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Mechanical performance of a CFRP composite reinforced via gelatin-CNTs: A study on fiber interfacial enhancement and matrix enhancement

  • Lijian Zeng , Wenwu Tao , Junjie Zhao , Yichao Li EMAIL logo and Renfu Li EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: January 27, 2022
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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 11 Issue 1

Abstract

This study investigates the effect of a bio-surfactant gelatin-modified carbon nanotubes (g-CNTs) on the fiber interfacial property and matrix performance of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) composite. Transverse fiber bundle test (TFBT) and in situ three-point bending test were conducted to analyze the fiber/matrix interfacial normal strength (IFNS) and bulk mechanical performance of the CNTs–CFRP composite. The results showed that g-CNTs have superb affinity and uniformity wrapping on the surface of carbon fiber via 2 min electrophoretic deposition (EPD) under a concentration of 0.1 mg/mL and a voltage strength of 10 V/cm, resulting in an increase of 40.3% of IFNS and 22.1%/25.3% of flexural strength/modulus of CFRP composites. Meanwhile, g-CNTs can also evenly distribute in the resin matrix with an improvement of 12.6% of IFNS and 20.3%/11.4% of flexural strength/modulus of CFRP composites under 0.1 wt% loading. This study provides a mechanism basis for the subsequent introduction of g-CNTs for the development of advanced CNT-reinforced CFRP composite.

Keywords: carbon nanotubes; gelatin; mechanical properties; laminate mechanics; vacuum infusion

1 Introduction

Carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) composite is widely used in the field of aerospace, marine, automobiles, etc., due to its excellent specific strength and stiffness, corrosion, and fatigue resistance properties [1,2]. However, there is still a great demand for the improvement of both mechanical and multifunctional performances of CFRP composites in applications such as lightweight structures with electromagnetic shielding, energy storage, and microwave absorption properties [3,4,5]. A considerable number of studies on carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have proven that it is an excellent multifunctional reinforcement for enhancing CFRP composites due to the superior mechanical, electrical, thermal, and optical properties of CNTs [6,7,8,9]. Specifically speaking, CNTs can enhance CFRP in two areas: fiber interface and bulk matrix, either of which plays a significant role in the mechanical performance of the CFRP composite.

In order to enhance the interfacial property between CF and polymer matrix, various methods are used to attach CNTs onto fiber surface, including electrophoretic deposition (EPD) [10], chemical grafting [11], chemical vapor deposition [12], dip coating [13], and so on. These treatments could significantly improve the wetting and interfacial properties between fiber and matrix as well as the mechanical performance of the resultant CFRP composite. As for matrix enhancement method, directly adding CNTs into polymer resin is a convenient and effective method, which can also highly improve the properties of the bulk composite without complicated equipment, plenty of energy consumption, and unexpected material damage [14].

To evaluate and compare the effect of fiber interfacial enhancement and matrix enhancement on the bulk mechanical property of CFRP composite, the fiber/matrix interfacial property can be examined by micro-droplet test and single-fiber fragmentation test [15,16]. However, it should be noted that the mechanical environment of one single fiber cannot completely represent a bundle of fibers in the resin, and the improvement of single fiber interfacial property does not mean the same improvement for the macroscopic composite. Okoroafor and Hill [17] first proposed a transverse fiber bundle tensile (TFBT) test to assess the interfacial normal strength (IFNS). Since then, this method has been widely used to investigate the interfacial property between fiber bundle and resin, whose characterization result is much closer to the actual mechanical condition of the CFRP composite under external loads [18,19,20,21,22,23]. Apart from the interfacial property of the fiber-matrix interphase, directly analyzing the bulk mechanical property of the CNTs–CFRP composite is also a straightforward approach to assess the consequence from fiber interfacial enhancement and matrix enhancement [24,25,26].

In the past few decades, significant progress has been made in the usage of proteins to design engineer materials with various dimensions, morphologies, and functions [27]. Li et al. [28] first proposed the gelatin protein as a bio-surfactant to coat multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) for conductive epoxy nanocomposites. As a result, the gelatin treatment significantly improves the dispersion of CNTs, wettability, conductivity, and mechanical properties of the epoxy resin, in comparison with those of pristine CNTs/epoxy and amino treated system, NH2-CNTs/epoxy. Zeng et al. [29] further studied the denaturation process of gelatin and applied the gelatin to functionalize the carbon nanofiber (CNF) materials. The flexural strength and modulus of resultant nanocomposite enhanced by 0.25 wt% CNFs increase tremendously by 29.1 and 27.1% compared to the neat epoxy. Liu et al. [30] combined the soy protein isolate (SPI) and bacterial cellulose (BC) to study the potential of biomaterials as high efficiency air filtering materials. The study result indicates that the SPI/BC composite with the appropriately modified SPI possesses extremely high removal efficiencies for particulate pollutants with a broad range of sizes. Li et al. [31] presented a study on effectively making conductive nanocomposites with adaptable interfaces formed between soy protein-treated CNFs (s-CNFs) and polymer matrices with different structures. The result shows that significant enhancements in the electrical conductivities were confirmed under DC and AC conductivity. In specific, an increase of 6 orders and 5 orders for the DC conductivities of polycarbonate and epoxy nanocomposites is achieved at only 0.5 wt% loading of s-CNFs, respectively. Encouraged by these results, we intended to introduce the gelatin-treated carbon nanomaterial into CFRP composite to further apply this benign method to advanced composite structure applications. Furthermore, fabricating functional materials via gelatin can also be used in potential applications in areas of microelectronics, energy batteries, sensors, and so on [32].

In this study, the authors used EPD and mechanical mixing methods to prepare g-CNTs wrapped CF (g-CNTs@CF) and g-CNTs enhanced epoxy resin (g-CNTs@EP) and investigated the possible effect on the mechanical performance of the resultant CFRP composite. In specific, IFNS and CFRP flexural mechanical properties were conducted to evaluate the effect of g-CNTs via TFBT and in situ three-point bending test, respectively. At last, the effect of g-CNTs on IFNS and flexural properties of CFRP composite were discussed and analyzed.

2 Materials and experiments

2.1 Materials

Commercial gelatin (type A, obtained from porcine skin) was purchased from Sigma Aldrich USA. Bisphenol-A epoxy resin (mixed with reactive diluent YS-632) and hardener were purchased from PRF Composite Materials (UK), the stoichiometric ratio between the two components was 10:3 by weight. Unidirectional plain carbon fabrics of polyacrylonitrile-based CFs (T700SC-12K, Toray Industries, Inc.) were used as reinforcement fibers [33,34]. Pristine and commercial carboxylic-functionalized carbon nanotubes (p-CNTs and C-CNTs) were supplied by Aladdin regent (China), whose parameters are listed in Table 1. Sodium hydroxide was provided by Sinopharm Group Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd (China). The information of the main reagent for this study is listed in Table S1 in supplementary information.

Table 1

Parameters for p-CNTs and C-CNTs

Parameters p-CNTs C-CNTs
Inner diameter (nm) 5–10 5–10
Outer diameter (nm) 20–30 10–20
Average length (μm) 10–30 10–30
Purity (%) >95 >95

2.2 Preparation of CNTs-modified CF

The schematic diagram of mechanical robust g-CNTs enhanced CFRP composite is shown in Figure 1(a), where the two representative processes that are fiber enhancement via EPD process and matrix enhancement via modification of resin matrix are shown in Figure 1(b). The mechanical properties of multi-scale CNT–CFRP composites were examined by TFBT test and three-point bending test, where the CNTs distribution corresponding to the manufacturing process can be seen in Figure 1(c) for two different processes. The experimental steps are briefly described as follows:

Figure 1 Mechanical robust gelatin-CNTs/CFRP composite (a); two routes for g-CNTs to enhance CFRP composite (b); experiments to test the strengthening effect from fiber interfacial enhancement and matrix enhancement (c).
Figure 1

Mechanical robust gelatin-CNTs/CFRP composite (a); two routes for g-CNTs to enhance CFRP composite (b); experiments to test the strengthening effect from fiber interfacial enhancement and matrix enhancement (c).

First, the g-CNTs suspension was obtained as follows: (i) the gelatin powder was dissolved in 0.01 M sodium hydroxide aqueous solution (pH = 12); (ii) the mixture was magnetically stirred for 1 h under a temperature of 95°C; (iii) p-CNTs were added into the abovementioned cooling solution and dispersed through probe sonication under an ice bath with the power of 30% and duration of 30 min.

Second, to prepare g-CNTs@CF, the carbon fabric was fully desized by boiling in acetone at 80°C for 24 h. Then, the EPD was implemented via DC power supply by placing the CF fabric as the positive electrode and placing two graphite plates on both sides of the CF as negative electrodes. The electrode’s distance, applied voltage, and duration were 15 mm, 15 V, and 1–5 min [35,36], respectively. In order to obtain a uniform CNTs layer and remove tiny bubbles caused by water electrolysis, a water bath ultrasonication was applied during the EPD process. The obtained carbon fabrics via EPD were carefully washed with deionized (DI) water and then dried in vacuum at 50°C for 24 h. As a control experiment, the C-CNTs-enhanced carbon fabrics were prepared by dissolving C-CNTs into DI water with the above procedure.

For better presentation and understanding of the experimental study, sample abbreviations are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2

Abbreviations for different types of specimen

Abbreviation Description
Pure CF/EP CFRP composite prepared by as-received CF and pure epoxy
g-CNTs@CF/EP CFRP composite prepared by EPD-treated CF and pure epoxy, where the CF was deposited by 0.1 mg/mL g-CNTs with a field strength of 10 V/cm and duration of 2 min
C-CNTs@CF/EP CFRP composite prepared by EPD-treated CF and pure epoxy, where the CF was deposited by 0.1 mg/mL COOH-CNTs with a field strength of 10 V/cm and duration of 1 min
CF/g-CNTs@EP CFRP composite prepared by as-received CF and modified epoxy enhanced by g-CNTs
CF/C-CNTs@EP CFRP composite prepared by as-received CF and modified epoxy enhanced by COOH-CNTs
CF/p-CNTs@EP CFRP composite prepared by as-received CF and modified epoxy enhanced by pristine CNTs

2.3 Preparation of CNTs-modified matrix

The g-CNTs@EP was prepared quantitatively by the one-step method. First, the g-CNTs were obtained by filtrating the above gelatin-treated CNTs solution mentioned in Section 2.2. Second, the ethanol-wetted g-CNTs were directly added into suitable ethanol and sonicated for 10 min to obtain a uniform suspension. Then, a certain amount of epoxy corresponding to the g-CNTs was added into the suspension followed by rotary evaporation under the temperature of 70°C for several hours to thoroughly evaporate ethanol. Finally, when the mixture was cooled down to ambient temperature, the hardener was uniformly mixed into the epoxy to obtain a g-CNTs@EP system. As a comparison, p-CNTs@EP and C-CNTs@EP systems were also prepared by the same loading content of p-CNTs and C-CNTs in the epoxy resin, respectively.

2.4 Preparation of TFBT and CFRP composites

Figure 2(a) shows the schematic of the preparation of the TFBT sample. The previous study [28] shows that the wetting property of CNTs-enhanced epoxy droplets on T700 UD carbon fiber substrate is pretty good at low loading content. The silicone mold was dried in vacuum at 80°C for 8 h, and 1 CF bundle (pure CF, g-CNTs@CF, and C-CNTs@CF) was put into the gap of the mold. Then, the degassed epoxy system (pure EP, g-CNTs@EP, and C-CNTs@EP) was carefully poured into the mold through a straw. The composite was cured for 16 h at room temperature, 12 h at 70°C, and 2 h at 120°C. Finally, the obtained samples were carefully polished if necessary. As can be seen from the SEM image in Figure 2(a), the cured CF bundle was uniform, tight, and seamless with a thickness of about 316 µm which can be measured according to the boundary lines shown in Figure S1.

Figure 2 Fabrication of TFBT (a) and CFRP (b) samples strengthened via g-CNTs.
Figure 2

Fabrication of TFBT (a) and CFRP (b) samples strengthened via g-CNTs.

As illustrated in Figure 2(b), the CFRP composite was prepared by the vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding (VARTM) process [37,38]. Four dry carbon fabrics were placed on a glass mold with the stacking sequence of [0°]4, followed by stacking peel ply, resin distribution media, and vacuum bag. After checking airtightness, the resin was infused and impregnated with the carbon fabric through the vacuum pump. The curing cycle was set to be 23°C for 24 h, 70°C for 12 h, and 120°C for 2 h.

2.5 Characterization

The TFBT test based on ASTM D638 [39] type V was carried out via a universal testing machine with a loading rate of 0.5 mm/min, the sample dimensions of which are shown in Figure S2 in supporting material. A three-point bending test according to ASTM D790 was conducted to evaluate the macroscopic mechanical property of CNTs–CFRP composite with the dimensions of about 30 mm × 6 mm × 1.1 mm [40]. An in situ three-point bending test was conducted to analyze the microscopic damage behavior of the CNTs–CFRP composite on an advanced mechanical testing system (SEMtester 1000, MTI instruments/Fullam) with a displacement rate of 0.5 mm/min. The device platform integrates a 0.1 N load cell and a 0.1 µm linear displacement transducer to measure the reaction force and grip displacement during the experiment test [41]. Moreover, the testing system was installed within the field view of an optical microscope (Carl Zeiss Scope A1) for real time observation of the deformation and damage process during the bending test. The morphology of the CNTs deposition on the CF and fracture surface of the CFRP composites were examined by a field emission scanning electron microscope (SEM, Nova NanoSEM 450).

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Interfacial property

The results of the EPD process of g-CNTs and C-CNTs are examined through SEM image analysis as shown in Figure 3. As can be seen in Figure 3(a)–(c), hierarchical g-CNTs@CF is obtained through the EPD process and a uniform g-CNT layer is covered on carbon fiber with different deposition duration time. Though p-CNTs are inert, denatured gelatin can still interact with CNTs to form a stable solution, which leads to a successful deposition of g-CNTs on the CF surface. As the EPD duration increases from 1 to 5 min, the thickness of the g-CNTs gradually increases and maintains good uniformity and integrity. Similarly, the C-CNTs are also successfully deposited on CF as depicted in Figure 3(d)–(f), where the deposition quality increases with the duration time. It is worth noting that when the deposition time reaches 5 min, some agglomerations are formed between CFs as shown in Figure 3(f), leading to some separate fragments on the C-CNT layer. In other words, the deposition quality of the CNT layer is significantly dependent on the type of CNTs and EPD duration time.

Figure 3 SEM images of carbon fiber morphology with various EPD duration time: g-CNTs (a)–(c) and C-CNTs (d)–(f) for 1, 2, and 5 min, respectively. The concentration and applied voltage strength are 0.1 mg/min and 10 V/cm, respectively. All the scale bar is 5 µm.
Figure 3

SEM images of carbon fiber morphology with various EPD duration time: g-CNTs (a)–(c) and C-CNTs (d)–(f) for 1, 2, and 5 min, respectively. The concentration and applied voltage strength are 0.1 mg/min and 10 V/cm, respectively. All the scale bar is 5 µm.

Interfacial property between CF and epoxy matrix via the fiber enhancement was examined through the TFBT test as shown in Figure 4, and the corresponding experimental data can be seen in Table S2. With the concentration of 0.05 mg/mL shown in Figure 4(a), the improvement in IFNS of TFBT samples modified by g-CNTs is marginal. As the concentration increases to 0.1 mg/mL, the EPD efficiency is highly improved with a large number of g-CNTs covered on the fiber surface as shown in Figure 4(b)–(d). As a result, the IFNS is much higher than that with 0.05 mg/mL condition. When the duration time is 2 min, the maximum IFNS is 31.49 MPa, increasing by 40.3% compared to the neat specimen. Furthermore, the interphase layer is successfully formed with a more uniform distribution established within the layer in Figure 4(c). It can be seen that a large number of staggered g-CNTs are interspersed in the interphase area between the fiber and resin matrix, forming a gradual gradient modulus layer [42,43,44]. Due to the existence of transition, the stress concentration in the layer is relieved and the stress distribution [45,46,47] is more uniform, finally leading to a more favorable load transfer among the fiber interphase [48,49]. On the other hand, the mechanical interlock and fraction effect are enhanced with the g-CNTs deposition, leading to a stronger internal interaction between the epoxy resin and CF. Moreover, the abundant chemical groups such as –NH2 and –COOH of the amino acids of gelatin can react with the epoxy group [50,51], further enhancing the interaction between the g-CNTs and epoxy resin.

Figure 4 IFNS from fiber enhancement under different nanofiller depositions (a) and SEM images of g-CNTs (b)–(d) and C-CNTs EPD (e)–(g) treated TFBT sample with the concentrations of 0.1 mg/mL, applied voltage strength of 10 V/cm, and duration time of 1, 2, and 5 min. The scale bars of main and insert images are 5 and 1 µm, respectively.
Figure 4

IFNS from fiber enhancement under different nanofiller depositions (a) and SEM images of g-CNTs (b)–(d) and C-CNTs EPD (e)–(g) treated TFBT sample with the concentrations of 0.1 mg/mL, applied voltage strength of 10 V/cm, and duration time of 1, 2, and 5 min. The scale bars of main and insert images are 5 and 1 µm, respectively.

However, there is little difference among various solution concentrations and duration time. The maximum IFNS of C-CNTs@CF and matrix is 28.28 MPa under the 0.1 mg/mL and 1 min duration, increasing by 26.03% compared to the neat sample. It is noted that when the deposition time reaches 2 and 5 min, some agglomeration is formed between CFs shown in Figure 4(f) and (g), leading to some crack and defects in the final TFBT samples and resulting in a decrease in IFNS for both C-CNTs@CF hybrid fiber. Excessive C-CNTs are not conducive to the improvement of IFNS due to more defects and poor interaction between CF and matrix. Accounting for EPD morphology of hybrid CF and resultant IFNS value, the best duration time for g-CNTs and C-CNTs is set as 1 and 2 min, respectively, as well as the same applied voltage strength of 10 V/cm and concentration of 0.1 mg/mL.

Figure 5(a) is the IFNS results of epoxy resin enhanced by p-CNTs, C-CNTs, and g-CNTs under loadings of 0.05–0.2 wt%, and the specific experimental data are listed in Table S3. The IFNS is about 22.44 MPa for the neat TFBT sample. Evidently, the introduction of C-CNTs and g-CNTs notably improved the IFNS of the tested samples that are higher than that of the neat and p-CNT samples. On the other hand, the IFNS increases with the increase in the nanofiller content. When the content is 0.1 wt%, the IFNS shows excellent performance for C-CNTs and g-CNTs enhanced samples. A maximum value of 29.5 MPa of IFNS is achieved under the content of 0.1 wt% for the g-CNT one, which increases by 31.4 and 7.2% compared to those of neat and optimal C-CNT ones, respectively. This result indicates that the g-CNTs-strengthened resin matrix showed better binding with CF than the C-CNTs modified ones. When the content reaches 0.2 wt%, the IFNS of specimens enhanced by the C-CNTs and g-CNTs still maintain a good increase, while the p-CNT one shows a significant decrease due to residual stress concentrations caused by the poor nanofiller dispersion and bad wettability with fiber bundles [52].

Figure 5 IFNS of matrix enhancement specimen with different nanofiller loadings (a) and SEM images of neat (b), p-CNTs (c), C-CNTs (d), and g-CNTs (e) treated TFBT sample with the loading of 0.1 wt%. The scale bars of main and insert images are 5 and 1 µm, respectively.
Figure 5

IFNS of matrix enhancement specimen with different nanofiller loadings (a) and SEM images of neat (b), p-CNTs (c), C-CNTs (d), and g-CNTs (e) treated TFBT sample with the loading of 0.1 wt%. The scale bars of main and insert images are 5 and 1 µm, respectively.

The dispersion of CNTs and the interaction among CF and epoxy resin can be observed in the SEM images. As shown in Figure 5(b), there is no residual resin on the CF surface for the neat TFBT sample in the SEM image. When p-CNTs are introduced in epoxy resin in Figure 5(c), a certain number of p-CNTs improve the interfacial wetting performance between the CF and epoxy to a certain extent, thereby increasing the IFNS. However, numerous p-CNTs which are difficult to disperse gather around the CF and lead to a decrease in the interfacial interaction and IFNS. Obviously, good dispersion and wetting behavior can be found in Figure 5(d) and (e) for C-CNTs and g-CNTs, respectively. Enhanced matrix by g-CNTs fits tightly on the CF, forming a close contact zone, in which some CNTs could attach to the fiber and provide a strong connection. The above analysis indicates that the IFNS is not only related to the fiber/matrix interfacial property, but also to the mechanical property of the resin matrix.

According to the above experimental results and analysis, we can conclude that the introduction of g-CNTs via the fiber enhancement and matrix enhancement could effectively promote both the interfacial property between fiber bundle and epoxy matrix due to strong interfacial mechanical interaction and possible reaction between gelatin and epoxy.

3.2 Flexural properties

The mechanical property of the resin matrix can be effectively improved by g-CNTs [29] that can be considered to have the potential to enhance the performance of CFRP. Prior to the characterization, the fiber volume fraction is about 53.5% calculated from thermogravimetric analysis as shown in Figure S3 and Table S4. The influence of the modified resin matrix on the bulk mechanical property of the CFRP composite was experimentally investigated as shown in Figure 6, where the corresponding data are summarized in Tables S5 and S6. It can be seen in Figure 6(a) and (b) that introducing a small number of g-CNTs can significantly improve the flexural strength and modulus of the CF/g-CNTs@EP. With the content of 0.1 wt%, the flexural strength and modulus reach the maximum of 813.4 MPa and 67.8 GPa, which increase by 19.8%/28.5% compared to those of pure CF/EP, also 20.3%/11.4% and 15.0%/17.2% higher than that of the pristine and C-CNT ones under the same condition, respectively. However, when the content increases to 0.2 wt%, the flexural strength and modulus of the three experimental groups decrease, which might be caused by the agglomeration of CNTs and defects.

Figure 6 Flexural strength (a) and modulus (b) of CFRP enhanced by different concentrations of CNTs; comparison of optimum flexural strength (c) and modulus (d) of CFRP modified via the fiber enhancement (0.1 mg/mL, 10 V/cm, and 2 min for g-CNTs and 1 min for C-CNTs) and matrix enhancement (0.1 wt%).
Figure 6

Flexural strength (a) and modulus (b) of CFRP enhanced by different concentrations of CNTs; comparison of optimum flexural strength (c) and modulus (d) of CFRP modified via the fiber enhancement (0.1 mg/mL, 10 V/cm, and 2 min for g-CNTs and 1 min for C-CNTs) and matrix enhancement (0.1 wt%).

In the case of introducing nanomaterials into CFRP composite via the fiber enhancement method, the improvement of flexural properties is a bit different from the matrix enhancement process. As illustrated in Figure 6(c), the strength of the C-CNTs@CF/EP sample is 807.4 MPa and 10.5% higher than that of CF/C-CNTs@EP, which indicates that the improvement effect of fiber enhancement is higher than that of matrix enhancement for C-CNTs. In general, the strength is mainly determined by the interfacial performance between the fiber and resin matrix. As shown in Figure 4, the deposition of C-CNTs highly increases the surface roughness of fiber and mechanical interlocking between the fiber and matrix, resulting in much higher improvement in IFNS for obtained specimen and leading to a higher improvement of the interfacial property. It is worth noting that the trend of flexural strength for g-CNTs@CF/EP is not only similar to that of C-CNTs@CF/EP but also shows a greater improvement of about 2.6% in comparison with C-CNTs@CF/EP one. In addition, the flexural strength of CF/g-CNTs@EP is 813.4 MPa and 11.4% higher than the CF/g-CNTs@EP one, showing that a better dispersion state of g-CNTs in the matrix and a more strong connection between g-CNTs and matrix is established.

As for the flexural modulus of CFRP composite illustrated in Figure 6(d), a good improvement is obtained for g-CNTs introduction via both fiber and matrix enhancement, showing a better result compared to those of the composites enhanced by C-CNTs. The improvement of flexural modulus depends on the dispersion quality of the nanofiller in the matrix, indicating that a better dispersion state is formed in the epoxy matrix. Furthermore, the flexural modulus of CF/g-CNTs@EP is 67.8 GPa and 17.2 and 12.8% higher than that of CF/C-CNTs@EP and C-CNTs@CF/EP, respectively, the outstanding increase might be due to the good binding force between g-CNTs and CF and resultant remarkable fiber stiffness.

According to the above analysis, excellent improvements have been obtained in terms of dispersion state, interfacial property, and interaction with CF and epoxy matrix through the introduction of g-CNTs. More thorough and comprehensive experiments are necessary to support these arguments.

3.3 In situ bending investigation

In situ microscopic observation for the real time three-point bending process of CFRP composites was recorded to investigate the damage mechanism for the two types of enhancements. Before the analysis, the authors divide the flexural stress–strain curve of CFRP composites into four phases of crack propagation according to the test result, where the typical curve is shown in Figure 7: Phase I is the elastic stage where the stress increases linearly with increasing strain and point 1 is the elastic yield stress; Phase II is the yield stage where the stress gradually decreases or slightly rebounds below the flexural strength, and point 2 is the end of phase II; Phase III is the damage expansion stage, where the stress begins to drop sharply with the increase in defects, and the peak stress value at this stage is further reduced, and point 3 is the end of phase III where the flexural stress dramatically decreases; phase IV is the destruction stage, where the load-bearing capacity further decreases and the stress begins to drop significantly until the composite is destroyed, and point 4 is the end of the bending test.

Figure 7 The typical stress–strain curve and crack propagation zone of CFRP composite subjected to three-point bending.
Figure 7

The typical stress–strain curve and crack propagation zone of CFRP composite subjected to three-point bending.

Here we combine the flexural stress–strain curves and captured ongoing photos at four feature points to analyze these experimental results. As can be seen in Figure 8(a), the flexural strength of g-CNTs@CF/EP composite is about 828 MPa and increased by 21.9% compared to that of neat CF/EP composite (∼679 MPa), indicating that effective improvement is achieved through the introduction of g-CNTs onto CF surface. The flexural modulus also increases by 25.3% as shown in Figure 6(b). As shown in Figure S4(b), the g-CNTs@CF and matrix firmly combines with some g-CNTs penetrating through the covered matrix layer, demonstrating a strong connection between g-CNTs@CF and matrix compared to those of neat (Figure S4(a)) and C-CNTs@CF/EP composite (Figure S4(c)). The optical images of g-CNTs@CF/EP composite of feature points could be seen in Figure 8(b), when the stress curve is in phase I and stress reaches the flexural strength, the fibers near the crosshead begin to collapse and break. During phases II and III, the stress decreases slowly with no obvious delamination. However, when the stress attaches to point 3, a noticeable interlayer shear dislocation damage caused by the interlaminar shear failure is observed. This dislocation damage gradually develops into a macro crack as shown in Figure 8(b). Besides, for the C-CNTs@CF/EP composite, a lower stress value is found at point 3 than that of g-CNTs@CF/EP composite, which indicates that the fiber crushing damage and delamination of CF/C-CNTs@EP composite are more severe. We speculate that the introduction of charged CNTs via EPD successfully enhances the shear resistance of the interphase between CF and resin, resulting in a good improvement of flexural properties of the obtained fiber enhancement composite. The difference between g-CNTs@CF/EP and C-CNTs@CF/EP composite suggests that the overall flexural performance of the composite enhanced by g-CNTs is much better due to a good interphase interaction of gelatin. When the resin matrix impregnates with carbon fabrics and cures, the g-CNTs could easily intersperse in the interphase area and form a relatively strong and uniform transition layer with the vicinal CF and resin. In this layer, the modulus gradient could moderate and reduce the stress concentration [45,46,47] so that the interfacial adhesion is improved, delaying the delamination failure during the bending process.

Figure 8 Flexural stress–strain curves of in situ bending test (a) and optical microscopic images of pure CF/EP, C-CNTs@CF/EP, and g-CNTs@CF/EP composites via the fiber enhancement method (b). The scale bar is 200 µm.
Figure 8

Flexural stress–strain curves of in situ bending test (a) and optical microscopic images of pure CF/EP, C-CNTs@CF/EP, and g-CNTs@CF/EP composites via the fiber enhancement method (b). The scale bar is 200 µm.

Figure 9 is the bending test results of three typical samples via the matrix enhancement method. For the CF/g-CNTs@EP composite, the flexural stress is highly improved compared to that of pure CF/EP composite as shown in Figure 9(a), with an increase of 19.8 and 28.5% for flexural strength and modulus, respectively. As can be seen in Figure 9(b), the delamination is a bit serious due to the limited improvement in the interfacial area via matrix enhancement, resulting in a slightly lower flexural strength than that of g-CNTs@CF/EP composite. However, the flexural modulus of CF/g-CNTs@EP is 67.8 GPa, showing a maximum value among the above test results.

Figure 9 Flexural stress–strain curves of in situ bending test (a) and optical microscopic images of CF/p-CNTs@EP, CF/C-CNTs@EP, and CF/g-CNTs@EP composites via matrix enhancement method (b). The scale bar is 200 µm.
Figure 9

Flexural stress–strain curves of in situ bending test (a) and optical microscopic images of CF/p-CNTs@EP, CF/C-CNTs@EP, and CF/g-CNTs@EP composites via matrix enhancement method (b). The scale bar is 200 µm.

Good dispersion and interphase connection (Figure S4(e)), as well as a possible reaction between the amino group of gelatin and epoxy group [50,51] are believed to enhance the interaction between CNTs and epoxy molecules, which promotes the mechanical performance of the composite. As such, a stronger interaction could be formed between g-CNTs@EP and CF, leading to a stronger load transfer among the fiber and matrix. Concluding from the above analysis, the introduction of g-CNTs could both significantly improve the flexural strength and modulus of CFRP composite through fiber enhancement and matrix enhancement method.

Our experimental results indeed show a huge improvement especially at 0.1 wt%, which did not satisfy the rule of mixture. This phenomenon may attribute to a coupled result from dispersion improvement of CNTs and enhancement of the CNTs/epoxy interface. We are trying to use micro and macro simulation and also theoretical approaches to explain the results properly but currently with no satisfactory outcomes. However, we find some literature to support our results [53]. In the study result, a low CNT loading of 0.3 wt% in resin improves the flexural modulus and strength by 11.6 and 18.0%, respectively, as compared to the control carbon fiber/epoxy composite, where the tensile modulus of epoxy/0.3 wt% CNT composite is 2.95 GPa and increases by 8.4% compared to the neat resin. It is clear that experimental results for epoxy/carbon fiber/CNT composites do not satisfy the rule of mixtures. In addition, graphene nano-platelets (GNPs) were coated on the carbon fibers before making the final laminates through VARTM process [54], resulting in significant improvement for the flexural strength of the laminates. The flexural strength and modulus of 0.4GNP laminate with 0.4 wt% GNPs are 760 MPa and 53 GPa and increase by 20.8 and 20.4% compared to the pristine laminate, respectively.

It can be seen from the experimental videos that the dominant damage and failure mode are delamination. When CNTs are successfully inserted among the carbon fibers, the CNTs can increase the interaction of layers along the thickness direction and delay the delamination damage [55], thereby increasing the flexural mechanical properties of the CFRP composite. This enhancement effect of CNTs cannot be assessed by theory. Therefore, according to these experimental results, we believe that the performance enhancement is achievable, which just reflects the huge application prospects of CNTs in CFRP composite materials.

4 Challenges and prospects

From the present research work, we can see the good multifunctionality of gelatin to be applied either in dispersing CNTs or adhering carbon fibers with CNTs, showing great potential in the fabrication of high-performance multifunctional nano-modified epoxy matrix and CFRP composite. However, before practical application of the protein treatment method, there are still several challenges to be solved: (1) the life cycle performance of gelatin-CNTs reinforced epoxy matrix or CFRP composite; (2) the specific interaction mechanism among gelatin and nanomaterials at the nanoscopic scale; (3) the reliability and stability of gelatin-CNTs composite materials applied to actual structures, which are the primary focus of our next research tasks. However, we do believe that the green and environmental-friendly gelatin treatment approach has great application potential in the future advanced engineering materials.

5 Conclusion

In this study, a kind of gelatin-treated CNTs are introduced into CFRP composite through fiber enhancement and matrix enhancement methods to investigate interfacial normal strength and flexural mechanical properties. The following conclusions can be drawn from research results: (1) As for fiber enhancement method, with the parameters of 0.1 mg/mL, 10 V/cm, and 2 min for g-CNTs solution EPD process, the IFNS of obtained TFBT sample is 31.49 MPa and increased by 40.3 and 11.4% compared to the neat and C-CNTs sample, respectively. (2) Meanwhile, the flexural strength and modulus of corresponding g-CNTs@CF/EP composite are 828 MPa and 66.1 GPa, increasing by 21.9 and 25.3% compared to those of neat CFRP composite, respectively. (3) When 0.1 wt% g-CNTs is introduced in the resin matrix through matrix enhancement, the IFNS is 29.5 MPa which increases by 31.4, 12.6, and 7.3% compared to the neat, p-CNTs, and C-CNTs TFBT specimens under the same conditions. (4) The flexural strength and modulus of CF/g-CNTs@EP composite are 813.4 MPa and 67.8 GPa, increasing by 20.3 and 11.4, 15.0, and 17.2% in comparison to the p-CNT and C-CNT ones, respectively. Consequently, the results greatly encourage us to subsequently introduce our proposed gelatin-treated CNT in the development of advanced CFRP composites.

Acknowledgements

The authors grateful to the Analytical & Testing Center at Huazhong University of Science and Technology for the TGA and SEM characterizations.

  1. Funding information: This work is supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (Grant No. 2019kfyXJJS060) and Hubei Chenguang Talented Youth Development Foundation (HBCG).

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2021-08-25
Revised: 2021-12-21
Accepted: 2022-01-13
Published Online: 2022-01-27

© 2022 Lijian Zeng et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  92. Green synthesis of spinel copper ferrite (CuFe2O4) nanoparticles and their toxicity
  93. The effect of TaC and NbC hybrid and mono-nanoparticles on AA2024 nanocomposites: Microstructure, strengthening, and artificial aging
  94. Excited-state geometry relaxation of pyrene-modified cellulose nanocrystals under UV-light excitation for detecting Fe3+
  95. Effect of CNTs and MEA on the creep of face-slab concrete at an early age
  96. Effect of deformation conditions on compression phase transformation of AZ31
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  101. Preliminary trials of the gold nanoparticles conjugated chrysin: An assessment of anti-oxidant, anti-microbial, and in vitro cytotoxic activities of a nanoformulated flavonoid
  102. Effect of micron-scale pores increased by nano-SiO2 sol modification on the strength of cement mortar
  103. Fractional simulations for thermal flow of hybrid nanofluid with aluminum oxide and titanium oxide nanoparticles with water and blood base fluids
  104. The effect of graphene nano-powder on the viscosity of water: An experimental study and artificial neural network modeling
  105. Development of a novel heat- and shear-resistant nano-silica gelling agent
  106. Characterization, biocompatibility and in vivo of nominal MnO2-containing wollastonite glass-ceramic
  107. Entropy production simulation of second-grade magnetic nanomaterials flowing across an expanding surface with viscidness dissipative flux
  108. Enhancement in structural, morphological, and optical properties of copper oxide for optoelectronic device applications
  109. Aptamer-functionalized chitosan-coated gold nanoparticle complex as a suitable targeted drug carrier for improved breast cancer treatment
  110. Performance and overall evaluation of nano-alumina-modified asphalt mixture
  111. Analysis of pure nanofluid (GO/engine oil) and hybrid nanofluid (GO–Fe3O4/engine oil): Novel thermal and magnetic features
  112. Synthesis of Ag@AgCl modified anatase/rutile/brookite mixed phase TiO2 and their photocatalytic property
  113. Mechanisms and influential variables on the abrasion resistance hydraulic concrete
  114. Synergistic reinforcement mechanism of basalt fiber/cellulose nanocrystals/polypropylene composites
  115. Achieving excellent oxidation resistance and mechanical properties of TiB2–B4C/carbon aerogel composites by quick-gelation and mechanical mixing
  116. Microwave-assisted sol–gel template-free synthesis and characterization of silica nanoparticles obtained from South African coal fly ash
  117. Pulsed laser-assisted synthesis of nano nickel(ii) oxide-anchored graphitic carbon nitride: Characterizations and their potential antibacterial/anti-biofilm applications
  118. Effects of nano-ZrSi2 on thermal stability of phenolic resin and thermal reusability of quartz–phenolic composites
  119. Benzaldehyde derivatives on tin electroplating as corrosion resistance for fabricating copper circuit
  120. Mechanical and heat transfer properties of 4D-printed shape memory graphene oxide/epoxy acrylate composites
  121. Coupling the vanadium-induced amorphous/crystalline NiFe2O4 with phosphide heterojunction toward active oxygen evolution reaction catalysts
  122. Graphene-oxide-reinforced cement composites mechanical and microstructural characteristics at elevated temperatures
  123. Gray correlation analysis of factors influencing compressive strength and durability of nano-SiO2 and PVA fiber reinforced geopolymer mortar
  124. Preparation of layered gradient Cu–Cr–Ti alloy with excellent mechanical properties, thermal stability, and electrical conductivity
  125. Recovery of Cr from chrome-containing leather wastes to develop aluminum-based composite material along with Al2O3 ceramic particles: An ingenious approach
  126. Mechanisms of the improved stiffness of flexible polymers under impact loading
  127. Anticancer potential of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) using a battery of in vitro tests
  128. Review Articles
  129. Proposed approaches for coronaviruses elimination from wastewater: Membrane techniques and nanotechnology solutions
  130. Application of Pickering emulsion in oil drilling and production
  131. The contribution of microfluidics to the fight against tuberculosis
  132. Graphene-based biosensors for disease theranostics: Development, applications, and recent advancements
  133. Synthesis and encapsulation of iron oxide nanorods for application in magnetic hyperthermia and photothermal therapy
  134. Contemporary nano-architectured drugs and leads for ανβ3 integrin-based chemotherapy: Rationale and retrospect
  135. State-of-the-art review of fabrication, application, and mechanical properties of functionally graded porous nanocomposite materials
  136. Insights on magnetic spinel ferrites for targeted drug delivery and hyperthermia applications
  137. A review on heterogeneous oxidation of acetaminophen based on micro and nanoparticles catalyzed by different activators
  138. Early diagnosis of lung cancer using magnetic nanoparticles-integrated systems
  139. Advances in ZnO: Manipulation of defects for enhancing their technological potentials
  140. Efficacious nanomedicine track toward combating COVID-19
  141. A review of the design, processes, and properties of Mg-based composites
  142. Green synthesis of nanoparticles for varied applications: Green renewable resources and energy-efficient synthetic routes
  143. Two-dimensional nanomaterial-based polymer composites: Fundamentals and applications
  144. Recent progress and challenges in plasmonic nanomaterials
  145. Apoptotic cell-derived micro/nanosized extracellular vesicles in tissue regeneration
  146. Electronic noses based on metal oxide nanowires: A review
  147. Framework materials for supercapacitors
  148. An overview on the reproductive toxicity of graphene derivatives: Highlighting the importance
  149. Antibacterial nanomaterials: Upcoming hope to overcome antibiotic resistance crisis
  150. Research progress of carbon materials in the field of three-dimensional printing polymer nanocomposites
  151. A review of atomic layer deposition modelling and simulation methodologies: Density functional theory and molecular dynamics
  152. Recent advances in the preparation of PVDF-based piezoelectric materials
  153. Recent developments in tensile properties of friction welding of carbon fiber-reinforced composite: A review
  154. Comprehensive review of the properties of fly ash-based geopolymer with additive of nano-SiO2
  155. Perspectives in biopolymer/graphene-based composite application: Advances, challenges, and recommendations
  156. Graphene-based nanocomposite using new modeling molecular dynamic simulations for proposed neutralizing mechanism and real-time sensing of COVID-19
  157. Nanotechnology application on bamboo materials: A review
  158. Recent developments and future perspectives of biorenewable nanocomposites for advanced applications
  159. Nanostructured lipid carrier system: A compendium of their formulation development approaches, optimization strategies by quality by design, and recent applications in drug delivery
  160. 3D printing customized design of human bone tissue implant and its application
  161. Design, preparation, and functionalization of nanobiomaterials for enhanced efficacy in current and future biomedical applications
  162. A brief review of nanoparticles-doped PEDOT:PSS nanocomposite for OLED and OPV
  163. Nanotechnology interventions as a putative tool for the treatment of dental afflictions
  164. Recent advancements in metal–organic frameworks integrating quantum dots (QDs@MOF) and their potential applications
  165. A focused review of short electrospun nanofiber preparation techniques for composite reinforcement
  166. Microstructural characteristics and nano-modification of interfacial transition zone in concrete: A review
  167. Latest developments in the upconversion nanotechnology for the rapid detection of food safety: A review
  168. Strategic applications of nano-fertilizers for sustainable agriculture: Benefits and bottlenecks
  169. Molecular dynamics application of cocrystal energetic materials: A review
  170. Synthesis and application of nanometer hydroxyapatite in biomedicine
  171. Cutting-edge development in waste-recycled nanomaterials for energy storage and conversion applications
  172. Biological applications of ternary quantum dots: A review
  173. Nanotherapeutics for hydrogen sulfide-involved treatment: An emerging approach for cancer therapy
  174. Application of antibacterial nanoparticles in orthodontic materials
  175. Effect of natural-based biological hydrogels combined with growth factors on skin wound healing
  176. Nanozymes – A route to overcome microbial resistance: A viewpoint
  177. Recent developments and applications of smart nanoparticles in biomedicine
  178. Contemporary review on carbon nanotube (CNT) composites and their impact on multifarious applications
  179. Interfacial interactions and reinforcing mechanisms of cellulose and chitin nanomaterials and starch derivatives for cement and concrete strength and durability enhancement: A review
  180. Diamond-like carbon films for tribological modification of rubber
  181. Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) modified cement-based materials: A systematic review
  182. Recent research progress and advanced applications of silica/polymer nanocomposites
  183. Modeling of supramolecular biopolymers: Leading the in silico revolution of tissue engineering and nanomedicine
  184. Recent advances in perovskites-based optoelectronics
  185. Biogenic synthesis of palladium nanoparticles: New production methods and applications
  186. A comprehensive review of nanofluids with fractional derivatives: Modeling and application
  187. Electrospinning of marine polysaccharides: Processing and chemical aspects, challenges, and future prospects
  188. Electrohydrodynamic printing for demanding devices: A review of processing and applications
  189. Rapid Communications
  190. Structural material with designed thermal twist for a simple actuation
  191. Recent advances in photothermal materials for solar-driven crude oil adsorption
https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2022-0040
Keywords for this article
carbon nanotubes; gelatin; mechanical properties; laminate mechanics; vacuum infusion
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BY 4.0

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  112. Synthesis of Ag@AgCl modified anatase/rutile/brookite mixed phase TiO2 and their photocatalytic property
  113. Mechanisms and influential variables on the abrasion resistance hydraulic concrete
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  116. Microwave-assisted sol–gel template-free synthesis and characterization of silica nanoparticles obtained from South African coal fly ash
  117. Pulsed laser-assisted synthesis of nano nickel(ii) oxide-anchored graphitic carbon nitride: Characterizations and their potential antibacterial/anti-biofilm applications
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  119. Benzaldehyde derivatives on tin electroplating as corrosion resistance for fabricating copper circuit
  120. Mechanical and heat transfer properties of 4D-printed shape memory graphene oxide/epoxy acrylate composites
  121. Coupling the vanadium-induced amorphous/crystalline NiFe2O4 with phosphide heterojunction toward active oxygen evolution reaction catalysts
  122. Graphene-oxide-reinforced cement composites mechanical and microstructural characteristics at elevated temperatures
  123. Gray correlation analysis of factors influencing compressive strength and durability of nano-SiO2 and PVA fiber reinforced geopolymer mortar
  124. Preparation of layered gradient Cu–Cr–Ti alloy with excellent mechanical properties, thermal stability, and electrical conductivity
  125. Recovery of Cr from chrome-containing leather wastes to develop aluminum-based composite material along with Al2O3 ceramic particles: An ingenious approach
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  127. Anticancer potential of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) using a battery of in vitro tests
  128. Review Articles
  129. Proposed approaches for coronaviruses elimination from wastewater: Membrane techniques and nanotechnology solutions
  130. Application of Pickering emulsion in oil drilling and production
  131. The contribution of microfluidics to the fight against tuberculosis
  132. Graphene-based biosensors for disease theranostics: Development, applications, and recent advancements
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  137. A review on heterogeneous oxidation of acetaminophen based on micro and nanoparticles catalyzed by different activators
  138. Early diagnosis of lung cancer using magnetic nanoparticles-integrated systems
  139. Advances in ZnO: Manipulation of defects for enhancing their technological potentials
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  141. A review of the design, processes, and properties of Mg-based composites
  142. Green synthesis of nanoparticles for varied applications: Green renewable resources and energy-efficient synthetic routes
  143. Two-dimensional nanomaterial-based polymer composites: Fundamentals and applications
  144. Recent progress and challenges in plasmonic nanomaterials
  145. Apoptotic cell-derived micro/nanosized extracellular vesicles in tissue regeneration
  146. Electronic noses based on metal oxide nanowires: A review
  147. Framework materials for supercapacitors
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  150. Research progress of carbon materials in the field of three-dimensional printing polymer nanocomposites
  151. A review of atomic layer deposition modelling and simulation methodologies: Density functional theory and molecular dynamics
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  153. Recent developments in tensile properties of friction welding of carbon fiber-reinforced composite: A review
  154. Comprehensive review of the properties of fly ash-based geopolymer with additive of nano-SiO2
  155. Perspectives in biopolymer/graphene-based composite application: Advances, challenges, and recommendations
  156. Graphene-based nanocomposite using new modeling molecular dynamic simulations for proposed neutralizing mechanism and real-time sensing of COVID-19
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  158. Recent developments and future perspectives of biorenewable nanocomposites for advanced applications
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  160. 3D printing customized design of human bone tissue implant and its application
  161. Design, preparation, and functionalization of nanobiomaterials for enhanced efficacy in current and future biomedical applications
  162. A brief review of nanoparticles-doped PEDOT:PSS nanocomposite for OLED and OPV
  163. Nanotechnology interventions as a putative tool for the treatment of dental afflictions
  164. Recent advancements in metal–organic frameworks integrating quantum dots (QDs@MOF) and their potential applications
  165. A focused review of short electrospun nanofiber preparation techniques for composite reinforcement
  166. Microstructural characteristics and nano-modification of interfacial transition zone in concrete: A review
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  168. Strategic applications of nano-fertilizers for sustainable agriculture: Benefits and bottlenecks
  169. Molecular dynamics application of cocrystal energetic materials: A review
  170. Synthesis and application of nanometer hydroxyapatite in biomedicine
  171. Cutting-edge development in waste-recycled nanomaterials for energy storage and conversion applications
  172. Biological applications of ternary quantum dots: A review
  173. Nanotherapeutics for hydrogen sulfide-involved treatment: An emerging approach for cancer therapy
  174. Application of antibacterial nanoparticles in orthodontic materials
  175. Effect of natural-based biological hydrogels combined with growth factors on skin wound healing
  176. Nanozymes – A route to overcome microbial resistance: A viewpoint
  177. Recent developments and applications of smart nanoparticles in biomedicine
  178. Contemporary review on carbon nanotube (CNT) composites and their impact on multifarious applications
  179. Interfacial interactions and reinforcing mechanisms of cellulose and chitin nanomaterials and starch derivatives for cement and concrete strength and durability enhancement: A review
  180. Diamond-like carbon films for tribological modification of rubber
  181. Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) modified cement-based materials: A systematic review
  182. Recent research progress and advanced applications of silica/polymer nanocomposites
  183. Modeling of supramolecular biopolymers: Leading the in silico revolution of tissue engineering and nanomedicine
  184. Recent advances in perovskites-based optoelectronics
  185. Biogenic synthesis of palladium nanoparticles: New production methods and applications
  186. A comprehensive review of nanofluids with fractional derivatives: Modeling and application
  187. Electrospinning of marine polysaccharides: Processing and chemical aspects, challenges, and future prospects
  188. Electrohydrodynamic printing for demanding devices: A review of processing and applications
  189. Rapid Communications
  190. Structural material with designed thermal twist for a simple actuation
  191. Recent advances in photothermal materials for solar-driven crude oil adsorption
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