A review of the design, processes, and properties of Mg-based composites
-
Haotian Guan
,
Aitao Tang
Abstract
Magnesium-based composites are promising materials that can achieve higher strength, modulus, stiffness, and wear resistance by using metals, ceramics, and nanoscale carbon-based materials as reinforcements. In the last few decades, high-performance magnesium-based composites with excellent interfacial bonding and uniformly distributed reinforcements have been successfully synthesized using different techniques. The yield strength, Young’s modulus, and elongation of SiC nanoparticle-reinforced Mg composites reached ∼710 MPa, ∼86 GPa, and ∼50%, respectively, which are the highest reported values for Mg-based composites. The present work summarizes the commonly used reinforcements of magnesium composites, particularly nano-reinforcements. The fabrication processes, mechanical properties, reinforcement dispersion, strengthening mechanisms, and interface optimization of these composites are introduced, and the factors affecting these properties are explained. Finally, the scope of future research in this field is discussed.
1 Introduction
In recent years, new energy vehicles and the aerospace industry have been facing a constant requirement to improve energy efficiency through the weight reduction of their components. Owing to their low density and high strength-to-weight ratios, light metals have thus attracted considerable global attention. Magnesium (Mg) and magnesium alloys are the lightest engineering structural materials [1,2,3,4,5,6] and have been extensively considered as good weight-reducing components because of their low density, high specific strength, good thermal conductivity, castability, machinability, and high damping capacities [7,8,9,10,11]. After decades of development, the conventional mechanical properties of Mg alloys, such as strength and plasticity, have been significantly improved [12,13,14,15]. The ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of Mg alloys has reached 500 MPa, and its elongation (EL) has reached more than 50%.
However, as structural materials, their inherently low elastic modulus and strength restrict their extensive utilization in critical engineering applications [16,17]. For this reason, many researchers have used traditional strengthening methods (solid-solution strengthening, precipitation strengthening, fine-grain strengthening, and work hardening) to improve the performance of Mg alloys for many years. Mg alloys are mainly composed of hexagonal close-packed (hcp) α phases (ɑ-Mg). A limited number of slip systems can be offered by the hcp structure, which limits the role of plastic deformation and work hardening methods in the strengthening of Mg alloys [18]. Solid-solution strengthening and fine-grain strengthening by adding alloying elements (mainly rare earth elements) are commonly used to improve the mechanical properties of traditional Mg alloys [19,20], but the increased content of alloying elements greatly affects the weight and cost of Mg alloys. According to the rule of mixtures [21], the elastic modulus of a multiphase alloy is determined by the elastic modulus and volume fraction of all constituent phases. The elastic modulus of pure Mg (∼45.0 GPa) [22] and each secondary phase in conventional commercial Mg alloys are both low [23,24]. This results in the modulus of these commercial Mg alloys being generally between 35.0 and 45.0 GPa [25,26]. Therefore, these conventional research ideas are of limited use in improving the performance of Mg alloys. New research directions are thus urgently needed to improve the comprehensive mechanical properties of Mg alloys.
These intrinsic drawbacks can be circumvented by the addition of reinforcements to create Mg-based composites [27,28,29,30]. With respect to material design, such reinforcements combine the best properties of the Mg matrix, and they provide significant improvement in mechanical properties [31,32,33]. These improvements include high specific strength, high elastic modulus, good wear resistance, and excellent high-temperature properties [34,35,36,37,38,39]. The fabrication processes of Mg matrix composites can be categorized into liquid-phase methods [40,41,42,43,44], solid-phase methods [45,46,47,48,49,50], and other methods such as in situ synthesis [51,52]. A crucial task of Mg-based composites is to ensure that the load is evenly distributed between the matrix and the reinforcements [53,54]. Hence, the reinforcements require good physical and chemical compatibilities, load-bearing capacity, wettability, and interface reactions with the matrix [55,56]. The strengthening mechanism of the reinforcements mainly acts as a force-bearing body. When external stress is applied, the load is efficiently shifted from the softer Mg matrix to the harder reinforcements [57,58]. The strengthening and hardening effects of the reinforcements can be achieved through effective stress transfer at the interfaces between the matrix and reinforcements. The refinement and dispersion of the reinforcements can not only achieve the effect of grain refinement during the fabrication process but can also hinder the movement of dislocations and grain boundary slip during the loading and deformation process, thereby improving the strength of the composites [59,60,61,62,63]. At present, the widely recognized strengthening mechanisms of Mg-based composites include fine-grain strengthening, Orowan strengthening, load transfer effect, and thermal mismatch strengthening [64,65,66,67,68]. The Orowan strengthening mechanism originates from interactions with nanoparticles, dislocations, and grain boundaries. The better the interfacial bonding, the better the load transfer effect. Similarly, the smaller the grain size, the better the enhancement effect. Therefore, uniform distribution of the reinforcements, good interfacial bonding, and fine Mg matrix grains are prerequisites that need to be addressed to achieve Mg-based composites with excellent mechanical properties. Current research hotspots include the influence of the type, volume fraction, and size of the reinforcements, reasonable fabrication processes, and interface optimization treatment on the microstructure and mechanical properties of Mg-based composites. Hence, this study reviews the selection of different types of reinforcements (especially nano-reinforcements), fabrication processes, mechanical properties, and interface optimization treatments that have been reported in recent studies in the field of Mg-based composites. The current problems, as well as directions for future development of Mg-based composites, are offered from the authors’ perspective.
2 Metallic-reinforced Mg-based composites
The final properties of Mg-based composites are controlled by many factors, such as the fabrication process, matrix size/constitution, volume fraction and morphology of reinforcements, and secondary processing. Among these, the selection of reinforcements compatible with the Mg matrix remains one of the most critical factors for realizing the best properties of the resultant composite. Metallic reinforcements have good wettability and self-extensibility, which can collectively enhance the modulus and plasticity of the Mg matrix. In recent years, various metallic-reinforced Mg-based composites (mainly based on pure Mg), such as Cu/Mg [69,70], Ni/Mg [71,72], Mo/Mg [73], Ti/Mg [74,75,76], (Cu, Ti)/Mg [69], TC4/Mg [77], and Mn/Mg alloys [78], have been developed. These metallic reinforcements have higher melting points than the Mg matrix, and they can become nucleation centers and obtain fine equiaxed grains during melting. The solid solubility of the metallic reinforcements in the Mg matrix is limited. It can not only maintain a certain number of reinforcements but also form secondary phases.
The mechanical properties of some metallic-reinforced Mg-based composites are listed in Table 1. As shown in the table, these metallic-reinforced Mg-based composites exhibit excellent ductility owing to the good wettability between the Mg matrix and the metallic reinforcements, the generation of secondary phases, and the toughness of the metallic reinforcements. Therefore, metallic-reinforced Mg-based composites have the dual functions of particle strengthening and second-phase strengthening. The simultaneous addition of multiple metallic reinforcements may improve the strengthening effect. Seetharaman et al. [69] added 5.6% Ti + 3% Cu (wt%) to Mg powder using the mechanical ball-milling method. The significantly enhanced mechanical properties of the composites are a result of grain refinement and Orowan strengthening mechanisms. The formation of a Mg2Cu eutectic phase significantly refined the matrix grains. The Ti3Cu phase was also conducive to the improvement of strength and plasticity.
Mechanical properties of metallic-reinforced Mg-based composites
| Materials | Fabrication process (es) | Tensile properties | Compressive properties | Hardness (HV) | Young’s modulus (GPa) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| YS (MPa) | UTS (MPa) | EL (%) | CYS (MPa) | UCS (MPa) | Failure strain (%) | ||||
| Pure Mg [79] | PM | 125 ± 15 | 172 ± 12 | 5.8 ± 0.9 | — | — | — | 38.6 ± 1.5 | — |
| AZ31/WE43 [80] | PD + CE | 296 ± 3 | 368 ± 9 | 16 | 243 ± 5 | 419 ± 12 | 1 | — | — |
| 3.0 wt% Cu/Mg [70] | PM + MS | 237 ± 24 | 286 ± 8 | 5.4 ± 1.2 | — | — | — | 57 ± 1 | 59.7 ± 6.7 |
| 17.18 wt% Cu/Mg [81] | DMD + HE | 355 ± 8 | 358 ± 7 | 2.2 ± 0.9 | — | — | — | — | 47 ± 1 |
| 14.46 wt% Ni/Mg [72] | DMD + HE | 370 ± 12 | 389 ± 5 | 3.1 ± 0.1 | — | — | — | 74 ± 2 | 47 ± 1 |
| 3.6 wt% Mo/Mg [73] | DMD + HE | 123.3 ± 3.5 | 197.6 ± 5.9 | 9.0 ± 2.1 | 63.5 ± 7.3 | 43.0 ± 1.6 | |||
| 5.6 wt% Ti/Mg [75] | DMD + HE | 163 ± 12 | 248 ± 9 | 11.1 ± 1.4 | — | — | — | — | — |
| (3.0 wt% Cu + 5.6 wt% Ti)/Mg [69] | DMD | 201 ± 7 | 265 ± 11 | 7.5 ± 0.5 | 126 ± 8 | 380 ± 6 | 19.1 ± 2.9 | 91 ± 3 | — |
| 1.88 wt% Mn/Mg-1Sn [78] | IM | 233 | 321 | 17.5 | 198 | — | — | — | — |
YS: yield strength, UTS: ultimate tensile strength, EL: elongation, CYS: compressive yield strength, UCS: ultimate compressive strength, PM: powder metallurgy, PD: pressing diffusion, CE: co-extrusion, MS: microwave sintering, DMD: disintegrated melt deposition, HE: hot extrusion, IM: induction melting.
It is necessary for metallic reinforcements to have limited solubility in the Mg matrix so that the reinforcements can partially dissolve into the matrix while retaining a certain number of reinforcement particles inside the matrix. In one study, micron-size Mo particles were added to pure Mg [73] because Mo is immiscible with Mg [82]. Minimal porosity and good interfacial integrity were obtained by combining disintegrated melt deposition (DMD) and subsequent hot extrusion (HE) methods, thus improving the hardness, elastic modulus, and ductility of the micron-sized Mo/Mg composites. Powder metallurgy (PM) is the most popular and widely used method for preparing Mg composite and does not require specific/difficult process steps. Wong and Gupta [70] used the PM method combined with microwave-assisted two-directional sintering to successfully prepare Mg-based composites reinforced with different nano-Cu particle contents. They pointed out that because of the presence of a continuous network structure composed of nano-Cu particles and the distribution of a Mg2Cu intermetallic phase inside the grains, the elastic modulus, yield strength (YS), and UTS of 3Cu/Mg (wt%) composites were 40, 82, and 51% higher, respectively, than those of pure Mg. Co-extrusion is a process in which two or more materials are concurrently extruded into a single composite billet. This is a new method for manufacturing Mg-based composites with excellent ductility and high strength [80,83,84]. As shown in Figure 1, Zhao et al. [80] prepared a bimetal composite rod composed of a softer AZ31 sleeve and a harder WE43 core. This was achieved by a special process that combines hot-pressing diffusion and co-extrusion. Compared with AZ31, AZ31/WE43 composite rods, which had a gradient of both composition and microstructure, had excellent interfacial bonding owing to higher compression and tensile YS.
![Figure 1
Schematic of the AZ31/WE43 bimetallic composite rod prepared by hot-press diffusion and co-extrusion [80].](/document/doi/10.1515/ntrev-2022-0043/asset/graphic/j_ntrev-2022-0043_fig_001.jpg)
Schematic of the AZ31/WE43 bimetallic composite rod prepared by hot-press diffusion and co-extrusion [80].
Metallic reinforcements can become nucleation centers when the Mg matrix is solidified, thus allowing the matrix to obtain fine equiaxed grains [85]. In addition, metallic reinforcements exhibit good wettability and ductility. Therefore, Mg-based composites reinforced by metallic reinforcements have good interface bonding. Some metallic reinforcements can also form secondary phases with the matrix to enhance interfacial bonding [86,87]. The strength of the composite often reaches a maximum value for certain content of metallic reinforcement [88,89]. Hence, the added content of metallic reinforcements needs to be better designed; otherwise, the reinforcements and the matrix may form compounds, which deteriorates the mechanical properties of the matrix. The decrease in the ductility of metallic-reinforced Mg-based composites is mainly attributed to the presence of a relatively high volume fraction of brittle intermetallic compounds at the interfaces and inside the matrix. These act as crack nucleation points, resulting in greatly reduced properties.
At present, research on metallic-reinforced Mg-based composites is at its initial stage and has mainly focused on pure Mg as the matrix. However, a few studies have been conducted on metallic-reinforced composites based on Mg alloys. In addition, the density of metallic reinforcements is much higher than that of the Mg matrix, and thus a high content of metallic reinforcement will negatively affect the weight of metallic-reinforced Mg-based composites. Methods to obtain uniformly dispersed nano-metallic particle-reinforced Mg-based composites therefore need to be further explored. Solving the problems of interface diffusion, particle distribution uniformity, content ratio, and effective low-density metallic reinforcement is still a difficult problem in the development of metallic-reinforced Mg-based composites, and continuous experimental exploration is required.
3 Ceramic-reinforced Mg-based composites
Ceramic reinforcement has several advantages such as high hardness (1,200–3,700 HV) and modulus (300–600 GPa), low thermal expansion coefficient (3–8 10−6 K−1), and high chemical stability [57,58,59,60,61,62,63,90,91]. The commonly used ceramic-based reinforcement materials mainly include carbides (SiC, B4C, and TiC), nitrides (Si3N4 and AlN), borides (TiB2 and TiB), and metal oxides (Al2O3 and MgO). The size and morphology of the ceramic reinforcements have a significant influence on the properties of Mg-based composites. Stress concentration occurs at the sharp corners of ceramic reinforcements with an irregular external morphology. Ceramic reinforcements can refine the Mg matrix grains, produce high-density dislocations, and effectively block dislocations, which can significantly enhance the strength of the matrix.
However, as the volume of the micron-ceramic reinforcements increases, significant plastic weakening of the composites will occur owing to the stress concentrations occurring near the particle aggregates and interface de-cohesion [92,93,94]. Moreover, as shown in Figure 2, the easy initiation and propagation of cracks in the micron-ceramic reinforcements or at the interfaces are a result of micron-ceramic-reinforced Mg-based composite failure [95,96,97]. Therefore, subsequent secondary processes are often used to refine the micron-ceramic-reinforced Mg-based composite grains to improve their microstructures [98]. In addition, the residual stress of ceramic reinforcements with regular and uniform shapes is very small [95,99]. The expected properties can be obtained using nano-ceramic reinforcements owing to their excellent properties (see Table 2). As illustrated in Figure 3, nano-ceramic particles can be distributed at the grain boundaries and/or inside the grains, thus resulting in remarkable pinning of grain boundary movement and a fine-grain strengthening effect [103,104]. Hence, the strength and ductility of ceramic-reinforced Mg-based composites can be comprehensively improved [79,105]. More specifically, the strengthening effect of nano-ceramic reinforcements with a small volume fraction can be similar to or even better than that of micron-ceramic-reinforced Mg-based composites with similar or higher volume fractions [100,106]. For example, Hassan and Gupta [107] showed that the YS, UTS, and EL of Mg-based composites containing 1 vol% nanosized SiC particles (SiCp) were higher than those of an AZ91 alloy reinforced with a higher content (10 vol%) of micron-SiCp.
![Figure 2
(a) Cracks ahead of the notch at the “small” strains; (b) corresponding image of (a) at “large” strains. (c and d) Further magnification of the rectangular regions in (a) and (b), respectively [95].](/document/doi/10.1515/ntrev-2022-0043/asset/graphic/j_ntrev-2022-0043_fig_002.jpg)
(a) Cracks ahead of the notch at the “small” strains; (b) corresponding image of (a) at “large” strains. (c and d) Further magnification of the rectangular regions in (a) and (b), respectively [95].
Mechanical properties of ceramic-reinforced Mg-based composites
| Materials | Fabrication process (es) | Tensile properties | Compressive properties | Hardness (HV) | Young’s modulus (GPa) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| YS (MPa) | UTS (MPa) | EL (%) | CYS (MPa) | UCS (MPa) | Failure Strain (%) | ||||
| 14 vol% 60 nm SiC/Mg2Zn [99] | LSU + EV + HPT | 710 ± 35 | ∼900 | ∼50 | — | — | — | ∼145 | 86 ± 5 |
| 10 vol% 25 μm SiC/Mg [100] | PM + MS | 140 ± 2 | 165 ± 2 | 1.5 ± 0.8 | — | — | — | 44.3 ± 0.5 | — |
| 1 vol% 50 nm SiC/Mg [100] | PM + MS | 157 ± 22 | 203 ± 22 | 7.6 ± 1.5 | — | — | — | 43.2 ± 2.0 | — |
| 1.1 vol% 1 μm Al2O3/Mg [100] | PM + MS | 209 ± 1 | 242 ± 3 | 3.5 ± 0.3 | — | — | — | 58.8 ± 0.5 | — |
| 1.1 vol% 50 nm Al2O3/Mg [10] | PM + MS | 175 ± 3 | 246 ± 3 | 14.0 ± 2.4 | — | — | — | 65.9 ± 0.9 | — |
| Pure Mg [101] | PM + MS + HE | 109 ± 09 | 161 ± 16 | 8.9 ± 1.1 | 93 ± 2 | 246 ± 23 | 19.4 ± 0.8 | — | — |
| 0.66 vol% 50 nm B4C/Mg [101] | PM + MS + HE | 120 ± 05 | 164 ± 06 | 10.0 ± 0.3 | 100 ± 5 | 335 ± 11 | 11.8 ± 1.8 | — | — |
| 1.11 vol% 50 nm B4C/Mg [101] | PM + MS + HE | 82 ± 11 | 119 ± 17 | 5.5 ± 1.2 | 105 ± 3 | 331 ± 10 | 13.3 ± 1.4 | — | — |
| Pure Mg [102] | PM + MS + HE | 96 ± 6 | 137 ± 9 | 6.0 ± 3.0 | 51 ± 9 | 268 ± 16 | 18.9 ± 1.6 | 41 ± 3 | — |
| 0.2 vol% 75 nm AlN/Mg [102] | PM + MS + HE | 102 ± 6 | 159 ± 8 | 11.0 ± 2.2 | 65 ± 1 | 284 ± 12 | 19.3 ± 1.5 | 49 ± 3 | — |
| 0.4 vol% 75 nm AlN/Mg [102] | PM + MS + HE | 120 ± 1 | 164 ± 3 | 8.4 ± 0.9 | 72 ± 5 | 314 ± 20 | 17.5 ± 0.6 | 55 ± 3 | — |
| 0.8 vol% 75 nm AlN/Mg [102] | PM + MS + HE | 129 ± 5 | 176 ± 3 | 6.3 ± 0.4 | 71 ± 3 | 307 ± 17 | 18.3 ± 2.3 | 53 ± 8 | — |
YS: yield strength; UTS: ultimate tensile strength; EL: elongation; CYS: compressive yield strength; UCS: ultimate compressive strength; LSU: liquid-state ultrasonic; EV: evaporation; HPT: high-pressure torsion; BM: ball milling; HPS: hot-pressing sintering; PM: powder metallurgy; MS: microwave sintering; HE: hot extrusion.
![Figure 3
(a) Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) image of the dislocation cell labeled with orange “c.” (b) Dislocation glide steps marked with a red arrow in the MgO/Mg nanocomposite [104].](/document/doi/10.1515/ntrev-2022-0043/asset/graphic/j_ntrev-2022-0043_fig_003.jpg)
(a) Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) image of the dislocation cell labeled with orange “c.” (b) Dislocation glide steps marked with a red arrow in the MgO/Mg nanocomposite [104].
Similarly, mechanical ball milling is an economical method for producing nano-ceramic-reinforced Mg-based composites. Nano-ceramic particles can also be synthesized in situ by milling precursor elements. Hwang et al. [108] synthesized nano-TiC particle-reinforced Mg-based composites by the mechanical ball milling of Mg, Ti, and C element powders. The tensile strength, toughness, and ductility of the nanocomposite can be improved using nano-TiCp, which can inhibit grain boundary sliding. Furthermore, nano-ceramic reinforcements can be added to Mg-based composites together with other types of reinforcements (hybrid reinforcements), thus providing greater strengthening efficiency than individual nano-ceramic reinforcements [109,110]. Compared with the AZ91 alloy, the hardness and tensile strength of MgO–Al2O3–MgAl2O4-reinforced Mg-based composites increased by 64% (97 HV) and 43% (325 MPa) [111,112], respectively. Tun et al. [113] prepared nano-Al2O3 ceramic particles and Cu metal hybrid-reinforced Mg-based composites by PM combined with microwave sintering (MS) and HE. The significant increase in YS and UTS can be attributed to the grain refinement of Cu and its secondary phase. HE is an effective way to improve the microstructure defects of casting [114,115]. For a SiCp/AZ91 composite prepared by the stirring casting method, the subsequent HE can form grain deformation zones and high energy density dislocations and ultimately promote dynamic recrystallization to refine the matrix grains [98,116]. Subsequent HE can also allow for uniform distribution of SiC nanoparticles within the matrix and a simultaneous increase in YS, UTS, and failure strain [117]. In fact, the surface properties of Mg alloys significantly affect their service life in certain application scenarios. Surface Mg-based composites are the best examples of such materials, which contain evenly distributed reinforcements at the surface, without affecting the chemical composition and structure of the internal substrate [118,119,120]. To modify the surface properties of Mg alloys, friction stir processing (FSP), a solid-phase method, is advantageous for preparing surface composites on Mg alloys [121]. Grain refinement, improved hardness, wear resistance, and mechanical behavior are common observations in all Mg-based composites produced by FSP [50,122].
Improving the strength of Mg and Mg alloys at high temperatures is a challenge [123]. However, on the one hand, the fine grains obtained by deformation are easily coarsened; on the other hand, the precipitates obtained after heat treatment tend to dissolve, leading to the loss of strengthening at high temperatures [96,124]. Generally, the addition of nano-ceramic reinforcements to pure Mg or Mg alloys is regarded as one of the most effective methods owing to their high-temperature properties and high thermal stability [125]. For example, Ganguly and Mondal [126] found that the presence of an Al2Ca phase network and SiC nanoparticles increased dislocation accumulation and dislocation tangling, resulting in nanocomposites with excellent creep resistance prior to AZ91 alloy. Labib et al. [127] reported that the average grain size of SiCp/Mg composites remained almost unchanged after the addition of SiC, whereas their dimensional stability was improved because of the reduction in the coefficient of thermal expansion. During deformation at elevated temperatures, the enhanced high-temperature properties of the composites were mainly attributed to the coefficient of thermal expansion mismatch strengthening, Orowan strengthening, and grain boundary strengthening induced by nano-ceramic particles [128,129,130].
Although the strengthening effect of the nano-ceramic reinforcements is excellent, homogeneous dispersion is difficult because agglomeration readily occurs. Favorable performance can only be obtained when the reinforcements are evenly distributed and are not clustered in the Mg matrix. For nano-ceramic-reinforced Mg-based composites prepared solely by the traditional stirring casting method, ultrasonic-assisted dispersion can enhance the surface energy of the reinforcements, reduce the surface energy of the melt, improve wettability, provide homogeneous dispersion of the nanoparticles, and significantly improve the mechanical properties of the nanocomposites [87,131]. For example, Chen et al. [99] used an ultrasonic-assisted liquid-phase and evaporation method to prepare a SiC nanoparticle-reinforced Mg composite, and the semicoherent combination of SiC nanoparticles and the matrix improved the bonding force and stability of the interfaces. The high-density SiC nanoparticles were uniformly distributed in the matrix, thus greatly improving the strength (710 ± 35 MPa) and plasticity (50%) of the nanocomposite (Figure 4a). Moreover, the Mg2Zn (14 vol% SiC) specimen showed the highest specific strength and the highest specific modulus among all the reported data collected from micropillars of different metals and alloys (Figure 4b).
![Figure 4
(a) Engineering stress–strain curves of Mg specimens without (black) and with (red) SiC nanoparticles. (b) Relationship between specific modulus and specific YS of Mg2Zn (14 vol% SiC) in comparison with the microcolumn test results of other metals and alloys [99].](/document/doi/10.1515/ntrev-2022-0043/asset/graphic/j_ntrev-2022-0043_fig_004.jpg)
(a) Engineering stress–strain curves of Mg specimens without (black) and with (red) SiC nanoparticles. (b) Relationship between specific modulus and specific YS of Mg2Zn (14 vol% SiC) in comparison with the microcolumn test results of other metals and alloys [99].
Poor interfacial bonding between the nano-ceramic reinforcements and the matrix is another reason for the performance degradation. Interface optimization is therefore used to improve the wettability and interfacial bonding between the nano-ceramic reinforcements and the matrix. Several strategies, including adding alloying elements to the Mg matrix, surface modification of the reinforcements, and optimization of processing technologies, have been adopted to address the aforementioned problem. Among them, adding appropriate alloying elements to the matrix can effectively improve the wettability and interface bonding between the molten matrix and the nano-ceramic reinforcements [46]. By introducing a small amount of Ti (which has a higher melting point than pure Mg) to the B4C ceramic preform, homogeneously distributed B4C particles within the matrix were obtained. This is because Ti acts as an infiltration inducer to reduce the surface tension and solid–liquid interfacial tension of the molten Mg. In addition, the addition of metallic particles of similar size can promote the uniform distribution of ceramic nanoparticles [132].
Although ceramic-reinforced Mg-based composites show superior advantages, they still have many shortcomings that limit their large-scale application. In addition to the poor interfacial bonding mentioned above, the reinforcement may react with the matrix, resulting in interface instability [133,134]. Therefore, ceramic-reinforced Mg-based composites need further research in the following directions in the future: (1) in terms of the fabrication process, the process flow, parameters, and equipment should be optimized on the basis of the original process, and fabrication processes with low cost and high efficiency should be developed; (2) adding hybrid ceramic reinforcements may obtain ceramic-reinforced Mg-based composites with comprehensive properties. Individual ceramic particle-reinforced Mg-based composites may improve the stiffness and strength of the composites, but they can also reduce the ductility and toughness. Hybrid ceramic reinforcement-reinforced Mg-based composites can maintain the advantages of each ceramic reinforcement and provide multiphase synergistic strengthening; and (3) it is necessary to deeply study the influence of the interface between the reinforcement and the matrix on the properties of Mg-based composites, explore the interface action mechanism, and seek an effective way to solve the interface problem.
4 Carbon-reinforced Mg-based composites
Nanosized reinforcements can improve the strength of Mg composites while maintaining their plasticity. Nanocarbon reinforcements mainly comprise carbon nanotubes (CNTs) [135] and graphene nanosheets (GNSs) [136]. Graphene consists of only a single-atom-thick sheet of sp2-hybridized carbon atom in a honeycomb lattice. Graphene building blocks can be used to construct single-walled and multiwalled CNTs [137,138]. CNTs are produced by rolling layers of graphene. The walls of CNTs (1–2 nm in diameter) are composed of carbon atoms bonded to each other with strong C–C bonds. Both CNTs and GNSs have low density (∼1 g cm−3), ultra-high strength (up to ∼100 GPa), high Young’s modulus (∼1 TPa), excellent mechanical properties, and good thermal stability [57,58,59,60,61,62,63,139,140,141,142,143]. These qualities make them ideal reinforcements for high-performance Mg-based composites. Therefore, Mg-based composites reinforced with nanocarbon reinforcements (CNTs and GNSs) have a lower density and higher specific strength than those with ceramic-based and metallic particle reinforcements [144].
Many studies have found that the strength of Mg-based composites reinforced by CNTs and/or carbon nanosheets (CNSs) increased by as much as 40% and that the EL rate exceeded 100% [145,146,147,148,149]. Table 3 lists the mechanical properties of nanocarbon-reinforced Mg-based composites. Ding et al. [151] synthesized CNT-reinforced Mg-based nanocomposites using PW. The CNTs were uniformly dispersed in the matrix, and the nanocomposite exhibited higher strength and reasonable ductility. Its compressive strength and YS reached 504 and 454 MPa, respectively, values that are much higher than those of similar materials reported in other studies. In addition, a novel processing method that combined liquid-state ultrasonic and solid-state stirring was used to prepare bulk nanocomposites [154]. The obtained GNS-reinforced Mg-based nanocomposite showed uniform dispersion of the GNSs and significantly enhanced hardness. Rashad et al. [152,153,155,156,157] studied GNSs and/or CNT-reinforced Mg-based nanocomposites using semipowder metallurgy (SPM) followed by HE. For (10 wt% Ti + 0.18 wt% GNSs)/Mg composites, the addition of GNSs enhanced the YS, UTS, and ductility of the matrix. The increased ductility of GNS-reinforced Mg-based nanocomposites has rarely been reported. Rashad et al. [153] also studied the synergistic effect of CNTs and graphene on the mechanical properties of pure Mg. Under the same ratio of using either only CNTs, only graphene, or a combination of CNTs and graphene, CNTs exhibited the best strengthening effect, whereas the CNTs + graphene hybrid reinforcements exhibited the best ductility.
Mechanical properties of carbon-reinforced Mg-based composites
| Materials | Fabrication process (es) | Tensile properties | Compressive properties | Hardness (HV) | Young’s modulus (GPa) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| YS (MPa) | UTS (MPa) | EL (%) | CYS (MPa) | UCS (MPa) | Failure strain (%) | ||||
| AZ91 [150] | SPM + HE | 168 ± 5.0 | 215 ± 6.0 | 7.0 ± 0.2 | — | — | — | 72.4 ± 2.0 | — |
| 1 wt% CNT/AZ91 [150] | SPM + HE | 173 ± 4.0 | 228 ± 5.0 | 8.6 ± 0.1 | — | — | — | 79.2 ± 2.0 | — |
| 2 wt% CNT/AZ91 [150] | SPM + HE | 197 ± 4.5 | 263 ± 5.5 | 8.7 ± 0.2 | — | — | — | 87.1 ± 1.5 | — |
| 3 wt% CNT/AZ91 [150] | SPM + HE | 250 ± 3.8 | 301 ± 4.5 | 9.4 ± 0.1 | — | — | — | 94.1 ± 2.0 | — |
| 4 wt% CNT/AZ91 [150] | SPM + HE | 187 ± 3.5 | 248 ± 3.9 | 8.5 ± 0.1 | — | — | — | 84.3 ± 1.6 | — |
| Ni-CNT/Mg [151] | PM + BM + HPS | 454 | 504 | 10.5 | — | — | — | — | — |
| 1 wt% (MgO-CNT)/AZ91 [150] | SPM + HE | 190 ± 3.6 | 260 ± 4.2 | 7.6 ± 0.1 | — | — | — | 80.2 ± 1.5 | — |
| 2 wt% (MgO-CNT)/AZ91 [150] | SPM + HE | 210 ± 5.0 | 294 ± 6.0 | 8.2 ± 0.2 | — | — | — | 89.5 ± 1.0 | — |
| 3 wt% (MgO-CNT)/AZ91 [150] | SPM + HE | 284 ± 4.6 | 331 ± 5.0 | 8.6 ± 0.1 | — | — | — | 96.4 ± 1.2 | — |
| 4 wt% (MgO-CNT)/AZ91 [150] | SPM + HE | 206 ± 3.7 | 272 ± 4.8 | 8.0 ± 0.1 | — | — | — | 86.5 ± 1.2 | — |
| Mg-1 wt% Al-1 wt% Sn [152] | SPM + HE | 161 ± 04 | 236 ± 5.1 | 16.7 ± 0.3 | — | — | — | — | — |
| Mg-1 wt% Al-1 wt% Sn-0.18 wt% GNSs [152] | SPM + HE | 208 ± 5.3 | 269 ± 03 | 10.9 ± 3.4 | — | — | — | — | — |
| Pure Mg [152] | SPM + HE | 104 ± 4 | 164 ± 5 | 6.2 ± 0.2 | 136 ± 3 | 286 ± 6 | 12 ± 0.2 | 46 ± 2 | 7.0 ± 0.3 |
| Mg-1 wt% Al [152] | SPM + HE | 155 ± 3 | 202 ± 3 | 6.9 ± 0.5 | 100 ± 2 | 377 ± 8 | 18 ± 0.5 | 50 ± 4 | 12.8 ± 0.4 |
| Mg-1 wt% Al-0.60 wt% GNSs [152] | SPM + HE | 204 ± 9 | 265 ± 8 | 4.0 ± 0.6 | 230 ± 5 | 407 ± 3 | 13 ± 0.3 | 63 ± 2 | 17.2 ± 0.1 |
| Mg-1 wt% Al-0.60 wt% CNTs [152] | SPM + HE | 210 ± 5 | 287 ± 4 | 10 ± 0.3 | 237 ± 4 | 425 ± 5 | 12.6 ± 0.2 | 61 ± 5 | 15.7 ± 0.3 |
| Mg-1 wt% Al-0.60 wt% [1:5] (CNT + GNSs) [153] | SPM + HE | 185 ± 4 | 234 ± 3 | 16.4 ± 0.5 | 167 ± 6 | 397 ± 3 | 15 ± 0.4 | 56 ± 3 | 15.0 ± 0.2 |
YS: yield strength; UTS: ultimate tensile strength; EL: elongation; CYS: compressive yield strength; UCS: ultimate compressive strength; SPM: semipowder metallurgy; HE: hot extrusion; PM: powder metallurgy; BM: ball milling; HPS: hot-pressing sintering; CNT: carbon nanotube; CNS: carbon nanosheet/nanoplate.
The uniform distribution of the nanocarbon reinforcements is the premise underlying the excellent mechanical properties of nanocarbon-reinforced Mg-based composites. As shown in Figure 5a and b, the uniform distribution and continuous CNTs or graphene-reinforced composites have mechanical properties that exceed those of carbon-fiber-reinforced composites [158]. The best bearing capacity achieved thus far was achieved by designing continuous CNT or graphene preforms in the composite design. As shown in Figure 5c, Kinloch et al. [158] summarized four dispersion methods based on the combination of CNTs/GNSs and functional groups. Owing to the second-phase strengthening effect of the high modulus of the nanocarbon reinforcements, Mg-based nanocomposites usually have a higher hardness than the matrix, which limits local deformation during the indentation process [159]. The high elastic modulus of the nanocarbon reinforcements indicates a high load-bearing capacity and prevents damage to the worn surface. Once the load is removed, the reinforcements are restored to their original shape. Therefore, the wear resistance of Mg-based composites with high-modulus reinforcements can be further improved [160].
![Figure 5
(a) Schematic of a composite that consists of the uniform distribution and continuous CNTs or graphene as reinforcements. (b) Ashby plot of Young’s modulus and tensile strength of composites containing nano-reinforcements [158]. (c) Schematic diagram of four dispersion methods for the interaction between CNTs or GNSs and a polymer matrix [158].](/document/doi/10.1515/ntrev-2022-0043/asset/graphic/j_ntrev-2022-0043_fig_005.jpg)
(a) Schematic of a composite that consists of the uniform distribution and continuous CNTs or graphene as reinforcements. (b) Ashby plot of Young’s modulus and tensile strength of composites containing nano-reinforcements [158]. (c) Schematic diagram of four dispersion methods for the interaction between CNTs or GNSs and a polymer matrix [158].
CNTs may cause agglomeration because of the weak van der Waals forces between the carbon atoms. Similarly, owing to the strong van der Waals force and the π–π attractive force, CNSs are prone to aggregation [154]. Therefore, the uniform distribution of these nanocarbon reinforcements in the Mg matrix is a major problem. Compared with adding reinforcements in the matrix directly, the in situ method has the advantages of good interfacial wettability and strong interfacial bonding with the matrix [161] and finer size and uniform distribution of in situ synthetic reinforcements [162,163]. Recently, a preparation process where chemical predispersion was combined with stirring casting was used to achieve good dispersion of CNSs in the Mg matrix [31]. This process effectively solved the problem of dispersing CNSs using the stirring casting method and prepared a CNS-reinforced Mg-based composite with high strength while maintaining plasticity.
The ball-milling method can also significantly improve the aggregation of CNSs. GNSs showed uniform distribution in the matrix with no significant graphene aggregation with increasing ball-milling time [164,165]. Good interfacial bonding can transfer the load from the soft matrix to the nanocarbon reinforcements to improve the strength of the composites. In addition, the noncoherent interfaces between CNTs and the matrix lead to poor interfacial bonding [166,167], and the natural nonwettability of CNTs in molten Mg leads to inhomogeneous dispersion of the CNTs [168,169]. Therefore, the mechanical properties of CNTs/Mg nanocomposites are much lower than predicted [170], which largely limits the application of CNTs in Mg-based composites [171]. To overcome these problems, some improved methods have been applied, such as rapid MS and spark plasma sintering technologies [172,173,174]. However, it is difficult to avoid the agglomeration of CNTs in the matrix. DMD and ultrasonic-assisted extrusion can prevent the agglomeration of CNTs [175,176,177], but these methods usually introduce structural defects in the CNTs. However, the in situ synthesis of CNTs can be used to solve this problem. Using an in situ reaction method, CNT-reinforced Mg-based nanocomposites with a small matrix grain size, uniform CNT dispersion, and good interface bonding can be prepared. For example, Sun et al. [178] used a Co catalyst to synthesize uniformly dispersed CNT/Mg nanocomposite powders in situ. Using chemical vapor deposition (at 480°C) combined with a Co catalyst, CNTs with uniform morphology and high purity were synthesized on Mg powder. Yuan et al. [179] improved the mechanical properties of a GNS/AZ91 alloy using in situ-synthesized MgO nanoparticles, which significantly improved the interfacial bonding between the GNSs and α-Mg. This is attributed to the formation of a semicoherent interface, MgO/α-Mg, and the distortion area interfacial bonding of GNS/MgO, as shown in Figure 6. When 0.5 wt% GNPs was added, the YS and the EL of the nanocomposite increased by 76.2 and 24.3%, respectively, compared to the matrix. The ball milling of the CNT/Mg composite powder enabled CNTs to be embedded in the Mg matrix, thereby forming an ideal combination of CNTs and pure Mg. Hence, the obtained nanocomposite powders produced a Mg-based composite with uniform CNT distribution.
![Figure 6
(a) High-magnification image of the distortion area. (b) Schematic illustration of the interface of MgO/α-Mg and GNS/MgO [179].](/document/doi/10.1515/ntrev-2022-0043/asset/graphic/j_ntrev-2022-0043_fig_006.jpg)
(a) High-magnification image of the distortion area. (b) Schematic illustration of the interface of MgO/α-Mg and GNS/MgO [179].
The surface coating of nanocarbons is also one of the most effective ways to improve the wettability and interfacial bonding between the reinforcements and the matrix, such as Ni [180], Al [46], Si [181], and MgO [150]. For example, Yuan et al. [150] studied a new method to improve the interfacial bonding strength by coating magnesium oxide (MgO) nanoparticles on the surface of CNTs. The results showed that a nanoscale contact interface and diffused bonding interface formed between the CNTs and MgO in the composite. Consequently, this ensured the effective transfer of the load from the matrix to the CNTs. In recent years, among numerous research methods for Mg alloys, numerical simulations and molecular dynamics simulations have gradually become important [182,183,184,185,186]. As shown in Figure 7, Zhou et al. [186] investigated the effects of interfacial properties and hybrid nano-reinforcements on the dynamic mechanical properties of Mg-based composites and hybrid strengthening mechanisms by comparing three-dimensional (3D) simulation results and experimental data. The use of numerical simulation calculations may save more time for optimizing the interfacial bonding and mechanical properties of Mg-based composites in the future, as well as the development of new Mg-based composites.
![Figure 7
3D numerical simulations of the dynamical tensile response of hybrid CNT/SiC-reinforced Mg-based composites considering interface cohesion at 100°C and strain rate of 1,000 s−1 [186]. (a) 3D composite, (b) cross section of the composite, (c) Mg matrix, and (d) hybrid reinforcements.](/document/doi/10.1515/ntrev-2022-0043/asset/graphic/j_ntrev-2022-0043_fig_007.jpg)
3D numerical simulations of the dynamical tensile response of hybrid CNT/SiC-reinforced Mg-based composites considering interface cohesion at 100°C and strain rate of 1,000 s−1 [186]. (a) 3D composite, (b) cross section of the composite, (c) Mg matrix, and (d) hybrid reinforcements.
Nanocarbon-reinforced Mg-based composites have the advantages of low density, high specific strength, and stiffness, which have attracted the attention of scholars worldwide. However, carbon nano-reinforcements also have deficiencies, including agglomeration and uneven dispersion, both of which can cause their performance to be far lower than expected. In addition, the weak interfacial bonding between the nanocarbon reinforcement and the matrix reduces the properties of nanocarbon-reinforced Mg-based composites. Future research should focus on developing new nanocarbon reinforcements, finding appropriate interface optimization methods, and developing reasonable fabrication processes. It is worth mentioning that the combination of experiments and modern computer simulation technology can directly and effectively find the best process plan, thereby avoiding the blindness of experiments.
5 Other functional Mg-based composites
As biodegradable implants, Mg-based alloys have unique characteristics that Zn- and Fe-based alloys do not have [55,117,187,188,189]. Mg-based composites used as biodegradable implants are promising candidates for avoiding the stress shielding problems caused by high Young’s modulus metals, such as Zn (∼90 GPa) or Fe (∼211.4 GPa). This is because pure Mg has Young’s modulus (∼45 GPa) that is closest to that of natural bone (∼5–23 GPa) [190,191,192]. Therefore, Mg-based composites have superior mechanical and corrosion performance for biomedical applications [193,194,195,196].
Mg has a theoretical hydrogen storage capacity of up to 7.6% (mass fraction) and is widely considered a hydrogen storage material. Magnesium hydride/magnesium (MgH2/Mg) composites are potential solid-state hydrogen storage materials. However, the thermodynamic and kinetic properties are far from suitable for practical applications at this stage [197]. Reinforcements can be used as effective catalysts to reduce the reaction enthalpy of Mg-based hydrogen storage materials and significantly improve their hydrogenation/dehydrogenation performance [198,199,200]. As shown in Figure 8, Jeon et al. [201] reported a type of air-stable composite material that can store high-density hydrogen (up to 6 wt% of Mg, 4 wt% of composites) and has fast kinetics (loading at 200°C for less than 30 min) without using expensive heavy metal catalysts. The composites can enhance the kinetics by reducing the length of the hydrogen diffusion path and reducing the required thickness of the poorly permeable hydride layer formed during the absorption process. In addition, high-energy ball milling can produce hydrogen storage materials with the advantages of fresh and highly reactive surface nanocrystalline materials and the ability to form nanocomposites [202,203]. Li et al. [204] mechanically ball-milled additives (TiO2, Ni, and CNTs) and Mg to improve the hydrogen storage performance. The composites can absorb 7.5 wt% hydrogen in 60 s at a hydrogen pressure of 5.0 × 10−5 Pa, and release 6.5 wt% hydrogen in 600 s at a hydrogen pressure of 5.0 × 10−5 Pa at 260°C. The composites exhibited very high absorption, hydrogen capacity, and remarkable dynamic performance during the hydrogenation/dehydrogenation processes.
![Figure 8
Mg nanocomposites in a gas-barrier polymer matrix. a) Schematic of hydrogen storage composite material: high-capacity Mg nanocomposites are encapsulated by a selectively gas-permeable polymer. b) Synthetic approach to formation of the Mg nanocomposites [201].](/document/doi/10.1515/ntrev-2022-0043/asset/graphic/j_ntrev-2022-0043_fig_008.jpg)
Mg nanocomposites in a gas-barrier polymer matrix. a) Schematic of hydrogen storage composite material: high-capacity Mg nanocomposites are encapsulated by a selectively gas-permeable polymer. b) Synthetic approach to formation of the Mg nanocomposites [201].
The micro-galvanic effect is the main corrosion mechanism of reinforcement-reinforced Mg-based composites. This may be attributed to the presence of reinforcements that activate the corrosion of Mg alloys owing to the occurrence of galvanic corrosion. This effect increases with increasing reinforcement content [205]. The addition of reinforcements will also introduce several interfaces, dislocations, twins, compounds, and other structures within the Mg matrix, all of which are closely related to the corrosiveness of Mg-based composites. Nonetheless, surface treatment can significantly improve the corrosion resistance of Mg alloys/Mg-based composites [196,206,207,208,209,210,211]. In addition, compared to pure Mg or Mg alloys, some Mg-based composites have better high-temperature properties [99], superior damping [212,213], and improved creep properties [96]. Hence, more research needs to be conducted in these areas so that Mg-based composites can be used in aviation, aerospace, automobiles, civil air-conditioning, and other related fields on a large scale.
6 Summary and outlook
This review summarizes the current research progress, challenges, and upcoming explorations of reinforcement-reinforced (especially nano-reinforcements) Mg-based composites. Micron-reinforcement-reinforced Mg-based composites, owing to the larger size of the reinforcements, are more likely to contain fracture-inducing defects, thus making particle fracture more common. However, Mg and its alloys reinforced with nano-reinforcements have the advantages of light weight, superior strength, high modulus, and good wear resistance, thus exhibiting improved mechanical properties without significantly reducing the ductility normally associated with the addition of micro-reinforcements, making them an attractive choice for lightweight structural applications. To date, nano-SiC particles or CNT-reinforced Mg-based composites have been studied systematically. Their YS, compressive strength, Young’s modulus, and EL have reached ∼710 MPa, ∼504 MPa, ∼86 GPa, and ∼50%, respectively, which are the highest reported values for Mg-based composites. To obtain excellent mechanical and physical properties, the microstructure and interface of Mg-based composites need to be considered. It is necessary to understand the influence of reinforcement distribution, orientation, interfacial reaction phases, and matrix microstructure on the properties of Mg-based composites. However, there are three main drawbacks that limit the large-scale application of Mg-based nanocomposites: (a) the agglomeration and inhomogeneous dispersion of these reinforcements, (b) poor interfacial bonding between the reinforcements and the matrix, and (c) most Mg-based composites have poor corrosion resistance and relatively limited high-temperature properties. Although many traditional and novel methods (such as in situ technology) have been employed to disperse the reinforcements into metal matrices, it is very important to use less expensive and simpler methods to produce Mg-based composites without the need for specific technical equipment. Therefore, this remains a significant challenge.
Four aspects should be considered in future work. First, it is necessary to further explore Mg alloy matrix composites. Thus far, most of the work has focused on the pure Mg matrix; however, very few studies have been conducted on Mg alloy matrices. In fact, Mg alloys, rather than pure Mg, are widely used in the industry. Second, effective and inexpensive reinforcements should also be explored in depth. More reasonable sizes and combinations of reinforcements can be studied to improve the comprehensive performance of Mg-based composites. Third, new reinforcement dispersion technology, a less expensive and simpler production technology that is used to disperse the reinforcement into the Mg matrix, should be studied. Reinforced coatings produced by in situ reaction or reinforcement generation should be used to fabricate high-performance composite materials. This can be achieved through proper surface treatment and the development of appropriate coating procedures. This can enable the large-scale production of Mg-based composites. Finally, further discussion on the physical model and the corresponding accuracy is beneficial for the development of new Mg-based composites.
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Funding information: This research was funded by the Guangdong Major Project of Basic and Applied Basic Research (2020B0301030006), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities Project (2021CDJQY-038, 2021CDJQY-040), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51971042, 51901028, 51861016), and the Chongqing Special Project of Science and Technology Innovation (cstc2021yszx-jcyj0007).
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Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and have approved its submission.
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Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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- Microstructural characteristics and nano-modification of interfacial transition zone in concrete: A review
- Latest developments in the upconversion nanotechnology for the rapid detection of food safety: A review
- Strategic applications of nano-fertilizers for sustainable agriculture: Benefits and bottlenecks
- Molecular dynamics application of cocrystal energetic materials: A review
- Synthesis and application of nanometer hydroxyapatite in biomedicine
- Cutting-edge development in waste-recycled nanomaterials for energy storage and conversion applications
- Biological applications of ternary quantum dots: A review
- Nanotherapeutics for hydrogen sulfide-involved treatment: An emerging approach for cancer therapy
- Application of antibacterial nanoparticles in orthodontic materials
- Effect of natural-based biological hydrogels combined with growth factors on skin wound healing
- Nanozymes – A route to overcome microbial resistance: A viewpoint
- Recent developments and applications of smart nanoparticles in biomedicine
- Contemporary review on carbon nanotube (CNT) composites and their impact on multifarious applications
- Interfacial interactions and reinforcing mechanisms of cellulose and chitin nanomaterials and starch derivatives for cement and concrete strength and durability enhancement: A review
- Diamond-like carbon films for tribological modification of rubber
- Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) modified cement-based materials: A systematic review
- Recent research progress and advanced applications of silica/polymer nanocomposites
- Modeling of supramolecular biopolymers: Leading the in silico revolution of tissue engineering and nanomedicine
- Recent advances in perovskites-based optoelectronics
- Biogenic synthesis of palladium nanoparticles: New production methods and applications
- A comprehensive review of nanofluids with fractional derivatives: Modeling and application
- Electrospinning of marine polysaccharides: Processing and chemical aspects, challenges, and future prospects
- Electrohydrodynamic printing for demanding devices: A review of processing and applications
- Rapid Communications
- Structural material with designed thermal twist for a simple actuation
- Recent advances in photothermal materials for solar-driven crude oil adsorption
Articles in the same Issue
- Research Articles
- Theoretical and experimental investigation of MWCNT dispersion effect on the elastic modulus of flexible PDMS/MWCNT nanocomposites
- Mechanical, morphological, and fracture-deformation behavior of MWCNTs-reinforced (Al–Cu–Mg–T351) alloy cast nanocomposites fabricated by optimized mechanical milling and powder metallurgy techniques
- Flammability and physical stability of sugar palm crystalline nanocellulose reinforced thermoplastic sugar palm starch/poly(lactic acid) blend bionanocomposites
- Glutathione-loaded non-ionic surfactant niosomes: A new approach to improve oral bioavailability and hepatoprotective efficacy of glutathione
- Relationship between mechano-bactericidal activity and nanoblades density on chemically strengthened glass
- In situ regulation of microstructure and microwave-absorbing properties of FeSiAl through HNO3 oxidation
- Research on a mechanical model of magnetorheological fluid different diameter particles
- Nanomechanical and dynamic mechanical properties of rubber–wood–plastic composites
- Investigative properties of CeO2 doped with niobium: A combined characterization and DFT studies
- Miniaturized peptidomimetics and nano-vesiculation in endothelin types through probable nano-disk formation and structure property relationships of endothelins’ fragments
- N/S co-doped CoSe/C nanocubes as anode materials for Li-ion batteries
- Synergistic effects of halloysite nanotubes with metal and phosphorus additives on the optimal design of eco-friendly sandwich panels with maximum flame resistance and minimum weight
- Octreotide-conjugated silver nanoparticles for active targeting of somatostatin receptors and their application in a nebulized rat model
- Controllable morphology of Bi2S3 nanostructures formed via hydrothermal vulcanization of Bi2O3 thin-film layer and their photoelectrocatalytic performances
- Development of (−)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate-loaded folate receptor-targeted nanoparticles for prostate cancer treatment
- Enhancement of the mechanical properties of HDPE mineral nanocomposites by filler particles modulation of the matrix plastic/elastic behavior
- Effect of plasticizers on the properties of sugar palm nanocellulose/cinnamon essential oil reinforced starch bionanocomposite films
- Optimization of nano coating to reduce the thermal deformation of ball screws
- Preparation of efficient piezoelectric PVDF–HFP/Ni composite films by high electric field poling
- MHD dissipative Casson nanofluid liquid film flow due to an unsteady stretching sheet with radiation influence and slip velocity phenomenon
- Effects of nano-SiO2 modification on rubberised mortar and concrete with recycled coarse aggregates
- Mechanical and microscopic properties of fiber-reinforced coal gangue-based geopolymer concrete
- Effect of morphology and size on the thermodynamic stability of cerium oxide nanoparticles: Experiment and molecular dynamics calculation
- Mechanical performance of a CFRP composite reinforced via gelatin-CNTs: A study on fiber interfacial enhancement and matrix enhancement
- A practical review over surface modification, nanopatterns, emerging materials, drug delivery systems, and their biophysiochemical properties for dental implants: Recent progresses and advances
- HTR: An ultra-high speed algorithm for cage recognition of clathrate hydrates
- Effects of microalloying elements added by in situ synthesis on the microstructure of WCu composites
- A highly sensitive nanobiosensor based on aptamer-conjugated graphene-decorated rhodium nanoparticles for detection of HER2-positive circulating tumor cells
- Progressive collapse performance of shear strengthened RC frames by nano CFRP
- Core–shell heterostructured composites of carbon nanotubes and imine-linked hyperbranched polymers as metal-free Li-ion anodes
- A Galerkin strategy for tri-hybridized mixture in ethylene glycol comprising variable diffusion and thermal conductivity using non-Fourier’s theory
- Simple models for tensile modulus of shape memory polymer nanocomposites at ambient temperature
- Preparation and morphological studies of tin sulfide nanoparticles and use as efficient photocatalysts for the degradation of rhodamine B and phenol
- Polyethyleneimine-impregnated activated carbon nanofiber composited graphene-derived rice husk char for efficient post-combustion CO2 capture
- Electrospun nanofibers of Co3O4 nanocrystals encapsulated in cyclized-polyacrylonitrile for lithium storage
- Pitting corrosion induced on high-strength high carbon steel wire in high alkaline deaerated chloride electrolyte
- Formulation of polymeric nanoparticles loaded sorafenib; evaluation of cytotoxicity, molecular evaluation, and gene expression studies in lung and breast cancer cell lines
- Engineered nanocomposites in asphalt binders
- Influence of loading voltage, domain ratio, and additional load on the actuation of dielectric elastomer
- Thermally induced hex-graphene transitions in 2D carbon crystals
- The surface modification effect on the interfacial properties of glass fiber-reinforced epoxy: A molecular dynamics study
- Molecular dynamics study of deformation mechanism of interfacial microzone of Cu/Al2Cu/Al composites under tension
- Nanocolloid simulators of luminescent solar concentrator photovoltaic windows
- Compressive strength and anti-chloride ion penetration assessment of geopolymer mortar merging PVA fiber and nano-SiO2 using RBF–BP composite neural network
- Effect of 3-mercapto-1-propane sulfonate sulfonic acid and polyvinylpyrrolidone on the growth of cobalt pillar by electrodeposition
- Dynamics of convective slippery constraints on hybrid radiative Sutterby nanofluid flow by Galerkin finite element simulation
- Preparation of vanadium by the magnesiothermic self-propagating reduction and process control
- Microstructure-dependent photoelectrocatalytic activity of heterogeneous ZnO–ZnS nanosheets
- Cytotoxic and pro-inflammatory effects of molybdenum and tungsten disulphide on human bronchial cells
- Improving recycled aggregate concrete by compression casting and nano-silica
- Chemically reactive Maxwell nanoliquid flow by a stretching surface in the frames of Newtonian heating, nonlinear convection and radiative flux: Nanopolymer flow processing simulation
- Nonlinear dynamic and crack behaviors of carbon nanotubes-reinforced composites with various geometries
- Biosynthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles and its therapeutic efficacy against colon cancer
- Synthesis and characterization of smart stimuli-responsive herbal drug-encapsulated nanoniosome particles for efficient treatment of breast cancer
- Homotopic simulation for heat transport phenomenon of the Burgers nanofluids flow over a stretching cylinder with thermal convective and zero mass flux conditions
- Incorporation of copper and strontium ions in TiO2 nanotubes via dopamine to enhance hemocompatibility and cytocompatibility
- Mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties of starch films incorporated with chitosan nanoparticles
- Mechanical properties and microstructure of nano-strengthened recycled aggregate concrete
- Glucose-responsive nanogels efficiently maintain the stability and activity of therapeutic enzymes
- Tunning matrix rheology and mechanical performance of ultra-high performance concrete using cellulose nanofibers
- Flexible MXene/copper/cellulose nanofiber heat spreader films with enhanced thermal conductivity
- Promoted charge separation and specific surface area via interlacing of N-doped titanium dioxide nanotubes on carbon nitride nanosheets for photocatalytic degradation of Rhodamine B
- Elucidating the role of silicon dioxide and titanium dioxide nanoparticles in mitigating the disease of the eggplant caused by Phomopsis vexans, Ralstonia solanacearum, and root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita
- An implication of magnetic dipole in Carreau Yasuda liquid influenced by engine oil using ternary hybrid nanomaterial
- Robust synthesis of a composite phase of copper vanadium oxide with enhanced performance for durable aqueous Zn-ion batteries
- Tunning self-assembled phases of bovine serum albumin via hydrothermal process to synthesize novel functional hydrogel for skin protection against UVB
- A comparative experimental study on damping properties of epoxy nanocomposite beams reinforced with carbon nanotubes and graphene nanoplatelets
- Lightweight and hydrophobic Ni/GO/PVA composite aerogels for ultrahigh performance electromagnetic interference shielding
- Research on the auxetic behavior and mechanical properties of periodically rotating graphene nanostructures
- Repairing performances of novel cement mortar modified with graphene oxide and polyacrylate polymer
- Closed-loop recycling and fabrication of hydrophilic CNT films with high performance
- Design of thin-film configuration of SnO2–Ag2O composites for NO2 gas-sensing applications
- Study on stress distribution of SiC/Al composites based on microstructure models with microns and nanoparticles
- PVDF green nanofibers as potential carriers for improving self-healing and mechanical properties of carbon fiber/epoxy prepregs
- Osteogenesis capability of three-dimensionally printed poly(lactic acid)-halloysite nanotube scaffolds containing strontium ranelate
- Silver nanoparticles induce mitochondria-dependent apoptosis and late non-canonical autophagy in HT-29 colon cancer cells
- Preparation and bonding mechanisms of polymer/metal hybrid composite by nano molding technology
- Damage self-sensing and strain monitoring of glass-reinforced epoxy composite impregnated with graphene nanoplatelet and multiwalled carbon nanotubes
- Thermal analysis characterisation of solar-powered ship using Oldroyd hybrid nanofluids in parabolic trough solar collector: An optimal thermal application
- Pyrene-functionalized halloysite nanotubes for simultaneously detecting and separating Hg(ii) in aqueous media: A comprehensive comparison on interparticle and intraparticle excimers
- Fabrication of self-assembly CNT flexible film and its piezoresistive sensing behaviors
- Thermal valuation and entropy inspection of second-grade nanoscale fluid flow over a stretching surface by applying Koo–Kleinstreuer–Li relation
- Mechanical properties and microstructure of nano-SiO2 and basalt-fiber-reinforced recycled aggregate concrete
- Characterization and tribology performance of polyaniline-coated nanodiamond lubricant additives
- Combined impact of Marangoni convection and thermophoretic particle deposition on chemically reactive transport of nanofluid flow over a stretching surface
- Spark plasma extrusion of binder free hydroxyapatite powder
- An investigation on thermo-mechanical performance of graphene-oxide-reinforced shape memory polymer
- Effect of nanoadditives on the novel leather fiber/recycled poly(ethylene-vinyl-acetate) polymer composites for multifunctional applications: Fabrication, characterizations, and multiobjective optimization using central composite design
- Design selection for a hemispherical dimple core sandwich panel using hybrid multi-criteria decision-making methods
- Improving tensile strength and impact toughness of plasticized poly(lactic acid) biocomposites by incorporating nanofibrillated cellulose
- Green synthesis of spinel copper ferrite (CuFe2O4) nanoparticles and their toxicity
- The effect of TaC and NbC hybrid and mono-nanoparticles on AA2024 nanocomposites: Microstructure, strengthening, and artificial aging
- Excited-state geometry relaxation of pyrene-modified cellulose nanocrystals under UV-light excitation for detecting Fe3+
- Effect of CNTs and MEA on the creep of face-slab concrete at an early age
- Effect of deformation conditions on compression phase transformation of AZ31
- Application of MXene as a new generation of highly conductive coating materials for electromembrane-surrounded solid-phase microextraction
- A comparative study of the elasto-plastic properties for ceramic nanocomposites filled by graphene or graphene oxide nanoplates
- Encapsulation strategies for improving the biological behavior of CdS@ZIF-8 nanocomposites
- Biosynthesis of ZnO NPs from pumpkin seeds’ extract and elucidation of its anticancer potential against breast cancer
- Preliminary trials of the gold nanoparticles conjugated chrysin: An assessment of anti-oxidant, anti-microbial, and in vitro cytotoxic activities of a nanoformulated flavonoid
- Effect of micron-scale pores increased by nano-SiO2 sol modification on the strength of cement mortar
- Fractional simulations for thermal flow of hybrid nanofluid with aluminum oxide and titanium oxide nanoparticles with water and blood base fluids
- The effect of graphene nano-powder on the viscosity of water: An experimental study and artificial neural network modeling
- Development of a novel heat- and shear-resistant nano-silica gelling agent
- Characterization, biocompatibility and in vivo of nominal MnO2-containing wollastonite glass-ceramic
- Entropy production simulation of second-grade magnetic nanomaterials flowing across an expanding surface with viscidness dissipative flux
- Enhancement in structural, morphological, and optical properties of copper oxide for optoelectronic device applications
- Aptamer-functionalized chitosan-coated gold nanoparticle complex as a suitable targeted drug carrier for improved breast cancer treatment
- Performance and overall evaluation of nano-alumina-modified asphalt mixture
- Analysis of pure nanofluid (GO/engine oil) and hybrid nanofluid (GO–Fe3O4/engine oil): Novel thermal and magnetic features
- Synthesis of Ag@AgCl modified anatase/rutile/brookite mixed phase TiO2 and their photocatalytic property
- Mechanisms and influential variables on the abrasion resistance hydraulic concrete
- Synergistic reinforcement mechanism of basalt fiber/cellulose nanocrystals/polypropylene composites
- Achieving excellent oxidation resistance and mechanical properties of TiB2–B4C/carbon aerogel composites by quick-gelation and mechanical mixing
- Microwave-assisted sol–gel template-free synthesis and characterization of silica nanoparticles obtained from South African coal fly ash
- Pulsed laser-assisted synthesis of nano nickel(ii) oxide-anchored graphitic carbon nitride: Characterizations and their potential antibacterial/anti-biofilm applications
- Effects of nano-ZrSi2 on thermal stability of phenolic resin and thermal reusability of quartz–phenolic composites
- Benzaldehyde derivatives on tin electroplating as corrosion resistance for fabricating copper circuit
- Mechanical and heat transfer properties of 4D-printed shape memory graphene oxide/epoxy acrylate composites
- Coupling the vanadium-induced amorphous/crystalline NiFe2O4 with phosphide heterojunction toward active oxygen evolution reaction catalysts
- Graphene-oxide-reinforced cement composites mechanical and microstructural characteristics at elevated temperatures
- Gray correlation analysis of factors influencing compressive strength and durability of nano-SiO2 and PVA fiber reinforced geopolymer mortar
- Preparation of layered gradient Cu–Cr–Ti alloy with excellent mechanical properties, thermal stability, and electrical conductivity
- Recovery of Cr from chrome-containing leather wastes to develop aluminum-based composite material along with Al2O3 ceramic particles: An ingenious approach
- Mechanisms of the improved stiffness of flexible polymers under impact loading
- Anticancer potential of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) using a battery of in vitro tests
- Review Articles
- Proposed approaches for coronaviruses elimination from wastewater: Membrane techniques and nanotechnology solutions
- Application of Pickering emulsion in oil drilling and production
- The contribution of microfluidics to the fight against tuberculosis
- Graphene-based biosensors for disease theranostics: Development, applications, and recent advancements
- Synthesis and encapsulation of iron oxide nanorods for application in magnetic hyperthermia and photothermal therapy
- Contemporary nano-architectured drugs and leads for ανβ3 integrin-based chemotherapy: Rationale and retrospect
- State-of-the-art review of fabrication, application, and mechanical properties of functionally graded porous nanocomposite materials
- Insights on magnetic spinel ferrites for targeted drug delivery and hyperthermia applications
- A review on heterogeneous oxidation of acetaminophen based on micro and nanoparticles catalyzed by different activators
- Early diagnosis of lung cancer using magnetic nanoparticles-integrated systems
- Advances in ZnO: Manipulation of defects for enhancing their technological potentials
- Efficacious nanomedicine track toward combating COVID-19
- A review of the design, processes, and properties of Mg-based composites
- Green synthesis of nanoparticles for varied applications: Green renewable resources and energy-efficient synthetic routes
- Two-dimensional nanomaterial-based polymer composites: Fundamentals and applications
- Recent progress and challenges in plasmonic nanomaterials
- Apoptotic cell-derived micro/nanosized extracellular vesicles in tissue regeneration
- Electronic noses based on metal oxide nanowires: A review
- Framework materials for supercapacitors
- An overview on the reproductive toxicity of graphene derivatives: Highlighting the importance
- Antibacterial nanomaterials: Upcoming hope to overcome antibiotic resistance crisis
- Research progress of carbon materials in the field of three-dimensional printing polymer nanocomposites
- A review of atomic layer deposition modelling and simulation methodologies: Density functional theory and molecular dynamics
- Recent advances in the preparation of PVDF-based piezoelectric materials
- Recent developments in tensile properties of friction welding of carbon fiber-reinforced composite: A review
- Comprehensive review of the properties of fly ash-based geopolymer with additive of nano-SiO2
- Perspectives in biopolymer/graphene-based composite application: Advances, challenges, and recommendations
- Graphene-based nanocomposite using new modeling molecular dynamic simulations for proposed neutralizing mechanism and real-time sensing of COVID-19
- Nanotechnology application on bamboo materials: A review
- Recent developments and future perspectives of biorenewable nanocomposites for advanced applications
- Nanostructured lipid carrier system: A compendium of their formulation development approaches, optimization strategies by quality by design, and recent applications in drug delivery
- 3D printing customized design of human bone tissue implant and its application
- Design, preparation, and functionalization of nanobiomaterials for enhanced efficacy in current and future biomedical applications
- A brief review of nanoparticles-doped PEDOT:PSS nanocomposite for OLED and OPV
- Nanotechnology interventions as a putative tool for the treatment of dental afflictions
- Recent advancements in metal–organic frameworks integrating quantum dots (QDs@MOF) and their potential applications
- A focused review of short electrospun nanofiber preparation techniques for composite reinforcement
- Microstructural characteristics and nano-modification of interfacial transition zone in concrete: A review
- Latest developments in the upconversion nanotechnology for the rapid detection of food safety: A review
- Strategic applications of nano-fertilizers for sustainable agriculture: Benefits and bottlenecks
- Molecular dynamics application of cocrystal energetic materials: A review
- Synthesis and application of nanometer hydroxyapatite in biomedicine
- Cutting-edge development in waste-recycled nanomaterials for energy storage and conversion applications
- Biological applications of ternary quantum dots: A review
- Nanotherapeutics for hydrogen sulfide-involved treatment: An emerging approach for cancer therapy
- Application of antibacterial nanoparticles in orthodontic materials
- Effect of natural-based biological hydrogels combined with growth factors on skin wound healing
- Nanozymes – A route to overcome microbial resistance: A viewpoint
- Recent developments and applications of smart nanoparticles in biomedicine
- Contemporary review on carbon nanotube (CNT) composites and their impact on multifarious applications
- Interfacial interactions and reinforcing mechanisms of cellulose and chitin nanomaterials and starch derivatives for cement and concrete strength and durability enhancement: A review
- Diamond-like carbon films for tribological modification of rubber
- Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) modified cement-based materials: A systematic review
- Recent research progress and advanced applications of silica/polymer nanocomposites
- Modeling of supramolecular biopolymers: Leading the in silico revolution of tissue engineering and nanomedicine
- Recent advances in perovskites-based optoelectronics
- Biogenic synthesis of palladium nanoparticles: New production methods and applications
- A comprehensive review of nanofluids with fractional derivatives: Modeling and application
- Electrospinning of marine polysaccharides: Processing and chemical aspects, challenges, and future prospects
- Electrohydrodynamic printing for demanding devices: A review of processing and applications
- Rapid Communications
- Structural material with designed thermal twist for a simple actuation
- Recent advances in photothermal materials for solar-driven crude oil adsorption
