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Simple models for tensile modulus of shape memory polymer nanocomposites at ambient temperature

  • Fatemeh Molaabasi EMAIL logo , Yasser Zare and Kyong Yop Rhee EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: February 15, 2022
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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 11 Issue 1

Abstract

This article analyzes the tensile modulus of shape memory polymer nanocomposites (SMPNs) at ambient temperature. Several conventional models, such as rule of mixtures, Halpin–Tsai and Kerner–Nielsen, cannot practically estimate the modulus due to the absence of some main parameters for nanocomposites. Additionally, some parameters in Kerner–Nielsen and Sato–Furukawa models are useless and ineffective, due to the small concentration and high modulus of nanofillers in SMPNs. Therefore, Kerner–Nielsen and Sato–Furukawa models are simplified and modified to deliver the simple models for calculation of modulus in SMPNs. Various nanocomposite samples are provided to prove the validity of the suggested models. The results demonstrate that the predictions of the suggested models have a good match with the experimental results. The models also demonstrate high simplicity and good accuracy for the calculation of modulus in SMPNs at ambient temperature. Generally, the calculated results disclose that the modified Kerner–Nielsen model is preferable for approximation of modulus in SMPNs.

Keywords: shape memory polymer nanocomposites; tensile modulus; micromechanics models

1 Introduction

Shape memory polymers (SMPs) have a potential to store a temporary deformed shape and recover the original permanent shape [1,2,3,4,5]. The shape memory behavior is typically introduced by a change in temperature, stress, moisture, electric or magnetic fields, light or pH. All SMP structures include both hard and soft phases. The hard segments keep the permanent shape and do not melt or soften at the glass transition temperature (T g) of the soft segments. Also, they can be cross-linked as rigid local structures or entanglements, which will not separate at the recovery temperature. On the other hand, the soft parts act as a switch to remember the original material shape. Figure 1 demonstrates the shape memory behavior in a SMP by temperature. A temporary shape is obtained by heating at temperature above T g and applying force. The temporary shape is fixed by cooling to temperature below T g and finally, the shape recovery occurs by heating to temperature over T g.

Figure 1 A schematic for the shape memory behavior of SMPs.
Figure 1

A schematic for the shape memory behavior of SMPs.

SMPs demonstrate many advantages such as low density, large shape recovery, high recoverable strain, easy processing and low cost [6,7,8,9]. The recoverable strain in SMPs can reach 100%, while it reaches only to about 10 and 1% in shape memory metals and ceramics, respectively [10]. SMPs can be employed in many applications such as aerospace, automatics, electronics and biomedical materials [7,11,12,13,14]. However, there are various scientific and technological obstacles that prevent the extensive applications of SMPs. For example, SMPs have comparatively low shape recovery stress, which is usually 1–3 MPa compared to 0.5–1 GPa for shape memory metal alloys [15].

In recent years, it has been known that the addition of nanofillers to materials like polymers improves the physical, mechanical, thermal and barrier properties [16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32]. However, a competition between modulus enhancement and recoverable strain ratio is observed in SMPs, due to the significant effects of filler size and stiffness. SMPs reinforced with traditional micro-filler often show small shape memory effect, due to the high weight fraction of filler (20–30 wt%). However, by incorporation of small amounts of nanofiller, less effect on the macroscopic deformation of the composite is shown, due to much smaller nanofiller dimensions [21,33,34,35,36,37]. Therefore, shape memory polymer nanocomposites (SMPNs) can provide good mechanical and shape memory properties.

Although many researchers have focused on the experimental aspects of SMPNs, the theoretical analysis of SMPN properties was rarely studied in literature. The theoretical investigation can provide information that helps to achieve desired properties [38,39,40,41]. From the theoretical point of view, the stored energy of SMPs can be converted to force, but the rubbery modulus described as the elastic modulus above T g should be increased [42]. The elastic modulus of an SMP increases by addition of nanofillers [43,44,45,46,47,48], but there is no efficient model to calculate the modulus of SMPNs. SMPNs store the mechanical energies at elevated temperatures and then release them in response to external stimulus. However, since the mechanical properties of SMPNs are different at various temperatures (below or above T g), we focus on the modulus of samples at ambient temperature in this article. Actually, we assume the original status of shape memory nanocomposites to be below T g, because the modulus of samples decreases at elevated temperatures after T g. The modulus of SMPNs at ambient temperature can reveal the capability of samples for converting the stored energy to force.

In this article, the tensile modulus of SMPNs is analyzed at ambient temperature using the simple models for composites. Additionally, some models are proposed for prediction of tensile modulus in SMPNs. The modified models are evaluated by matching the predictions to experimental data of various samples containing dissimilar polymers and nanoparticles. This work provides a simple methodology for estimation of tensile modulus of SMPNs to guide researchers in this field.

2 Micromechanics models

The micromechanics models can estimate the mechanical properties of nanocomposites using the characteristics of each phase [49,50,51]. Here some micromechanics models are introduced, which can be simplified for SMPNs.

The simplest models for modulus of composites are parallel and series referred to rule of mixtures and inverse rule of mixtures, which assume equivalent strain and stress in both matrix and filler phases, respectively [52]. They can be given by:

(1) E = E m ϕ m + E f ϕ f ,

(2) 1 E = ϕ m E m + ϕ f E f ,

where “E m” and “E f” are the Young’s moduli of matrix and nanoparticles, respectively. Also, “ϕ m” and “ϕ f” are the volume fractions of matrix and nanoparticles calculated by the weight percentage of nanofiller in the nanocomposite (m f) as:

(3) φ f = d c d f m f ,

(4) d c = d m d f ( 1 − m f ) d f + m f d m ,

(5) φ m = 1 − φ f ,

where “d c”, “d f” and “d m” are the densities of nanocomposite, nanofiller and polymer matrix, respectively.

The rule of mixtures often predicts the high modulus for polymer nanocomposites in comparison to experimental results, due to the extremely high modulus of nanofillers. In contrast, the inverse rule of mixtures frequently underestimates the modulus of nanocomposites. Therefore, they have been modified by researchers.

Cox [53] introduced a reduction factor (λ) to the rule of mixtures:

(6) E = E m ϕ m + λ E f ϕ f ,

(7) λ = 1 − tanh ( m ) m ,

(8) m = α 2 G E f ln r R ,

where “G” is the shear modulus of the matrix. “α” is the aspect ratio of the nanofiller defined as α = l/t; “l” and “t” are the length and thickness of the nanoparticles. “R” and “r” are the nanofiller radius and the center-to-center distance of the nanofiller, respectively.

Verbeek [54] also suggested a similar equation to Cox’s model (Eqs. (6) and (7)) in which “m” is expressed as:

(9) m = α ( 1 − X ) 3 G E f ϕ f 1 − ϕ f ,

(10) X = Ψ ϕ m ( 1 − Ψ ) + Ψ ,

(11) Ψ = ( 1 − ϕ m ) 2 ϕ max 1 − ϕ m ϕ max ,

where “X” is the modified void content as the modified porosity relative to the polymer phase. “Ψ” is the voidage and “ϕ max” is the maximum volumetric packing fraction of the nanofiller as ϕ max = true volume of the filler/apparent volume occupied by the particles.

Halpin and Pagano [55] proposed the most commonly used model as:

(12) E = E m 1 + η χ φ f 1 − η φ f ,

(13) η = ( E f / E m − 1 ) / ( E f / E m + χ ) ,

(14) χ = 2 α .

Halpin–Tsai model also overpredicted the modulus of nanocomposites, due to the big levels of “E f” and “α” in many nanocomposite samples.

Kerner and Nielsen [56] modified the Halpin–Tsai model as:

(15) E = E m 1 + A B ϕ f 1 − P B ϕ f ,

(16) A = ( 7 − 5 υ ) / ( 8 − 10 υ ) ,

(17) B = ( E f / E m − 1 ) / ( E f / E m + A ) ,

(18) P = 1 + ϕ f 2 [ ( 1 − ϕ max ) / ϕ max ] ,

where “υ” is the Poisson ratio of the polymer matrix.

Moreover, Sato and Furukawa [57] developed a model using an adhesion parameter (ζ) as:

(19) E = E m 1 + 0.5 ϕ f 2 / 3 1 − ϕ f 1 / 3 ( 1 − ψ ζ ) − ϕ f 2 / 3 ψ ζ ( 1 − ϕ f 1 / 3 ) ϕ f ,

(20) ψ = ϕ f 3 1 + ϕ f 1 / 3 − ϕ f 2 / 3 1 − ϕ f 1 / 3 + ϕ f 2 / 3 .

where a “ζ” value of 0 indicates good interfacial adhesion, while ζ = 1 shows poor adhesion at the interface.

3 Results and discussion

In this section, the mentioned models are evaluated using the experimental results of many SMPNs containing different matrices and nanofillers from literature. Then, an attempt is made to simplify the models for modulus of SMPNs at ambient temperature. Finally, some evidence is provided to confirm the validity of the proposed models for modulus of SMPNs. The SMPN samples from literature and their phase characteristics are shown in Table 1.

Table 1

The characteristics of the studied SMPNs

No. Samples d m (g/cm3) d f (g/cm3) E f (GPa) Ref.
1 PS1/MWCNT2/SCF3 0.92 1.9, 1.8 600, 240 [58]
2 PS/nanocarbon powder 0.92 1.85 450 [59]
3 PU4/CNT 0.94 1.90 240 [60]
4 PU/nanocellulose 1.00 1.53 150 [61]
5 PU/silicon carbide 0.94 3.22 450 [62]
6 PE5/nanoclay 0.92 1.77 178 [63]
7 PDMS6/MWCNT 0.97 2.10 600 [64]
8 PU/MWCNT 1.00 2.10 600 [65]

1polystyrene; 2multi-walled carbon nanotubes; 3short carbon fiber; 4polyurethane; 5polyethylene; 6poly(dimethylsiloxane).

Various types of SMPNs consisting of different matrices and nanofillers were chosen from valid literature. It is considered that the reported samples can provide a comprehensive study of the modulus. Therefore, no experimental work to prepare and characterize the SMPNs was performed. The predictions of rule of mixtures and inverse rule of mixtures models can be easily calculated using the densities, moduli and weight fractions of the components. Figure 2 compares the experimental results and the calculations for polystyrene (PS)/multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT)/short carbon fiber (SCF) (No. 1) and polyurethane (PU)/CNT (No. 3) samples. As observed, the rule of mixtures and inverse rule of mixtures obviously over- and underestimate the modulus of samples, respectively. As a result, they are not appropriate for prediction of modulus of SMPNs at ambient temperature.

Figure 2 The calculations of modulus by rule of mixtures and inverse rule of mixtures models for (a) PS/MWCNT/SCF (No. 1) and (b) PU/CNT (No. 3) samples.
Figure 2

The calculations of modulus by rule of mixtures and inverse rule of mixtures models for (a) PS/MWCNT/SCF (No. 1) and (b) PU/CNT (No. 3) samples.

Cox and Verbeek models Eqs. (6)–(11) need precise characterization of several parameters such as “α”, “R”, “r” and “ϕ max” for modulus prediction. However, an accurate and practical method for determination of these parameters has not been presented in literature. Some authors determined them by fitting the models to experimental results [66,67], which is not acceptable. Others used the “α”, “R” and “r” values from the characteristics of pristine nanofillers [68,69], but the size of nanofillers change greatly due to high stress during the fabrication process of nanocomposites. Also, it was found that “α” and “ϕ max” may not have any important effect on the predicted modulus in nanocomposites, due to extremely high range of “E f” [56]. Therefore, the modeling of modulus by Cox and Verbeek models may involve some errors in the results.

Figure 3 illustrates the measured modulus at ambient temperature and the calculations by modified rule of mixtures model Eq. (6) for four samples. Surprisingly, the predicted modulus shows good agreement with the experimental results by choosing an appropriate value of “λ”. Accordingly, “λ” can be determined by experimental measurement of modulus for one prepared SMPN sample. Obviously, it provides great simplicity and accuracy for modeling of modulus of SMPNs. The most suitable values of “λ” for all samples calculated by a fitting process are shown in Table 2. Many “λ” values are much less than 1, which indicate the high deviation of the modified model from the rule of mixtures Eq. (1).

Figure 3 The obtained results by modified rule of mixtures and Kerner–Nielsen models for (a) PS/MWCNT/SCF (No. 1), (b) PS/nanocarbon powder (No. 2), (c) PU/silicon carbide (No. 5) and (d) PDMS/MWCNT (No. 7) samples.
Figure 3

The obtained results by modified rule of mixtures and Kerner–Nielsen models for (a) PS/MWCNT/SCF (No. 1), (b) PS/nanocarbon powder (No. 2), (c) PU/silicon carbide (No. 5) and (d) PDMS/MWCNT (No. 7) samples.

According to Table 2, the highest “λ” value is found for the PS/MWCNT/SCF sample in which the modulus increased from 1.24 to 3.64 GPa by addition of only 2.5 wt% of MWCNT and 1.5 wt% of SCF [58]. The CNT particles could be well bonded with the polymer matrix due to the same typical size of CNT and polymer segments, which played a positive role in the shape memory behavior [58]. Moreover, the tensile shape recovery forces and bending shape recovery moments of PS/MWCNT/SCF sample increased with the addition of two fillers, which not only improved the mechanical properties, but also increased the actuating capability.

In addition, the Kerner–Nielsen model Eqs. (15)–(18) can be more simplified for SMPNs. Since the Poisson's ratio of all polymers (υ) changes from 0.33 to 0.5, the “A” parameter Eq. (16) is approximately constant for all polymer matrices. Moreover, the E f/E m term has a high level in SMPNs, and thus the “B” parameter Eq. (17) is roughly constant at different values of “υ.” Also, the “P” Eq. (18) values do not vary significantly at different ranges of “ϕ f” and “ϕ max”, which is attributed to the low values of “ φ f 2 ” in the SMPNs. Table 3 shows the variation in “P” for poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS)/MWCNT sample. As shown, “P” changes insignificantly at different values of “ϕ f” and “ϕ max.”

Table 2

The calculated parameters for reported SMPNs

No. Samples λ (Eq. 6) m (Eq. 21) ζ (Eq. 19) k (Eq. 22) Ref.
1 PS1/MWCNT2/SCF3 0.270 93.0 −55 30.5 [58]
2 PS/nanocarbon powder 0.018 3.10 −0.75 1.01 [59]
3 PU4/CNT 0.090 89.0 −29 17.5 [60]
4 PU/nanocellulose 0.023 82.0 −22 12.0 [61]
5 PU/silicon carbide 6*10−4 58.8 −35 23.5 [62]
6 PE5/nanoclay 0.008 34.0 −13 8.50 [63]
7 PDMS6/MWCNT 4*10−5 33.0 −10 6.50 [64]
8 PU/MWCNT 0.006 13.8 −4.2 3.15 [65]

1polystyrene; 2multi-walled carbon nanotubes; 3short carbon fiber; 4polyurethane; 5polyethylene; 6poly(dimethylsiloxane).

Table 3

The variation in “P” at different levels of “ϕ f” and “ϕ max” for PDMS/MWCNT sample

No. m f (wt%) ϕ f (vol%) ϕ max (vol%) P Eq. (18)
1 1 0.0046 0.1 1.0002
2 2 0.0093 0.1 1.0008
3 3 0.0140 0.1 1.0018
4 4 0.0188 0.1 1.0032
5 7 0.0334 0.1 1.0101
6 1 0.0046 0.9 1.0000
7 2 0.0093 0.9 1.0000
8 3 0.0140 0.9 1.0000
9 4 0.0188 0.9 1.0000
10 7 0.0334 0.9 1.0001

Kerner–Nielsen model can be simply presented for SMPNs as:

(21) E = E m 1 + m ϕ f 1 − ϕ f ,

where “m” is a constant parameter that can be determined by testing the modulus for only one sample. The calculation of modulus by the modified Kerner–Nielsen model is shown in Figure 3 and the best fitted values of “m” for all samples are shown in Table 2. Good agreement is shown between the theoretical predictions and the experimental results. As a result, the modified Kerner–Nielsen model calculates the modulus by a simple and exact method, which leads to elimination of difficult and inaccurate characterizations of different parameters for prediction of modulus. Figure 3 also demonstrates that the modulus obtained by the modified Kerner–Nielsen model is much closer to the experimental data than those by the modified rule of mixtures. This means that the modified Kerner–Nielsen model is preferable for calculation of modulus of SMPNs.

Figure 4 shows good coherence between the calculated modulus by the Sato–Furukawa model Eqs. (19) and (20) and the experimental data for PU/nanocellulose (No. 4), PDMS/MWCNT (No. 7) and PU/MWCNT (No. 8) SMPNs. The best fitted values of adhesion parameter (ζ) are shown in Table 2. Negative “ζ” values are obtained for all SMPNs, while “ζ” should vary from 0 to 1 in micro-composites. The extremely small ranges of “ϕ f” in SMPNs result in the negative “ζ” values. However, the negative values of “ζ” express the strong interfacial adhesion between polymer and nanofiller phases in the SMPNs [70]. Although the predictions of the Sato–Furukawa model are well fitted to the experimental results, this model can be much simplified for estimation of modulus in SMPNs. By assuming ζ = 0 as strong adhesion, this model is modified to:

(22) E = E m 1 + k ϕ f 2 / 3 1 − ϕ f 1 / 3 ,

where “k” is a constant parameter. The predictions of the simplified Sato–Furukawa model are shown in Figure 4 and the best fitted values of “k” are reported in Table 2. Clearly, the modified model can present good agreement with the experimental results. Furthermore, the most negative “ζ” and the highest “k” are found for the PS/MWCNT/SCF sample, as expected according to the earlier results.

Figure 4 The calculations of Sato–Furukawa and modified Sato–Furukawa models for (a) PU/nanocellulose (No. 4), (b) PDMS/MWCNT (No. 7) and (c) PU/MWCNT (No. 8) samples.
Figure 4

The calculations of Sato–Furukawa and modified Sato–Furukawa models for (a) PU/nanocellulose (No. 4), (b) PDMS/MWCNT (No. 7) and (c) PU/MWCNT (No. 8) samples.

4 Conclusion

The tensile modulus for SMPNs was investigated by simple models. The rule of mixtures and inverse rule of mixtures overestimated and underpredicted the modulus for SMPNs, respectively. However, the modified model Eq. (6) could calculate the modulus of SMPNs at ambient temperature. In addition, it was shown that “A”, “B” and “P” in Kerner–Nielsen model Eqs. (16)–(18) changed negligibly for different samples, owing to the small concentration and high modulus of the nanofiller. Therefore, some modifications were applied to the models to propose a simple equation for calculation of the modulus. Additionally, Sato–Furukawa model was simplified in the present study. Several samples from literature were provided to show the validity of the models. The predictions of the suggested models exhibited a good match with the experimentally measured modulus. “m” in modified Kerner–Nielsen model changes from 3.1 to 93 for the samples, while “k” in the modified Sato–Furukawa model varies from 1.01 to 30.5. The obtained results showed that the modified Kerner–Nielsen is preferable for calculation of modulus in SMPNs. It was found that the concentration of nanoparticles has the main effect on the modulus of samples. Also, the constant factors such as “m” and “k” have significant roles in the nanocomposite modulus.

  1. Funding information: The authors state no funding involved.

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2021-12-11
Revised: 2022-01-20
Accepted: 2022-01-24
Published Online: 2022-02-15

© 2022 Fatemeh Molaabasi et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2022-0053
Keywords for this article
shape memory polymer nanocomposites; tensile modulus; micromechanics models
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BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Theoretical and experimental investigation of MWCNT dispersion effect on the elastic modulus of flexible PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposites
  3. Mechanical, morphological, and fracture-deformation behavior of MWCNTs-reinforced (Al–Cu–Mg–T351) alloy cast nanocomposites fabricated by optimized mechanical milling and powder metallurgy techniques
  4. Flammability and physical stability of sugar palm crystalline nanocellulose reinforced thermoplastic sugar palm starch/poly(lactic acid) blend bionanocomposites
  5. Glutathione-loaded non-ionic surfactant niosomes: A new approach to improve oral bioavailability and hepatoprotective efficacy of glutathione
  6. Relationship between mechano-bactericidal activity and nanoblades density on chemically strengthened glass
  7. In situ regulation of microstructure and microwave-absorbing properties of FeSiAl through HNO3 oxidation
  8. Research on a mechanical model of magnetorheological fluid different diameter particles
  9. Nanomechanical and dynamic mechanical properties of rubber–wood–plastic composites
  10. Investigative properties of CeO2 doped with niobium: A combined characterization and DFT studies
  11. Miniaturized peptidomimetics and nano-vesiculation in endothelin types through probable nano-disk formation and structure property relationships of endothelins’ fragments
  12. N/S co-doped CoSe/C nanocubes as anode materials for Li-ion batteries
  13. Synergistic effects of halloysite nanotubes with metal and phosphorus additives on the optimal design of eco-friendly sandwich panels with maximum flame resistance and minimum weight
  14. Octreotide-conjugated silver nanoparticles for active targeting of somatostatin receptors and their application in a nebulized rat model
  15. Controllable morphology of Bi2S3 nanostructures formed via hydrothermal vulcanization of Bi2O3 thin-film layer and their photoelectrocatalytic performances
  16. Development of (−)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate-loaded folate receptor-targeted nanoparticles for prostate cancer treatment
  17. Enhancement of the mechanical properties of HDPE mineral nanocomposites by filler particles modulation of the matrix plastic/elastic behavior
  18. Effect of plasticizers on the properties of sugar palm nanocellulose/cinnamon essential oil reinforced starch bionanocomposite films
  19. Optimization of nano coating to reduce the thermal deformation of ball screws
  20. Preparation of efficient piezoelectric PVDF–HFP/Ni composite films by high electric field poling
  21. MHD dissipative Casson nanofluid liquid film flow due to an unsteady stretching sheet with radiation influence and slip velocity phenomenon
  22. Effects of nano-SiO2 modification on rubberised mortar and concrete with recycled coarse aggregates
  23. Mechanical and microscopic properties of fiber-reinforced coal gangue-based geopolymer concrete
  24. Effect of morphology and size on the thermodynamic stability of cerium oxide nanoparticles: Experiment and molecular dynamics calculation
  25. Mechanical performance of a CFRP composite reinforced via gelatin-CNTs: A study on fiber interfacial enhancement and matrix enhancement
  26. A practical review over surface modification, nanopatterns, emerging materials, drug delivery systems, and their biophysiochemical properties for dental implants: Recent progresses and advances
  27. HTR: An ultra-high speed algorithm for cage recognition of clathrate hydrates
  28. Effects of microalloying elements added by in situ synthesis on the microstructure of WCu composites
  29. A highly sensitive nanobiosensor based on aptamer-conjugated graphene-decorated rhodium nanoparticles for detection of HER2-positive circulating tumor cells
  30. Progressive collapse performance of shear strengthened RC frames by nano CFRP
  31. Core–shell heterostructured composites of carbon nanotubes and imine-linked hyperbranched polymers as metal-free Li-ion anodes
  32. A Galerkin strategy for tri-hybridized mixture in ethylene glycol comprising variable diffusion and thermal conductivity using non-Fourier’s theory
  33. Simple models for tensile modulus of shape memory polymer nanocomposites at ambient temperature
  34. Preparation and morphological studies of tin sulfide nanoparticles and use as efficient photocatalysts for the degradation of rhodamine B and phenol
  35. Polyethyleneimine-impregnated activated carbon nanofiber composited graphene-derived rice husk char for efficient post-combustion CO2 capture
  36. Electrospun nanofibers of Co3O4 nanocrystals encapsulated in cyclized-polyacrylonitrile for lithium storage
  37. Pitting corrosion induced on high-strength high carbon steel wire in high alkaline deaerated chloride electrolyte
  38. Formulation of polymeric nanoparticles loaded sorafenib; evaluation of cytotoxicity, molecular evaluation, and gene expression studies in lung and breast cancer cell lines
  39. Engineered nanocomposites in asphalt binders
  40. Influence of loading voltage, domain ratio, and additional load on the actuation of dielectric elastomer
  41. Thermally induced hex-graphene transitions in 2D carbon crystals
  42. The surface modification effect on the interfacial properties of glass fiber-reinforced epoxy: A molecular dynamics study
  43. Molecular dynamics study of deformation mechanism of interfacial microzone of Cu/Al2Cu/Al composites under tension
  44. Nanocolloid simulators of luminescent solar concentrator photovoltaic windows
  45. Compressive strength and anti-chloride ion penetration assessment of geopolymer mortar merging PVA fiber and nano-SiO2 using RBF–BP composite neural network
  46. Effect of 3-mercapto-1-propane sulfonate sulfonic acid and polyvinylpyrrolidone on the growth of cobalt pillar by electrodeposition
  47. Dynamics of convective slippery constraints on hybrid radiative Sutterby nanofluid flow by Galerkin finite element simulation
  48. Preparation of vanadium by the magnesiothermic self-propagating reduction and process control
  49. Microstructure-dependent photoelectrocatalytic activity of heterogeneous ZnO–ZnS nanosheets
  50. Cytotoxic and pro-inflammatory effects of molybdenum and tungsten disulphide on human bronchial cells
  51. Improving recycled aggregate concrete by compression casting and nano-silica
  52. Chemically reactive Maxwell nanoliquid flow by a stretching surface in the frames of Newtonian heating, nonlinear convection and radiative flux: Nanopolymer flow processing simulation
  53. Nonlinear dynamic and crack behaviors of carbon nanotubes-reinforced composites with various geometries
  54. Biosynthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles and its therapeutic efficacy against colon cancer
  55. Synthesis and characterization of smart stimuli-responsive herbal drug-encapsulated nanoniosome particles for efficient treatment of breast cancer
  56. Homotopic simulation for heat transport phenomenon of the Burgers nanofluids flow over a stretching cylinder with thermal convective and zero mass flux conditions
  57. Incorporation of copper and strontium ions in TiO2 nanotubes via dopamine to enhance hemocompatibility and cytocompatibility
  58. Mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties of starch films incorporated with chitosan nanoparticles
  59. Mechanical properties and microstructure of nano-strengthened recycled aggregate concrete
  60. Glucose-responsive nanogels efficiently maintain the stability and activity of therapeutic enzymes
  61. Tunning matrix rheology and mechanical performance of ultra-high performance concrete using cellulose nanofibers
  62. Flexible MXene/copper/cellulose nanofiber heat spreader films with enhanced thermal conductivity
  63. Promoted charge separation and specific surface area via interlacing of N-doped titanium dioxide nanotubes on carbon nitride nanosheets for photocatalytic degradation of Rhodamine B
  64. Elucidating the role of silicon dioxide and titanium dioxide nanoparticles in mitigating the disease of the eggplant caused by Phomopsis vexans, Ralstonia solanacearum, and root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita
  65. An implication of magnetic dipole in Carreau Yasuda liquid influenced by engine oil using ternary hybrid nanomaterial
  66. Robust synthesis of a composite phase of copper vanadium oxide with enhanced performance for durable aqueous Zn-ion batteries
  67. Tunning self-assembled phases of bovine serum albumin via hydrothermal process to synthesize novel functional hydrogel for skin protection against UVB
  68. A comparative experimental study on damping properties of epoxy nanocomposite beams reinforced with carbon nanotubes and graphene nanoplatelets
  69. Lightweight and hydrophobic Ni/GO/PVA composite aerogels for ultrahigh performance electromagnetic interference shielding
  70. Research on the auxetic behavior and mechanical properties of periodically rotating graphene nanostructures
  71. Repairing performances of novel cement mortar modified with graphene oxide and polyacrylate polymer
  72. Closed-loop recycling and fabrication of hydrophilic CNT films with high performance
  73. Design of thin-film configuration of SnO2–Ag2O composites for NO2 gas-sensing applications
  74. Study on stress distribution of SiC/Al composites based on microstructure models with microns and nanoparticles
  75. PVDF green nanofibers as potential carriers for improving self-healing and mechanical properties of carbon fiber/epoxy prepregs
  76. Osteogenesis capability of three-dimensionally printed poly(lactic acid)-halloysite nanotube scaffolds containing strontium ranelate
  77. Silver nanoparticles induce mitochondria-dependent apoptosis and late non-canonical autophagy in HT-29 colon cancer cells
  78. Preparation and bonding mechanisms of polymer/metal hybrid composite by nano molding technology
  79. Damage self-sensing and strain monitoring of glass-reinforced epoxy composite impregnated with graphene nanoplatelet and multiwalled carbon nanotubes
  80. Thermal analysis characterisation of solar-powered ship using Oldroyd hybrid nanofluids in parabolic trough solar collector: An optimal thermal application
  81. Pyrene-functionalized halloysite nanotubes for simultaneously detecting and separating Hg(ii) in aqueous media: A comprehensive comparison on interparticle and intraparticle excimers
  82. Fabrication of self-assembly CNT flexible film and its piezoresistive sensing behaviors
  83. Thermal valuation and entropy inspection of second-grade nanoscale fluid flow over a stretching surface by applying Koo–Kleinstreuer–Li relation
  84. Mechanical properties and microstructure of nano-SiO2 and basalt-fiber-reinforced recycled aggregate concrete
  85. Characterization and tribology performance of polyaniline-coated nanodiamond lubricant additives
  86. Combined impact of Marangoni convection and thermophoretic particle deposition on chemically reactive transport of nanofluid flow over a stretching surface
  87. Spark plasma extrusion of binder free hydroxyapatite powder
  88. An investigation on thermo-mechanical performance of graphene-oxide-reinforced shape memory polymer
  89. Effect of nanoadditives on the novel leather fiber/recycled poly(ethylene-vinyl-acetate) polymer composites for multifunctional applications: Fabrication, characterizations, and multiobjective optimization using central composite design
  90. Design selection for a hemispherical dimple core sandwich panel using hybrid multi-criteria decision-making methods
  91. Improving tensile strength and impact toughness of plasticized poly(lactic acid) biocomposites by incorporating nanofibrillated cellulose
  92. Green synthesis of spinel copper ferrite (CuFe2O4) nanoparticles and their toxicity
  93. The effect of TaC and NbC hybrid and mono-nanoparticles on AA2024 nanocomposites: Microstructure, strengthening, and artificial aging
  94. Excited-state geometry relaxation of pyrene-modified cellulose nanocrystals under UV-light excitation for detecting Fe3+
  95. Effect of CNTs and MEA on the creep of face-slab concrete at an early age
  96. Effect of deformation conditions on compression phase transformation of AZ31
  97. Application of MXene as a new generation of highly conductive coating materials for electromembrane-surrounded solid-phase microextraction
  98. A comparative study of the elasto-plastic properties for ceramic nanocomposites filled by graphene or graphene oxide nanoplates
  99. Encapsulation strategies for improving the biological behavior of CdS@ZIF-8 nanocomposites
  100. Biosynthesis of ZnO NPs from pumpkin seeds’ extract and elucidation of its anticancer potential against breast cancer
  101. Preliminary trials of the gold nanoparticles conjugated chrysin: An assessment of anti-oxidant, anti-microbial, and in vitro cytotoxic activities of a nanoformulated flavonoid
  102. Effect of micron-scale pores increased by nano-SiO2 sol modification on the strength of cement mortar
  103. Fractional simulations for thermal flow of hybrid nanofluid with aluminum oxide and titanium oxide nanoparticles with water and blood base fluids
  104. The effect of graphene nano-powder on the viscosity of water: An experimental study and artificial neural network modeling
  105. Development of a novel heat- and shear-resistant nano-silica gelling agent
  106. Characterization, biocompatibility and in vivo of nominal MnO2-containing wollastonite glass-ceramic
  107. Entropy production simulation of second-grade magnetic nanomaterials flowing across an expanding surface with viscidness dissipative flux
  108. Enhancement in structural, morphological, and optical properties of copper oxide for optoelectronic device applications
  109. Aptamer-functionalized chitosan-coated gold nanoparticle complex as a suitable targeted drug carrier for improved breast cancer treatment
  110. Performance and overall evaluation of nano-alumina-modified asphalt mixture
  111. Analysis of pure nanofluid (GO/engine oil) and hybrid nanofluid (GO–Fe3O4/engine oil): Novel thermal and magnetic features
  112. Synthesis of Ag@AgCl modified anatase/rutile/brookite mixed phase TiO2 and their photocatalytic property
  113. Mechanisms and influential variables on the abrasion resistance hydraulic concrete
  114. Synergistic reinforcement mechanism of basalt fiber/cellulose nanocrystals/polypropylene composites
  115. Achieving excellent oxidation resistance and mechanical properties of TiB2–B4C/carbon aerogel composites by quick-gelation and mechanical mixing
  116. Microwave-assisted sol–gel template-free synthesis and characterization of silica nanoparticles obtained from South African coal fly ash
  117. Pulsed laser-assisted synthesis of nano nickel(ii) oxide-anchored graphitic carbon nitride: Characterizations and their potential antibacterial/anti-biofilm applications
  118. Effects of nano-ZrSi2 on thermal stability of phenolic resin and thermal reusability of quartz–phenolic composites
  119. Benzaldehyde derivatives on tin electroplating as corrosion resistance for fabricating copper circuit
  120. Mechanical and heat transfer properties of 4D-printed shape memory graphene oxide/epoxy acrylate composites
  121. Coupling the vanadium-induced amorphous/crystalline NiFe2O4 with phosphide heterojunction toward active oxygen evolution reaction catalysts
  122. Graphene-oxide-reinforced cement composites mechanical and microstructural characteristics at elevated temperatures
  123. Gray correlation analysis of factors influencing compressive strength and durability of nano-SiO2 and PVA fiber reinforced geopolymer mortar
  124. Preparation of layered gradient Cu–Cr–Ti alloy with excellent mechanical properties, thermal stability, and electrical conductivity
  125. Recovery of Cr from chrome-containing leather wastes to develop aluminum-based composite material along with Al2O3 ceramic particles: An ingenious approach
  126. Mechanisms of the improved stiffness of flexible polymers under impact loading
  127. Anticancer potential of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) using a battery of in vitro tests
  128. Review Articles
  129. Proposed approaches for coronaviruses elimination from wastewater: Membrane techniques and nanotechnology solutions
  130. Application of Pickering emulsion in oil drilling and production
  131. The contribution of microfluidics to the fight against tuberculosis
  132. Graphene-based biosensors for disease theranostics: Development, applications, and recent advancements
  133. Synthesis and encapsulation of iron oxide nanorods for application in magnetic hyperthermia and photothermal therapy
  134. Contemporary nano-architectured drugs and leads for ανβ3 integrin-based chemotherapy: Rationale and retrospect
  135. State-of-the-art review of fabrication, application, and mechanical properties of functionally graded porous nanocomposite materials
  136. Insights on magnetic spinel ferrites for targeted drug delivery and hyperthermia applications
  137. A review on heterogeneous oxidation of acetaminophen based on micro and nanoparticles catalyzed by different activators
  138. Early diagnosis of lung cancer using magnetic nanoparticles-integrated systems
  139. Advances in ZnO: Manipulation of defects for enhancing their technological potentials
  140. Efficacious nanomedicine track toward combating COVID-19
  141. A review of the design, processes, and properties of Mg-based composites
  142. Green synthesis of nanoparticles for varied applications: Green renewable resources and energy-efficient synthetic routes
  143. Two-dimensional nanomaterial-based polymer composites: Fundamentals and applications
  144. Recent progress and challenges in plasmonic nanomaterials
  145. Apoptotic cell-derived micro/nanosized extracellular vesicles in tissue regeneration
  146. Electronic noses based on metal oxide nanowires: A review
  147. Framework materials for supercapacitors
  148. An overview on the reproductive toxicity of graphene derivatives: Highlighting the importance
  149. Antibacterial nanomaterials: Upcoming hope to overcome antibiotic resistance crisis
  150. Research progress of carbon materials in the field of three-dimensional printing polymer nanocomposites
  151. A review of atomic layer deposition modelling and simulation methodologies: Density functional theory and molecular dynamics
  152. Recent advances in the preparation of PVDF-based piezoelectric materials
  153. Recent developments in tensile properties of friction welding of carbon fiber-reinforced composite: A review
  154. Comprehensive review of the properties of fly ash-based geopolymer with additive of nano-SiO2
  155. Perspectives in biopolymer/graphene-based composite application: Advances, challenges, and recommendations
  156. Graphene-based nanocomposite using new modeling molecular dynamic simulations for proposed neutralizing mechanism and real-time sensing of COVID-19
  157. Nanotechnology application on bamboo materials: A review
  158. Recent developments and future perspectives of biorenewable nanocomposites for advanced applications
  159. Nanostructured lipid carrier system: A compendium of their formulation development approaches, optimization strategies by quality by design, and recent applications in drug delivery
  160. 3D printing customized design of human bone tissue implant and its application
  161. Design, preparation, and functionalization of nanobiomaterials for enhanced efficacy in current and future biomedical applications
  162. A brief review of nanoparticles-doped PEDOT:PSS nanocomposite for OLED and OPV
  163. Nanotechnology interventions as a putative tool for the treatment of dental afflictions
  164. Recent advancements in metal–organic frameworks integrating quantum dots (QDs@MOF) and their potential applications
  165. A focused review of short electrospun nanofiber preparation techniques for composite reinforcement
  166. Microstructural characteristics and nano-modification of interfacial transition zone in concrete: A review
  167. Latest developments in the upconversion nanotechnology for the rapid detection of food safety: A review
  168. Strategic applications of nano-fertilizers for sustainable agriculture: Benefits and bottlenecks
  169. Molecular dynamics application of cocrystal energetic materials: A review
  170. Synthesis and application of nanometer hydroxyapatite in biomedicine
  171. Cutting-edge development in waste-recycled nanomaterials for energy storage and conversion applications
  172. Biological applications of ternary quantum dots: A review
  173. Nanotherapeutics for hydrogen sulfide-involved treatment: An emerging approach for cancer therapy
  174. Application of antibacterial nanoparticles in orthodontic materials
  175. Effect of natural-based biological hydrogels combined with growth factors on skin wound healing
  176. Nanozymes – A route to overcome microbial resistance: A viewpoint
  177. Recent developments and applications of smart nanoparticles in biomedicine
  178. Contemporary review on carbon nanotube (CNT) composites and their impact on multifarious applications
  179. Interfacial interactions and reinforcing mechanisms of cellulose and chitin nanomaterials and starch derivatives for cement and concrete strength and durability enhancement: A review
  180. Diamond-like carbon films for tribological modification of rubber
  181. Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) modified cement-based materials: A systematic review
  182. Recent research progress and advanced applications of silica/polymer nanocomposites
  183. Modeling of supramolecular biopolymers: Leading the in silico revolution of tissue engineering and nanomedicine
  184. Recent advances in perovskites-based optoelectronics
  185. Biogenic synthesis of palladium nanoparticles: New production methods and applications
  186. A comprehensive review of nanofluids with fractional derivatives: Modeling and application
  187. Electrospinning of marine polysaccharides: Processing and chemical aspects, challenges, and future prospects
  188. Electrohydrodynamic printing for demanding devices: A review of processing and applications
  189. Rapid Communications
  190. Structural material with designed thermal twist for a simple actuation
  191. Recent advances in photothermal materials for solar-driven crude oil adsorption
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