active targeting of somatostatin receptors and their application in a nebulized rat model
  15. Controllable morphology of Bi2S3 nanostructures formed via hydrothermal vulcanization of Bi2O3 thin-film layer and their photoelectrocatalytic performances
  16. Development of (−)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate-loaded folate receptor-targeted nanoparticles for prostate cancer treatment
  17. Enhancement of the mechanical properties of HDPE mineral nanocomposites by filler particles modulation of the matrix plastic/elastic behavior
  18. Effect of plasticizers on the properties of sugar palm nanocellulose/cinnamon essential oil reinforced starch bionanocomposite films
  19. Optimization of nano coating to reduce the thermal deformation of ball screws
  20. Preparation of efficient piezoelectric PVDF–HFP/Ni composite films by high electric field poling
  21. MHD dissipative Casson nanofluid liquid film flow due to an unsteady stretching sheet with radiation influence and slip velocity phenomenon
  22. Effects of nano-SiO2 modification on rubberised mortar and concrete with recycled coarse aggregates
  23. Mechanical and microscopic properties of fiber-reinforced coal gangue-based geopolymer concrete
  24. Effect of morphology and size on the thermodynamic stability of cerium oxide nanoparticles: Experiment and molecular dynamics calculation
  25. Mechanical performance of a CFRP composite reinforced via gelatin-CNTs: A study on fiber interfacial enhancement and matrix enhancement
  26. A practical review over surface modification, nanopatterns, emerging materials, drug delivery systems, and their biophysiochemical properties for dental implants: Recent progresses and advances
  27. HTR: An ultra-high speed algorithm for cage recognition of clathrate hydrates
  28. Effects of microalloying elements added by in situ synthesis on the microstructure of WCu composites
  29. A highly sensitive nanobiosensor based on aptamer-conjugated graphene-decorated rhodium nanoparticles for detection of HER2-positive circulating tumor cells
  30. Progressive collapse performance of shear strengthened RC frames by nano CFRP
  31. Core–shell heterostructured composites of carbon nanotubes and imine-linked hyperbranched polymers as metal-free Li-ion anodes
  32. A Galerkin strategy for tri-hybridized mixture in ethylene glycol comprising variable diffusion and thermal conductivity using non-Fourier’s theory
  33. Simple models for tensile modulus of shape memory polymer nanocomposites at ambient temperature
  34. Preparation and morphological studies of tin sulfide nanoparticles and use as efficient photocatalysts for the degradation of rhodamine B and phenol
  35. Polyethyleneimine-impregnated activated carbon nanofiber composited graphene-derived rice husk char for efficient post-combustion CO2 capture
  36. Electrospun nanofibers of Co3O4 nanocrystals encapsulated in cyclized-polyacrylonitrile for lithium storage
  37. Pitting corrosion induced on high-strength high carbon steel wire in high alkaline deaerated chloride electrolyte
  38. Formulation of polymeric nanoparticles loaded sorafenib; evaluation of cytotoxicity, molecular evaluation, and gene expression studies in lung and breast cancer cell lines
  39. Engineered nanocomposites in asphalt binders
  40. Influence of loading voltage, domain ratio, and additional load on the actuation of dielectric elastomer
  41. Thermally induced hex-graphene transitions in 2D carbon crystals
  42. The surface modification effect on the interfacial properties of glass fiber-reinforced epoxy: A molecular dynamics study
  43. Molecular dynamics study of deformation mechanism of interfacial microzone of Cu/Al2Cu/Al composites under tension
  44. Nanocolloid simulators of luminescent solar concentrator photovoltaic windows
  45. Compressive strength and anti-chloride ion penetration assessment of geopolymer mortar merging PVA fiber and nano-SiO2 using RBF–BP composite neural network
  46. Effect of 3-mercapto-1-propane sulfonate sulfonic acid and polyvinylpyrrolidone on the growth of cobalt pillar by electrodeposition
  47. Dynamics of convective slippery constraints on hybrid radiative Sutterby nanofluid flow by Galerkin finite element simulation
  48. Preparation of vanadium by the magnesiothermic self-propagating reduction and process control
  49. Microstructure-dependent photoelectrocatalytic activity of heterogeneous ZnO–ZnS nanosheets
  50. Cytotoxic and pro-inflammatory effects of molybdenum and tungsten disulphide on human bronchial cells
  51. Improving recycled aggregate concrete by compression casting and nano-silica
  52. Chemically reactive Maxwell nanoliquid flow by a stretching surface in the frames of Newtonian heating, nonlinear convection and radiative flux: Nanopolymer flow processing simulation
  53. Nonlinear dynamic and crack behaviors of carbon nanotubes-reinforced composites with various geometries
  54. Biosynthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles and its therapeutic efficacy against colon cancer
  55. Synthesis and characterization of smart stimuli-responsive herbal drug-encapsulated nanoniosome particles for efficient treatment of breast cancer
  56. Homotopic simulation for heat transport phenomenon of the Burgers nanofluids flow over a stretching cylinder with thermal convective and zero mass flux conditions
  57. Incorporation of copper and strontium ions in TiO2 nanotubes via dopamine to enhance hemocompatibility and cytocompatibility
  58. Mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties of starch films incorporated with chitosan nanoparticles
  59. Mechanical properties and microstructure of nano-strengthened recycled aggregate concrete
  60. Glucose-responsive nanogels efficiently maintain the stability and activity of therapeutic enzymes
  61. Tunning matrix rheology and mechanical performance of ultra-high performance concrete using cellulose nanofibers
  62. Flexible MXene/copper/cellulose nanofiber heat spreader films with enhanced thermal conductivity
  63. Promoted charge separation and specific surface area via interlacing of N-doped titanium dioxide nanotubes on carbon nitride nanosheets for photocatalytic degradation of Rhodamine B
  64. Elucidating the role of silicon dioxide and titanium dioxide nanoparticles in mitigating the disease of the eggplant caused by Phomopsis vexans, Ralstonia solanacearum, and root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita
  65. An implication of magnetic dipole in Carreau Yasuda liquid influenced by engine oil using ternary hybrid nanomaterial
  66. Robust synthesis of a composite phase of copper vanadium oxide with enhanced performance for durable aqueous Zn-ion batteries
  67. Tunning self-assembled phases of bovine serum albumin via hydrothermal process to synthesize novel functional hydrogel for skin protection against UVB
  68. A comparative experimental study on damping properties of epoxy nanocomposite beams reinforced with carbon nanotubes and graphene nanoplatelets
  69. Lightweight and hydrophobic Ni/GO/PVA composite aerogels for ultrahigh performance electromagnetic interference shielding
  70. Research on the auxetic behavior and mechanical properties of periodically rotating graphene nanostructures
  71. Repairing performances of novel cement mortar modified with graphene oxide and polyacrylate polymer
  72. Closed-loop recycling and fabrication of hydrophilic CNT films with high performance
  73. Design of thin-film configuration of SnO2–Ag2O composites for NO2 gas-sensing applications
  74. Study on stress distribution of SiC/Al composites based on microstructure models with microns and nanoparticles
  75. PVDF green nanofibers as potential carriers for improving self-healing and mechanical properties of carbon fiber/epoxy prepregs
  76. Osteogenesis capability of three-dimensionally printed poly(lactic acid)-halloysite nanotube scaffolds containing strontium ranelate
  77. Silver nanoparticles induce mitochondria-dependent apoptosis and late non-canonical autophagy in HT-29 colon cancer cells
  78. Preparation and bonding mechanisms of polymer/metal hybrid composite by nano molding technology
  79. Damage self-sensing and strain monitoring of glass-reinforced epoxy composite impregnated with graphene nanoplatelet and multiwalled carbon nanotubes
  80. Thermal analysis characterisation of solar-powered ship using Oldroyd hybrid nanofluids in parabolic trough solar collector: An optimal thermal application
  81. Pyrene-functionalized halloysite nanotubes for simultaneously detecting and separating Hg(ii) in aqueous media: A comprehensive comparison on interparticle and intraparticle excimers
  82. Fabrication of self-assembly CNT flexible film and its piezoresistive sensing behaviors
  83. Thermal valuation and entropy inspection of second-grade nanoscale fluid flow over a stretching surface by applying Koo–Kleinstreuer–Li relation
  84. Mechanical properties and microstructure of nano-SiO2 and basalt-fiber-reinforced recycled aggregate concrete
  85. Characterization and tribology performance of polyaniline-coated nanodiamond lubricant additives
  86. Combined impact of Marangoni convection and thermophoretic particle deposition on chemically reactive transport of nanofluid flow over a stretching surface
  87. Spark plasma extrusion of binder free hydroxyapatite powder
  88. An investigation on thermo-mechanical performance of graphene-oxide-reinforced shape memory polymer
  89. Effect of nanoadditives on the novel leather fiber/recycled poly(ethylene-vinyl-acetate) polymer composites for multifunctional applications: Fabrication, characterizations, and multiobjective optimization using central composite design
  90. Design selection for a hemispherical dimple core sandwich panel using hybrid multi-criteria decision-making methods
  91. Improving tensile strength and impact toughness of plasticized poly(lactic acid) biocomposites by incorporating nanofibrillated cellulose
  92. Green synthesis of spinel copper ferrite (CuFe2O4) nanoparticles and their toxicity
  93. The effect of TaC and NbC hybrid and mono-nanoparticles on AA2024 nanocomposites: Microstructure, strengthening, and artificial aging
  94. Excited-state geometry relaxation of pyrene-modified cellulose nanocrystals under UV-light excitation for detecting Fe3+
  95. Effect of CNTs and MEA on the creep of face-slab concrete at an early age
  96. Effect of deformation conditions on compression phase transformation of AZ31
  97. Application of MXene as a new generation of highly conductive coating materials for electromembrane-surrounded solid-phase microextraction
  98. A comparative study of the elasto-plastic properties for ceramic nanocomposites filled by graphene or graphene oxide nanoplates
  99. Encapsulation strategies for improving the biological behavior of CdS@ZIF-8 nanocomposites
  100. Biosynthesis of ZnO NPs from pumpkin seeds’ extract and elucidation of its anticancer potential against breast cancer
  101. Preliminary trials of the gold nanoparticles conjugated chrysin: An assessment of anti-oxidant, anti-microbial, and in vitro cytotoxic activities of a nanoformulated flavonoid
  102. Effect of micron-scale pores increased by nano-SiO2 sol modification on the strength of cement mortar
  103. Fractional simulations for thermal flow of hybrid nanofluid with aluminum oxide and titanium oxide nanoparticles with water and blood base fluids
  104. The effect of graphene nano-powder on the viscosity of water: An experimental study and artificial neural network modeling
  105. Development of a novel heat- and shear-resistant nano-silica gelling agent
  106. Characterization, biocompatibility and in vivo of nominal MnO2-containing wollastonite glass-ceramic
  107. Entropy production simulation of second-grade magnetic nanomaterials flowing across an expanding surface with viscidness dissipative flux
  108. Enhancement in structural, morphological, and optical properties of copper oxide for optoelectronic device applications
  109. Aptamer-functionalized chitosan-coated gold nanoparticle complex as a suitable targeted drug carrier for improved breast cancer treatment
  110. Performance and overall evaluation of nano-alumina-modified asphalt mixture
  111. Analysis of pure nanofluid (GO/engine oil) and hybrid nanofluid (GO–Fe3O4/engine oil): Novel thermal and magnetic features
  112. Synthesis of Ag@AgCl modified anatase/rutile/brookite mixed phase TiO2 and their photocatalytic property
  113. Mechanisms and influential variables on the abrasion resistance hydraulic concrete
  114. Synergistic reinforcement mechanism of basalt fiber/cellulose nanocrystals/polypropylene composites
  115. Achieving excellent oxidation resistance and mechanical properties of TiB2–B4C/carbon aerogel composites by quick-gelation and mechanical mixing
  116. Microwave-assisted sol–gel template-free synthesis and characterization of silica nanoparticles obtained from South African coal fly ash
  117. Pulsed laser-assisted synthesis of nano nickel(ii) oxide-anchored graphitic carbon nitride: Characterizations and their potential antibacterial/anti-biofilm applications
  118. Effects of nano-ZrSi2 on thermal stability of phenolic resin and thermal reusability of quartz–phenolic composites
  119. Benzaldehyde derivatives on tin electroplating as corrosion resistance for fabricating copper circuit
  120. Mechanical and heat transfer properties of 4D-printed shape memory graphene oxide/epoxy acrylate composites
  121. Coupling the vanadium-induced amorphous/crystalline NiFe2O4 with phosphide heterojunction toward active oxygen evolution reaction catalysts
  122. Graphene-oxide-reinforced cement composites mechanical and microstructural characteristics at elevated temperatures
  123. Gray correlation analysis of factors influencing compressive strength and durability of nano-SiO2 and PVA fiber reinforced geopolymer mortar
  124. Preparation of layered gradient Cu–Cr–Ti alloy with excellent mechanical properties, thermal stability, and electrical conductivity
  125. Recovery of Cr from chrome-containing leather wastes to develop aluminum-based composite material along with Al2O3 ceramic particles: An ingenious approach
  126. Mechanisms of the improved stiffness of flexible polymers under impact loading
  127. Anticancer potential of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) using a battery of in vitro tests
  128. Review Articles
  129. Proposed approaches for coronaviruses elimination from wastewater: Membrane techniques and nanotechnology solutions
  130. Application of Pickering emulsion in oil drilling and production
  131. The contribution of microfluidics to the fight against tuberculosis
  132. Graphene-based biosensors for disease theranostics: Development, applications, and recent advancements
  133. Synthesis and encapsulation of iron oxide nanorods for application in magnetic hyperthermia and photothermal therapy
  134. Contemporary nano-architectured drugs and leads for ανβ3 integrin-based chemotherapy: Rationale and retrospect
  135. State-of-the-art review of fabrication, application, and mechanical properties of functionally graded porous nanocomposite materials
  136. Insights on magnetic spinel ferrites for targeted drug delivery and hyperthermia applications
  137. A review on heterogeneous oxidation of acetaminophen based on micro and nanoparticles catalyzed by different activators
  138. Early diagnosis of lung cancer using magnetic nanoparticles-integrated systems
  139. Advances in ZnO: Manipulation of defects for enhancing their technological potentials
  140. Efficacious nanomedicine track toward combating COVID-19
  141. A review of the design, processes, and properties of Mg-based composites
  142. Green synthesis of nanoparticles for varied applications: Green renewable resources and energy-efficient synthetic routes
  143. Two-dimensional nanomaterial-based polymer composites: Fundamentals and applications
  144. Recent progress and challenges in plasmonic nanomaterials
  145. Apoptotic cell-derived micro/nanosized extracellular vesicles in tissue regeneration
  146. Electronic noses based on metal oxide nanowires: A review
  147. Framework materials for supercapacitors
  148. An overview on the reproductive toxicity of graphene derivatives: Highlighting the importance
  149. Antibacterial nanomaterials: Upcoming hope to overcome antibiotic resistance crisis
  150. Research progress of carbon materials in the field of three-dimensional printing polymer nanocomposites
  151. A review of atomic layer deposition modelling and simulation methodologies: Density functional theory and molecular dynamics
  152. Recent advances in the preparation of PVDF-based piezoelectric materials
  153. Recent developments in tensile properties of friction welding of carbon fiber-reinforced composite: A review
  154. Comprehensive review of the properties of fly ash-based geopolymer with additive of nano-SiO2
  155. Perspectives in biopolymer/graphene-based composite application: Advances, challenges, and recommendations
  156. Graphene-based nanocomposite using new modeling molecular dynamic simulations for proposed neutralizing mechanism and real-time sensing of COVID-19
  157. Nanotechnology application on bamboo materials: A review
  158. Recent developments and future perspectives of biorenewable nanocomposites for advanced applications
  159. Nanostructured lipid carrier system: A compendium of their formulation development approaches, optimization strategies by quality by design, and recent applications in drug delivery
  160. 3D printing customized design of human bone tissue implant and its application
  161. Design, preparation, and functionalization of nanobiomaterials for enhanced efficacy in current and future biomedical applications
  162. A brief review of nanoparticles-doped PEDOT:PSS nanocomposite for OLED and OPV
  163. Nanotechnology interventions as a putative tool for the treatment of dental afflictions
  164. Recent advancements in metal–organic frameworks integrating quantum dots (QDs@MOF) and their potential applications
  165. A focused review of short electrospun nanofiber preparation techniques for composite reinforcement
  166. Microstructural characteristics and nano-modification of interfacial transition zone in concrete: A review
  167. Latest developments in the upconversion nanotechnology for the rapid detection of food safety: A review
  168. Strategic applications of nano-fertilizers for sustainable agriculture: Benefits and bottlenecks
  169. Molecular dynamics application of cocrystal energetic materials: A review
  170. Synthesis and application of nanometer hydroxyapatite in biomedicine
  171. Cutting-edge development in waste-recycled nanomaterials for energy storage and conversion applications
  172. Biological applications of ternary quantum dots: A review
  173. Nanotherapeutics for hydrogen sulfide-involved treatment: An emerging approach for cancer therapy
  174. Application of antibacterial nanoparticles in orthodontic materials
  175. Effect of natural-based biological hydrogels combined with growth factors on skin wound healing
  176. Nanozymes – A route to overcome microbial resistance: A viewpoint
  177. Recent developments and applications of smart nanoparticles in biomedicine
  178. Contemporary review on carbon nanotube (CNT) composites and their impact on multifarious applications
  179. Interfacial interactions and reinforcing mechanisms of cellulose and chitin nanomaterials and starch derivatives for cement and concrete strength and durability enhancement: A review
  180. Diamond-like carbon films for tribological modification of rubber
  181. Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) modified cement-based materials: A systematic review
  182. Recent research progress and advanced applications of silica/polymer nanocomposites
  183. Modeling of supramolecular biopolymers: Leading the in silico revolution of tissue engineering and nanomedicine
  184. Recent advances in perovskites-based optoelectronics
  185. Biogenic synthesis of palladium nanoparticles: New production methods and applications
  186. A comprehensive review of nanofluids with fractional derivatives: Modeling and application
  187. Electrospinning of marine polysaccharides: Processing and chemical aspects, challenges, and future prospects
  188. Electrohydrodynamic printing for demanding devices: A review of processing and applications
  189. Rapid Communications
  190. Structural material with designed thermal twist for a simple actuation
  191. Recent advances in photothermal materials for solar-driven crude oil adsorption
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