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Stability kinetics of orevactaene pigments produced by Epicoccum nigrum in solid-state fermentation

  • Sawinder Kaur EMAIL logo , Paramjit S. Panesar , Sushma Gurumayum , Jyoti Singh , Amine Assouguem EMAIL logo , Abderrahim Lazraq , Riaz Ullah , Essam A. Ali , Azra Skender and Prasad Rasane
Published/Copyright: November 30, 2023
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Open Chemistry
From the journal Open Chemistry Volume 21 Issue 1

Abstract

Orevactaene yellow pigment was produced by solid-state fermentation of broken rice using Epicoccum nigrum. The pigment was extracted using water as a solvent and subjected to stability studies at different temperatures (30, 40, 60, and 80°C), pH (4, 6, and 8), sterilization, and sunlight exposure treatment. The observed data were fitted in the first-order kinetic model. Yellow pigment stability was found to vary at different temperatures studied. At 30°C, only a 4% decrease in color intensity was observed after 2 h; at 40°C, an 8% decrease was observed, and at 80°C and pH 6.0, 17% of color intensity was lost. These results showed that the orevactaene pigment produced by E. nigrum is heat-sensitive and changes in color intensity should be expected in heat-processed products. After 180 min at 80°C, yellow pigments maintained 82 and 76% of the initial color at pH 6 and 8, while a 65% decrease in color intensity was observed at 80°C, pH 4. Autoclaving resulted in 69% decay and exposure of pigment to sunlight for 2 h showed 1% decay. The half-life period of the pigment at different temperatures varied from 82.5 to 5.25 h. The decimal reduction time decreased from 275 to 17.5 h with an increase in the temperature. Thermodynamic parameters for pigment decay at pH 6.0 were represented in terms of enthalpy ∆H, activation energy E a, free energy ∆G, and entropy ∆S. The values observed were 44.52–44.93, 48.48, 96.60–105.18 kJ/mol, and −170.50 to −171.85 J/mol/K, respectively. All these parameters help in predicting the quality changes in terms of appearance during thermal processing and optimizing the process.

Keywords: microbial pigment; thermal degradation; kinetic modeling; activation energy; thermodynamics

1 Introduction

The application of food colors in processed food products is a considerable aspect in deciding the acceptability for both manufacturers and consumers. Approximately 39 colorants have been approved by the European Union to be used as food additives, whereas the United States has allowed about 36 [1]. According to global industry analysts, the market of food colors is anticipated to touch USD 2.97 billion by 2025 [2]. Among the different pigments available, carotenoids alone are anticipated to show a growth of 5.7% annually and increase up to $2.0 billion by 2022 [3].

Food colors used in the processed food industry are either produced synthetically or extracted from natural sources. Nevertheless, recently, the use of synthetic colors has steadily declined, owing to the allergic reactions shown by some of them, such as azorubin and tartrazine. The synthetic pigment tartrazine is a yellow color pigment and is highly poisonous to human lymphocyte cells. It is also shown to have toxic, cytotoxic, and mutagenic effects on plants, animals, and human cells [4,5]. Therefore, alternative sources of yellow pigments that are derived from natural or nature identical sources like plants and animals, including micro-organisms, have increased keeping in view the safety concerns about synthetic pigments [6,7]. Finding new sources of natural pigments in order to substitute synthetic pigments is in progress. Microorganisms have been attracting researchers’ attraction as a source of natural pigment in comparison to plant and animal sources [8]. Pigment synthesis using a microbial fermentation process has a number benefits, including relatively simpler extraction, increased product yields, plenty of substrates, no environmental barrier, and short span of time [9,10].

Microorganisms are recognized to secrete diversified forms of pigments as secondary metabolites, such as carotenoids, acyl phenol, naphthaquinones, fenazine, pyrone, anthraquinone, and sclertiorine [11]. Several studies have been reported on the fungus, Monascus purpureus, as it has been traditionally used for centuries as a food colorant in China, Taiwan, and Japan [12]. However, the production of mycotoxin citrinin along with the pigment in Monascus-fermented food has limited the use of these genera for natural colorant production [13]. Some species of Aspergillus sp. produce hydroxyanthraquinoid pigments in combination with various mycotoxins such as cyclochlorotine, citrinin, oxaline, secalonic acid, and rugulosin [14]. Some strains of Talaromyces species and Epicoccum nigrum have been discovered to produce pigment without co-producing mycotoxin [15]. E. nigrum is reported to produce polyketides, carotenoids, and flavanoids in different proportions depending on the strain and culturing conditions [9].

Heat processes are commonly used in the food processing industry for processing and preservation purposes in order to adhere to safety and stability specifications. These processes may result in physico-chemical reactions in foods causing quality degradation in terms of appearance, texture, and flavor [16]. Stability is one of the critical areas to be worked on for real-time food application and distribution [17]. Exhaustive information on the fate of pigments under different processing and storage conditions is required for the optimization of the process conditions for large-scale industrial processes [18]. Kinetic modeling provides useful insights into the mechanism of quality changes. Thermodynamic parameters, such as entropy, enthalpy, and activation energy data, may be used to predict the modifications in quality parameters of foods during different levels of heat treatments, thereby resulting in the designing of the optimized processing conditions. To the best of our knowledge, no work has been published on the stability study of orevactaene pigments produced by E. nigrum, which has the potential to become a natural colorant for the processed food industry.

The present study focuses on the stability studies of orevactaene, a pigment produced by E. nigrum, under different processing conditions using kinetic modeling.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Solid-state fermentation

E. nigrum was isolated from agricultural fields of Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, and identified by the National Fungal Culture Collection of India, Pune, was used for the study. Potato dextrose agar was used to grow the Epicoccum species, and it was sub-cultured for 15 days. For solid-state fermentation, 20 g of broken rice was taken, and the moisture content was maintained at 60% with distilled water. The flasks were stored at room temperature on the laboratory shelf for 1 h for moisture equilibration. The flasks were then autoclaved at 121°C for 20 min. The inoculum was prepared by scrapping the 7-day-old slant with 10 ml of distilled water. About 10% of inoculum was added to the autoclaved substrate and incubated at 25 ± 2°C for 10 days. After fermentation, the substrate was autoclaved and dried at 50°C for 24 h and milled to get the powder [9].

2.2 Extraction of pigments

For the extraction process, 0.8 g of the fermented matter was taken in a flask and distilled water was added to make the final volume of 50 ml. The flask was capped to avoid evaporation during the experiment. The flasks were incubated at 55.7°C for 57 min [9]. After incubation, the contents were filtered using Whatman filter paper number 1, and the filtrate was used for determining the orevactaene pigment spectrophotometrically (Shimadzu UV-1800, Japan) at a wavelength of 426 nm.

2.3 Pigment stability evaluation

To evaluate the stability of the pigment, the pigment solutions were maintained at pH 6.0 and incubated at different temperatures (30–80°C) for 0–240 min. The response of pH on pigment stability was studied at a constant temperature of 80°C and different pH values (4.0–8.0) for 0 to 180 min. Sodium citrate–phosphate and sodium phosphate buffers (0.2 M) were used to maintain the pH. Stability was also checked for the sterilization process (121°C for 15 min) and sunlight exposure for a period of 2 h. In all these treatments, absorbance was determined spectrophotometrically (Shimadzu UV-1800, Japan) at 426 nm [19].

2.4 Pigment degradation kinetics

Pigment degradation during the thermal treatment of pigment extracts follows first-order kinetics [20], demonstrating a logarithmic order of degradation given by

(1) A A 0 = exp ( − kt ) .

The decimal reduction time (D value) is the time required for a one-log reduction of the initial absorbance at a given temperature and is related to reaction constant k as per equation (2):

(2) D = ln ⁡ ( 10 ) k .

The half-life (t 1/2) of pigment degradation is given by equation (3):

(3) t 1 / 2 = ln ( 2 ) k .

2.5 Thermodynamic analysis

The activation energy, E a, was calculated using the Arrhenius equation, which relates the reaction rate constant to absolute temperature. The relation is given by equation (4):

(4) k = k 0 exp − E a RT .

For a more precise determination of the activation energy, equations (1) and (4) can be combined to obtain equation (5):

(5) A A 0 = exp − k 0 exp − E a RT t ,

where A/A 0 indicates the residual absorbance (426 nm) at time interval t (min), k (min−1) is the pigment degradation rate constant at a given temperature, E a is the activation energy, k 0 is the Arrhenius constant, and R is the universal gas constant (8.31 J/mol K).

The Q 10 value is commonly used for illustrating the effect of temperature on biological reactions and is defined as the number of times a reaction rate changes with a 10°C change in the temperature. It is calculated by using equation (6):

(6) Q 10 = exp E a R 10 T 2 T 1

The relation between the temperature and degradation reactions occurring in foods during processing and storage can also be indicated in terms of z values. The relation of the z value and Q 10 is expressed as follows:

(7) z = 10 ln ⁡ ( 10 ) ln ⁡ ( Q 10 ) .

Thermodynamic parameters were evaluated using mathematical formulae based on the absolute reaction rate theory [21],

(8) k = K B T h e ∆ S * R e − ∆ H * RT ,

where K B is the Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 × 10−23 J/K), h is the Planck’s constant (6.63 × 10−34 J s), ΔS* is the entropy of activation (J/mol K), and ΔH* is the enthalpy of activation (J/mol).

The enthalpy was calculated from the activation energy (E a) using the following equation:

(9) ∆ H * = E a − RT .

The free energy of activation (ΔG*, kJ/mol) was calculated using the following equation:

(10) ∆ G * = ∆ H * − T ∆ S * .

2.6 Data analysis

The experimental data were statistically evaluated based on the coefficient of determination (R 2), chi-square (χ 2), and standard error of the mean (SEM). These parameters of evaluations have been used successfully to correlate the degradation of bioactive compounds during thermal treatments. The variations in average values between various treatments were expressed as mean ± SE. One-way ANOVA, Duncan’s multiple range test in posthoc tests with probability P < 0.05 was used to test the differences in parameters under consideration using the SPSS statistical software (version 22) [19]:

(10) χ 2 = ∑ ( a measured − a predicted ) 2 n − p ,

(11) S EM = ∑ ( a measured − a predicted ) 2 n ,

(12) R MSE = ∑ ( a measured − a predicted ) 2 n ,

where p is the number of parameters and n is the number of observations.

3 Results and discussion

The characterization and evaluation of natural pigments are mainly based on absorption spectra obtained spectrophotometrically. Most of the degradative reactions are temperature-dependent and can result in a change in the intensity of color within due course of time. These changes in the spectral and visual properties are due to the structural changes caused by the thermal treatment [22]. Knowing the thermal stability of a colorant is important to designing productive strategies to prevent changes in visual appearance. The effect of temperature and pH on the stability of the orevactaene pigment was investigated.

3.1 Degradation kinetics

Kinetic models are commonly used to optimize the industrial process, save time, and minimize the effect of treatment on product quality [23]. The kinetic study of color degradation during thermal processing helps to quantify color under varied time–temperature combinations after knowing the order of a reaction.

Thermal degradation of the orevactaene pigment was investigated at 30, 40, 60, and 80°C at pH 6.0. The data were analyzed using the Arrhenius and first-order kinetic model. Figure 1 shows the good curve fitting using the first-order model. The values of the degradation rate constant (k), coefficient of determination (R 2), Chi-square (χ 2), SEM, and root mean square error (RMSE) are calculated and tabulated in Table 1. The extracellular pigment demonstrates good thermal resistance at lower temperatures as indicated by lower k values and highest at 80°C, suggesting higher stability at lower temperatures. The same is observed in the results of half-life (t 1/2) values at different temperatures as shown in Table 2.

Figure 1 Thermal degradation kinetics of the orevactaene pigment exposed to different temperatures at pH 6.0. Error bars represent standard deviations (n  =  3).
Figure 1

Thermal degradation kinetics of the orevactaene pigment exposed to different temperatures at pH 6.0. Error bars represent standard deviations (n  =  3).

Table 1

Performance of the first-order degradation model at various temperatures

Temperature (°C) k (min−1) R 2 χ 2 SEM RMSE
30 0.00014 ± 0.00001 0.98 5.136 × 10−5 0.0001 0.0022
40 0.00024 ± 0.00003 0.93 0.00029 0.0008 0.0053
60 0.00072 ± 0.0001 0.92 0.00324 0.0086 0.0178
80 0.002 ± 0.0005 0.82 0.00228 0.0061 0.0150

K, rate constant; R 2, coefficient of determination; χ 2, chi-square; SEM, standard error mean; RMSE, root mean square error.

Table 2

Kinetic parameters of the thermal degradation of the orevactaene pigment at pH 6.0

Temperature (°C) k (min−1) t 1/2 (h) D value (h) z value (°C)
30 0.00014 ± 0.00001 82.5 ± 1.5 275 ± 13.5 37.42 ± 2.5
40 0.00024 ± 0.00003 41.25 ± 1.2 137.5 ± 16.07
60 0.00072 ± 0.0001 14.26 ± 2.0 47.53 ± 10.05
80 0.002 ± 0.0005 5.25 ± 2.25 17.5 ± 1.5

k, rate constant; t 1/2, half-life; D, decimal reduction time; and z, thermal death temperature. Data are presented as mean ± S.D. (n = 3).

Figure 2 shows the residual absorbance (A/A 0) of the pigment extract against time at different temperatures (30, 40, 60, and 80°C) investigated. It can be noticed that the color degradation rate increased as the temperature increased. Decreased color stability due to high temperatures is expected in most natural colors, but changes in pH can include various effects on natural colors [24,25]. The orevactaene pigment of E. nigrum is a nine-conjugated compound similar to β-carotene which when converted into solutions are more susceptible to isomerization and oxidative degradation reactions. Both light and heat influence the stability through radical-mediated oxidation reactions. The presence of oxygen and lower pH results in enhanced degradation as suggested by Arimboor et al. [26]. The kinetic parameters such as rate constant (k), activation energy values (E a), and half-life period (t 1/2) are important for predicting the fate of pigment during processing and storage. The first-order kinetic model has been frequently used to predict and characterize the thermal deterioration of natural and microbial pigments, such as anthocyanins [27] and Monascus pigment [19]. The fungal pigments obtained from Monascus and Penicillium have also been reported to follow first-order degradation kinetics. Morales-Oyervides et al. [28] reported that the red pigment secreted by P. purpurogenum GH2 is found to be stable at temperatures up to 80°C in the pH range of 4–8, while the red pigment produced by M. ruber is stable at lower temperatures ranging from 30 to 60°C at pH 6.0–8.0 [19].

Figure 2 Effect of temperature and time on the residual absorbance of the orevactaene pigment.
Figure 2

Effect of temperature and time on the residual absorbance of the orevactaene pigment.

Reaction constants help characterize the kinetics of chemical reactions. The D values for thermal degradation of the orevactaene pigment secreted by E. nigrum using broken rice as a substrate ranged from 275 to 17.5 h in the temperature range of 30–80°C and the z value was found to be 37–38°C. The half-life period varied from 82.5 to 5.25 h at 30–80°C (Table 2). The effect of conventional heating on the P. purpurogenum GH2 pigment showed the D value range of 43.54–6.4 h and t 1/2 value range of 13.1–1.94 h in the thermal region of 60–90°C [29]. Silveira et al. [19] reported the D value range of Monascus pigment to be 357–34 h in the temperature range of 30–80°C, while the z value was varied for the same pigment, half-life period from 107.5 to 10 h. Chandran et al. [20] studied the degradation kinetics of beetroot color using different cooking methods; t 1/2 for beetroot puree color degradation ranged from 365 to 21 min for the temperature range of 50–120°C. The z value, 37.42°C, is the temperature required to shift the D value by 1log cycle. The z values of T. purpurogenus [30], P. purpurogenum GH2 [28], and M. purpureus [19] are 40.05, 48.7, and 50°C, respectively.

The degradation rate constants (k) were used to calculate the activation energy using the Arrhenius equation to ascertain the temperature-dependent behavior (equation 4). A plot between Ln k on the log scale and the reciprocal of the absolute temperature is used to find the activation energy. The k-values evaluated showed a good fit to the Arrhenius equation (Figure 3), thus contributing to the calculation of k 0 and E a. The activation energy, E a, represents the energy barrier that molecules need to cover so that one may react and is considered an important criterion for analyzing the thermal stability of the pigment [31].

Figure 3 Arrhenius equation graph of constants of orevactaene degradation.
Figure 3

Arrhenius equation graph of constants of orevactaene degradation.

The E a of the orevactaene pigment obtained from E. nigrum obtained is 47.48 kJ/mol. In the degradation of Monascus pigments, E a was 40.8 kJ/mol [19] and for the water-soluble extracellular pigment produced by T. purpurogenus it was 52.50 kJ/mol [30]. However, for other yellow food colorants like lutein, riboflavin, curcumin, β-carotene, gardenia yellow, and Opuntia betaxanthins, E a values were 3.2, 36.4, 23.7, 6.5, 31.2, and 43.7 kJ/mol, respectively [22]. The E a value for the onion solid waste pigment was 12.11 kJ/mol [32].

The calculated value of k 0 for the orevactaene pigment was 10.40 min−1. The first-order model and Arrhenius equation can be combined as per equation (5) as follows:

(6) A A 0 = exp − 10.40 exp − 5832 8.314 T t .

These combined equations give an idea of the effect of time and temperature combination on pigment stability in terms of the residual pigment, which is an important parameter in the food industry. Orevactaene discoloration varied at 30, 40, 60, and 80°C. At 30°C, only 12% decrease in the color intensity was observed after 4 h; at 40°C,31% decrease; and at 80°C, 56% of the color was lost (Figure 2). The results showed that the orevactene pigment produced by E. nigrum is heat sensitive and changes in color intensity can be expected in heat-processed products. Similar results are reported for Monascus pigments by Abdollahi et al. [24] and Gjadhar and Mellem [33] for the Serratia marcescens pigment. However, further studies can be conducted to see the interactive effect of different food components on the stability of pigment.

The estimation of thermodynamic parameters may provide information related to the rate of pigment degradation under the influence of temperature and structure modification. Table 3 shows the calculated values of ∆H*, ∆G*, and ∆S*. For the orevactaene pigment, in the thermal region of 303–353 K, the enthalpy of activation (ΔH*) ranged from 44.52 ± 1.55 to 44.93 ± 1.51 kJ/mol, the entropy of activation (∆S*) ranged from −170.5 ± 7.5 to −171.85 ± 8.2 J/mol K, and the free energy of activation (∆G*) ranged from 96.60 ± 3.5 to 105.18 ± 2.2 kJ/mol.

Table 3

Thermodynamic parameter values for the orevactaene pigment decay at pH 6.0

Temperature (K) E a (kJ/mol) ∆H* (kJ/mol) ∆G* (kJ/mol) ∆S* (J/mol K)
303 47.48 ± 1.64 44.93 ± 1.51 96.60 ± 3.5 −170.50 ± 7.5
313 44.85 ± 1.55 98.47 ± 1.5 −171.29 ± 8.1
333 44.69 ± 1.47 101.89 ± 1.9 −171.78 ± 8.5
353 44.52 ± 1.55 105.18 ± 2.2 −171.85 ± 8.2

E a, activation energy; ∆H*, enthalpy of activation; ∆S*, entropy of activation; and ∆G*, free energy of activation. Data are presented as mean ± S.D.

The values of ∆H* for the thermal degradation represent a measure of the amount of non-covalent bonds ruptured and thus the conformational changes in the pigment. The decreasing values of ∆H* with an increase in temperature indicate a change in conformation [18,34] The positive value of ∆H* represents a gain in energy by the system and involves the conversion of reactants to products by bond rupturing. The ∆H* data are in confirmation with the previously reported data for fungal pigments. However, the enthalpy changes observed for the P. purpurogenum pigment was 39.88–39.47 kJ/mol in the temperature range of 303–353 K [28], and 38.29–37.88 kJ/mol for the Monascus pigment at 303–353 K [19], and T. purpurogenus showed an enthalpy change of 49.98–49.48 kJ/mol at 303–363 K [30]. ∆S* measures the degree of disorderliness of the system. From a thermodynamic point of view, ∆G* values indicate that degradation reaction conditions are not supportive at higher temperatures [19], which may be because of the negative entropic contribution in the degradation process. Negative ∆S* values indicate that the system shows a low level of disorder in the system [18,34]. Negative ∆S* values along with positive ∆H* and ∆G* values confirm the endothermic, non-spontaneous nature of the reaction.

The stability of Epicoccum pigments at different pH values was studied at 80°C. Figure 4 shows the % residual absorbance at three different pH values under investigation. The degradation kinetics was found to be influenced by pH as a higher amount of degradation is observed at lower pH. At acidic pH, i.e., pH 4, pigment precipitation was observed which may restrict its use in acidic foods. After 180 min, yellow pigments maintained 82 and 76% of the initial color at pH 6 and 8 (Figure 4). This is further confirmed by the changes in half-life values of the pigment which increases with increase in pH (Table 4). At high temperatures, with increased pH, there is an increase in the stability of pigments. Similar results have been reported for red pigments produced by Monascus, which, at 80°C and pH 4 and 5, showed colloidal instability [19]. Red pigment showed retention of 81, 84, and 85% at pH 6, 7, and 8, respectively, when treated at 80°C for 180 min.

Figure 4 Effect of pH and time on the residual absorbance of the orevactaene pigment at 80°C.
Figure 4

Effect of pH and time on the residual absorbance of the orevactaene pigment at 80°C.

Table 4

Kinetic parameters of the degradation of the orevactaene pigment at pH 4.0, 6.0, and 8.0 and temperature of 80 °C

pH k (min−1) R 2 t 1/2 (h) D value (h)
4.0 0.0105 ± 0.0002 0.85 1.1 ± 0.5 3.65 ± 1.5
6.0 0.0015 ± 0.0001 0.94 7.7 ± 1.1 25.55 ± 2.0
8.0 0.001 ± 0.0005 0.95 11.55 ± 2.5 38.33 ± 1.5

k, rate constant; t 1/2, half-life, and D, decimal reduction time.

Autoclaving treatment was also performed for Epicoccum pigments, which resulted in a 69% degradation color. Natural pigments commonly show such a level of degradation, which can be compensated by proper pigment dosage. The stability of pigments during sunlight exposure was also checked. Pigments were exposed to sunlight for 2 h from 12 to 2 p.m., which resulted in only 1% degradation of the color. The degradation of color observed in the present study is the same as that commonly found in natural pigments [24].

4 Conclusion

The thermal and pH stability of the orevactaene pigment produced by E. nigrum was discussed in this work. The yellow orevactaene pigment produced by E. nigrum was found to be sensitive to temperature and pH changes. At high temperatures and low pH, the pigment was unstable and the stability increased as pH approached neutrality. These results showed that the orevactaene pigment produced by E. nigrum is heat- and pH-sensitive, and changes in color intensity should be expected in heat-processed products. Thermodynamic parameters might help in designing the thermal treatments in order to enhance the thermal stability of the pigment.

Acknowledgement

The authors acknowledge the support and infrastructure facilities provided by Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab (India), for the research work. Authors Also wish to thanks Researchers Supporting Project Number (RSP2023R110) at King Saud University Riyadh Saudi Arabia for financial Support.

  1. Funding information: This study was funded by researchers supporting project (number RSP2023R110), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  2. Author contributions: Sawinder Kaur: conduct of experimentation, writing original draft, revision; Parmjit S. Panesar: conceptualization and supervision; Prasad Rasane: reviewing and supervision; Jyoti Singh: reviewing; Sushma Gurumayum: conceptualization and supervision; Amine Assouguem; software, reviewing and supervision; Abderrahim Lazraq; reviewing and supervision; Riaz Ullah; writing review and editing; Essam A Ali; reviewing and supervision; Azra Skender, writing review and editing.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflicts of interest in this work.

  4. Ethical approval: The conducted research is not related to either human or animal use.

  5. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2023-09-27
Revised: 2023-10-27
Accepted: 2023-11-15
Published Online: 2023-11-30

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2023-0166
Keywords for this article
microbial pigment; thermal degradation; kinetic modeling; activation energy; thermodynamics
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Characteristics, source, and health risk assessment of aerosol polyaromatic hydrocarbons in the rural and urban regions of western Saudi Arabia
  2. Regular Articles
  3. A network-based correlation research between element electronegativity and node importance
  4. Pomegranate attenuates kidney injury in cyclosporine-induced nephrotoxicity in rats by suppressing oxidative stress
  5. Ab initio study of fundamental properties of XInO3 (X = K, Rb, Cs) perovskites
  6. Responses of feldspathic sandstone and sand-reconstituted soil C and N to freeze–thaw cycles
  7. Robust fractional control based on high gain observers design (RNFC) for a Spirulina maxima culture interfaced with an advanced oxidation process
  8. Study on arsenic speciation and redistribution mechanism in Lonicera japonica plants via synchrotron techniques
  9. Optimization of machining Nilo 36 superalloy parameters in turning operation
  10. Vacuum impregnation pre-treatment: A novel method for incorporating mono- and divalent cations into potato strips to reduce the acrylamide formation in French fries
  11. Characterization of effective constituents in Acanthopanax senticosus fruit for blood deficiency syndrome based on the chinmedomics strategy
  12. Comparative analysis of the metabolites in Pinellia ternata from two producing regions using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization–tandem mass spectrometry
  13. The assessment of environmental parameter along the desalination plants in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
  14. Effects of harpin and carbendazim on antioxidant accumulation in young jujube leaves
  15. The effects of in ovo injected with sodium borate on hatching performance and small intestine morphology in broiler chicks
  16. Optimization of cutting forces and surface roughness via ANOVA and grey relational analysis in machining of In718
  17. Essential oils of Origanum compactum Benth: Chemical characterization, in vitro, in silico, antioxidant, and antibacterial activities
  18. Translocation of tungsten(vi) oxide/gadolinium(iii) fluoride in tellurite glasses towards improvement of gamma-ray attenuation features in high-density glass shields
  19. Mechanical properties, elastic moduli, and gamma ray attenuation competencies of some TeO2–WO3–GdF3 glasses: Tailoring WO3–GdF3 substitution toward optimum behavioral state range
  20. Comparison between the CIDR or sponge with hormone injection to induce estrus synchronization for twining and sex preselection in Naimi sheep
  21. Exergetic performance analyses of three different cogeneration plants
  22. Psoralea corylifolia (babchi) seeds enhance proliferation of normal human cultured melanocytes: GC–MS profiling and biological investigation
  23. A novel electrochemical micro-titration method for quantitative evaluation of the DPPH free radical scavenging capacity of caffeic acid
  24. Comparative study between supported bimetallic catalysts for nitrate remediation in water
  25. Persicaline, an alkaloid from Salvadora persica, inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis and cell-cycle arrest in MCF-7 cells
  26. Determination of nicotine content in locally produced smokeless tobacco (Shammah) samples from Jazan region of Saudi Arabia using a convenient HPLC-MS/MS method
  27. Changes in oxidative stress markers in pediatric burn injury over a 1-week period
  28. Integrated geophysical techniques applied for petroleum basins structural characterization in the central part of the Western Desert, Egypt
  29. The impact of chemical modifications on gamma-ray attenuation properties of some WO3-reinforced tellurite glasses
  30. Microwave and Cs+-assisted chemo selective reaction protocol for synthesizing 2-styryl quinoline biorelevant molecules
  31. Structural, physical, and radiation absorption properties of a significant nuclear power plant component: A comparison between REX-734 and 316L SS austenitic stainless steels
  32. Effect of Moringa oleifera on serum YKL-40 level: In vivo rat periodontitis model
  33. Investigating the impact of CO2 emissions on the COVID-19 pandemic by generalized linear mixed model approach with inverse Gaussian and gamma distributions
  34. Influence of WO3 content on gamma rays attenuation characteristics of phosphate glasses at low energy range
  35. Study on CO2 absorption performance of ternary DES formed based on DEA as promoting factor
  36. Performance analyses of detonation engine cogeneration cycles
  37. Sterols from Centaurea pumilio L. with cell proliferative activity: In vitro and in silico studies
  38. Untargeted metabolomics revealing changes in aroma substances in flue-cured tobacco
  39. Effect of pumpkin enriched with calcium lactate on iron status in an animal model of postmenopausal osteoporosis
  40. Energy consumption, mechanical and metallographic properties of cryogenically treated tool steels
  41. Optimization of ultra-high pressure-assisted extraction of total phenols from Eucommia ulmoides leaves by response surface methodology
  42. Harpin enhances antioxidant nutrient accumulation and decreases enzymatic browning in stored soybean sprouts
  43. Physicochemical and biological properties of carvacrol
  44. Radix puerariae in the treatment of diabetic nephropathy: A network pharmacology analysis and experimental validation
  45. Anti-Alzheimer, antioxidants, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase effects of Taverniera glabra mediated ZnO and Fe2O3 nanoparticles in alloxan-induced diabetic rats
  46. Experimental study on photocatalytic CO2 reduction performance of ZnS/CdS-TiO2 nanotube array thin films
  47. Epoxy-reinforced heavy metal oxides for gamma ray shielding purposes
  48. Black mulberry (Morus nigra L.) fruits: As a medicinal plant rich in human health-promoting compounds
  49. Promising antioxidant and antimicrobial effects of essential oils extracted from fruits of Juniperus thurifera: In vitro and in silico investigations
  50. Chloramine-T-induced oxidation of Rizatriptan Benzoate: An integral chemical and spectroscopic study of products, mechanisms and kinetics
  51. Study on antioxidant and antimicrobial potential of chemically profiled essential oils extracted from Juniperus phoenicea (L.) by use of in vitro and in silico approaches
  52. Screening and characterization of fungal taxol-producing endophytic fungi for evaluation of antimicrobial and anticancer activities
  53. Mineral composition, principal polyphenolic components, and evaluation of the anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antioxidant properties of Cytisus villosus Pourr leaf extracts
  54. In vitro antiproliferative efficacy of Annona muricata seed and fruit extracts on several cancer cell lines
  55. An experimental study for chemical characterization of artificial anterior cruciate ligament with coated chitosan as biomaterial
  56. Prevalence of residual risks of the transfusion-transmitted infections in Riyadh hospitals: A two-year retrospective study
  57. Computational and experimental investigation of antibacterial and antifungal properties of Nicotiana tabacum extracts
  58. Reinforcement of cementitious mortars with hemp fibers and shives
  59. X-ray shielding properties of bismuth-borate glass doped with rare earth ions
  60. Green supported silver nanoparticles over modified reduced graphene oxide: Investigation of its antioxidant and anti-ovarian cancer effects
  61. Orthogonal synthesis of a versatile building block for dual functionalization of targeting vectors
  62. Thymbra spicata leaf extract driven biogenic synthesis of Au/Fe3O4 nanocomposite and its bio-application in the treatment of different types of leukemia
  63. The role of Ag2O incorporation in nuclear radiation shielding behaviors of the Li2O–Pb3O4–SiO2 glass system: A multi-step characterization study
  64. A stimuli-responsive in situ spray hydrogel co-loaded with naringenin and gentamicin for chronic wounds
  65. Assessment of the impact of γ-irradiation on the piperine content and microbial quality of black pepper
  66. Antioxidant, sensory, and functional properties of low-alcoholic IPA beer with Pinus sylvestris L. shoots addition fermented using unconventional yeast
  67. Screening and optimization of extracellular pectinase produced by Bacillus thuringiensis SH7
  68. Determination of polyphenols in Chinese jujube using ultra-performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry
  69. Synergistic effects of harpin and NaCl in determining soybean sprout quality under non-sterile conditions
  70. Field evaluation of different eco-friendly alternative control methods against Panonychus citri [Acari: Tetranychidae] spider mite and its predators in citrus orchards
  71. Exploring the antimicrobial potential of biologically synthesized zero valent iron nanoparticles
  72. NaCl regulates goldfish growth and survival at three food supply levels under hypoxia
  73. An exploration of the physical, optical, mechanical, and radiation shielding properties of PbO–MgO–ZnO–B2O3 glasses
  74. A novel statistical modeling of air pollution and the COVID-19 pandemic mortality data by Poisson, geometric, and negative binomial regression models with fixed and random effects
  75. Treatment activity of the injectable hydrogels loaded with dexamethasone In(iii) complex on glioma by inhibiting the VEGF signaling pathway
  76. An alternative approach for the excess lifetime cancer risk and prediction of radiological parameters
  77. Panax ginseng leaf aqueous extract mediated green synthesis of AgNPs under ultrasound condition and investigation of its anti-lung adenocarcinoma effects
  78. Study of hydrolysis and production of instant ginger (Zingiber officinale) tea
  79. Novel green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Salvia rosmarinus extract for treatment of human lung cancer
  80. Evaluation of second trimester plasma lipoxin A4, VEGFR-1, IL-6, and TNF-α levels in pregnant women with gestational diabetes mellitus
  81. Antidiabetic, antioxidant and cytotoxicity activities of ortho- and para-substituted Schiff bases derived from metformin hydrochloride: Validation by molecular docking and in silico ADME studies
  82. Antioxidant, antidiabetic, antiglaucoma, and anticholinergic effects of Tayfi grape (Vitis vinifera): A phytochemical screening by LC-MS/MS analysis
  83. Identification of genetic polymorphisms in the stearoyl CoA desaturase gene and its association with milk quality traits in Najdi sheep
  84. Cold-acclimation effect on cadmium absorption and biosynthesis of polyphenolics, and free proline and photosynthetic pigments in Spirogyra aequinoctialis
  85. Analysis of secondary metabolites in Xinjiang Morus nigra leaves using different extraction methods with UPLC-Q/TOF-MS/MS technology
  86. Nanoarchitectonics and performance evaluation of a Fe3O4-stabilized Pickering emulsion-type differential pressure plugging agent
  87. Investigating pyrolysis characteristics of Shengdong coal through Py-GC/MS
  88. Extraction, phytochemical characterization, and antifungal activity of Salvia rosmarinus extract
  89. Introducing a novel and natural antibiotic for the treatment of oral pathogens: Abelmoschus esculentus green-formulated silver nanoparticles
  90. Optimization of gallic acid-enriched ultrasonic-assisted extraction from mango peels
  91. Effect of gamma rays irradiation in the structure, optical, and electrical properties of samarium doped bismuth titanate ceramics
  92. Combinatory in silico investigation for potential inhibitors from Curcuma sahuynhensis Škorničk. & N.S. Lý volatile phytoconstituents against influenza A hemagglutinin, SARS-CoV-2 main protease, and Omicron-variant spike protein
  93. Physical, mechanical, and gamma ray shielding properties of the Bi2O3–BaO–B2O3–ZnO–As2O3–MgO–Na2O glass system
  94. Twofold interpenetrated 3D Cd(ii) complex: Crystal structure and luminescent property
  95. Study on the microstructure and soil quality variation of composite soil with soft rock and sand
  96. Ancient spring waters still emerging and accessible in the Roman Forum area: Chemical–physical and microbiological characterization
  97. Extraction and characterization of type I collagen from scales of Mexican Biajaiba fish
  98. Finding small molecular compounds to decrease trimethylamine oxide levels in atherosclerosis by virtual screening
  99. Prefatory in silico studies and in vitro insecticidal effect of Nigella sativa (L.) essential oil and its active compound (carvacrol) against the Callosobruchus maculatus adults (Fab), a major pest of chickpea
  100. Polymerized methyl imidazole silver bromide (CH3C6H5AgBr)6: Synthesis, crystal structures, and catalytic activity
  101. Using calcined waste fish bones as a green solid catalyst for biodiesel production from date seed oil
  102. Influence of the addition of WO3 on TeO2–Na2O glass systems in view of the feature of mechanical, optical, and photon attenuation
  103. Naringin ameliorates 5-fluorouracil elicited neurotoxicity by curtailing oxidative stress and iNOS/NF-ĸB/caspase-3 pathway
  104. GC-MS profile of extracts of an endophytic fungus Alternaria and evaluation of its anticancer and antibacterial potentialities
  105. Green synthesis, chemical characterization, and antioxidant and anti-colorectal cancer effects of vanadium nanoparticles
  106. Determination of caffeine content in coffee drinks prepared in some coffee shops in the local market in Jeddah City, Saudi Arabia
  107. A new 3D supramolecular Cu(ii) framework: Crystal structure and photocatalytic characteristics
  108. Bordeaux mixture accelerates ripening, delays senescence, and promotes metabolite accumulation in jujube fruit
  109. Important application value of injectable hydrogels loaded with omeprazole Schiff base complex in the treatment of pancreatitis
  110. Color tunable benzothiadiazole-based small molecules for lightening applications
  111. Investigation of structural, dielectric, impedance, and mechanical properties of hydroxyapatite-modified barium titanate composites for biomedical applications
  112. Metal gel particles loaded with epidermal cell growth factor promote skin wound repair mechanism by regulating miRNA
  113. In vitro exploration of Hypsizygus ulmarius (Bull.) mushroom fruiting bodies: Potential antidiabetic and anti-inflammatory agent
  114. Alteration in the molecular structure of the adenine base exposed to gamma irradiation: An ESR study
  115. Comprehensive study of optical, thermal, and gamma-ray shielding properties of Bi2O3–ZnO–PbO–B2O3 glasses
  116. Lewis acids as co-catalysts in Pd-based catalyzed systems of the octene-1 hydroethoxycarbonylation reaction
  117. Synthesis, Hirshfeld surface analysis, thermal, and selective α-glucosidase inhibitory studies of Schiff base transition metal complexes
  118. Protective properties of AgNPs green-synthesized by Abelmoschus esculentus on retinal damage on the virtue of its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects in diabetic rat
  119. Effects of green decorated AgNPs on lignin-modified magnetic nanoparticles mediated by Cydonia on cecal ligation and puncture-induced sepsis
  120. Treatment of gastric cancer by green mediated silver nanoparticles using Pistacia atlantica bark aqueous extract
  121. Preparation of newly developed porcelain ceramics containing WO3 nanoparticles for radiation shielding applications
  122. Utilization of computational methods for the identification of new natural inhibitors of human neutrophil elastase in inflammation therapy
  123. Some anticancer agents as effective glutathione S-transferase (GST) inhibitors
  124. Clay-based bricks’ rich illite mineral for gamma-ray shielding applications: An experimental evaluation of the effect of pressure rates on gamma-ray attenuation parameters
  125. Stability kinetics of orevactaene pigments produced by Epicoccum nigrum in solid-state fermentation
  126. Treatment of denture stomatitis using iron nanoparticles green-synthesized by Silybum marianum extract
  127. Characterization and antioxidant potential of white mustard (Brassica hirta) leaf extract and stabilization of sunflower oil
  128. Characteristics of Langmuir monomolecular monolayers formed by the novel oil blends
  129. Strategies for optimizing the single GdSrFeO4 phase synthesis
  130. Oleic acid and linoleic acid nanosomes boost immunity and provoke cell death via the upregulation of beta-defensin-4 at genetic and epigenetic levels
  131. Unraveling the therapeutic potential of Bombax ceiba roots: A comprehensive study of chemical composition, heavy metal content, antibacterial activity, and in silico analysis
  132. Green synthesis of AgNPs using plant extract and investigation of its anti-human colorectal cancer application
  133. The adsorption of naproxen on adsorbents obtained from pepper stalk extract by green synthesis
  134. Treatment of gastric cancer by silver nanoparticles encapsulated by chitosan polymers mediated by Pistacia atlantica extract under ultrasound condition
  135. In vitro protective and anti-inflammatory effects of Capparis spinosa and its flavonoids profile
  136. Wear and corrosion behavior of TiC and WC coatings deposited on high-speed steels by electro-spark deposition
  137. Therapeutic effects of green-formulated gold nanoparticles by Origanum majorana on spinal cord injury in rats
  138. Melanin antibacterial activity of two new strains, SN1 and SN2, of Exophiala phaeomuriformis against five human pathogens
  139. Evaluation of the analgesic and anesthetic properties of silver nanoparticles supported over biodegradable acacia gum-modified magnetic nanoparticles
  140. Review Articles
  141. Role and mechanism of fruit waste polyphenols in diabetes management
  142. A comprehensive review of non-alkaloidal metabolites from the subfamily Amaryllidoideae (Amaryllidaceae)
  143. Discovery of the chemical constituents, structural characteristics, and pharmacological functions of Chinese caterpillar fungus
  144. Eco-friendly green approach of nickel oxide nanoparticles for biomedical applications
  145. Advances in the pharmaceutical research of curcumin for oral administration
  146. Rapid Communication
  147. Determination of the contents of bioactive compounds in St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum): Comparison of commercial and wild samples
  148. Retraction
  149. Retraction of “Two mixed-ligand coordination polymers based on 2,5-thiophenedicarboxylic acid and flexible N-donor ligands: The protective effect on periodontitis via reducing the release of IL-1β and TNF-α”
  150. Topical Issue on Phytochemicals, biological and toxicological analysis of aromatic medicinal plants
  151. Anti-plasmodial potential of selected medicinal plants and a compound Atropine isolated from Eucalyptus obliqua
  152. Anthocyanin extract from black rice attenuates chronic inflammation in DSS-induced colitis mouse model by modulating the gut microbiota
  153. Evaluation of antibiofilm and cytotoxicity effect of Rumex vesicarius methanol extract
  154. Chemical compositions of Litsea umbellata and inhibition activities
  155. Green synthesis, characterization of silver nanoparticles using Rhynchosia capitata leaf extract and their biological activities
  156. GC-MS analysis and antibacterial activities of some plants belonging to the genus Euphorbia on selected bacterial isolates
  157. The abrogative effect of propolis on acrylamide-induced toxicity in male albino rats: Histological study
  158. A phytoconstituent 6-aminoflavone ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced oxidative stress mediated synapse and memory dysfunction via p-Akt/NF-kB pathway in albino mice
  159. Anti-diabetic potentials of Sorbaria tomentosa Lindl. Rehder: Phytochemistry (GC-MS analysis), α-amylase, α-glucosidase inhibitory, in vivo hypoglycemic, and biochemical analysis
  160. Assessment of cytotoxic and apoptotic activities of the Cassia angustifolia aqueous extract against SW480 colon cancer
  161. Biochemical analysis, antioxidant, and antibacterial efficacy of the bee propolis extract (Hymenoptera: Apis mellifera) against Staphylococcus aureus-induced infection in BALB/c mice: In vitro and in vivo study
  162. Assessment of essential elements and heavy metals in Saudi Arabian rice samples underwent various processing methods
  163. Two new compounds from leaves of Capparis dongvanensis (Sy, B. H. Quang & D. V. Hai) and inhibition activities
  164. Hydroxyquinoline sulfanilamide ameliorates STZ-induced hyperglycemia-mediated amyleoid beta burden and memory impairment in adult mice
  165. An automated reading of semi-quantitative hemagglutination results in microplates: Micro-assay for plant lectins
  166. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry assessment of essential and toxic trace elements in traditional spices consumed by the population of the Middle Eastern region in their recipes
  167. Phytochemical analysis and anticancer activity of the Pithecellobium dulce seed extract in colorectal cancer cells
  168. Impact of climatic disturbances on the chemical compositions and metabolites of Salvia officinalis
  169. Physicochemical characterization, antioxidant and antifungal activities of essential oils of Urginea maritima and Allium sativum
  170. Phytochemical analysis and antifungal efficiency of Origanum majorana extracts against some phytopathogenic fungi causing tomato damping-off diseases
  171. Special Issue on 4th IC3PE
  172. Graphene quantum dots: A comprehensive overview
  173. Studies on the intercalation of calcium–aluminium layered double hydroxide-MCPA and its controlled release mechanism as a potential green herbicide
  174. Synergetic effect of adsorption and photocatalysis by zinc ferrite-anchored graphitic carbon nitride nanosheet for the removal of ciprofloxacin under visible light irradiation
  175. Exploring anticancer activity of the Indonesian guava leaf (Psidium guajava L.) fraction on various human cancer cell lines in an in vitro cell-based approach
  176. The comparison of gold extraction methods from the rock using thiourea and thiosulfate
  177. Special Issue on Marine environmental sciences and significance of the multidisciplinary approaches
  178. Sorption of alkylphenols and estrogens on microplastics in marine conditions
  179. Cytotoxic ketosteroids from the Red Sea soft coral Dendronephthya sp.
  180. Antibacterial and biofilm prevention metabolites from Acanthophora spicifera
  181. Characteristics, source, and health risk assessment of aerosol polyaromatic hydrocarbons in the rural and urban regions of western Saudi Arabia
  182. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Energy, Environmental and Biological Applications - Part II
  183. Green synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of antibacterial activities of cobalt nanoparticles produced by marine fungal species Periconia prolifica
  184. Combustion-mediated sol–gel preparation of cobalt-doped ZnO nanohybrids for the degradation of acid red and antibacterial performance
  185. Perinatal supplementation with selenium nanoparticles modified with ascorbic acid improves hepatotoxicity in rat gestational diabetes
  186. Evaluation and chemical characterization of bioactive secondary metabolites from endophytic fungi associated with the ethnomedicinal plant Bergenia ciliata
  187. Enhancing photovoltaic efficiency with SQI-Br and SQI-I sensitizers: A comparative analysis
  188. Nanostructured p-PbS/p-CuO sulfide/oxide bilayer heterojunction as a promising photoelectrode for hydrogen gas generation
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