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Enhancing photovoltaic efficiency with SQI-Br and SQI-I sensitizers: A comparative analysis

  • Sultan A. Al-horaibi EMAIL logo , Abdel-Basit Al-Odayni EMAIL logo , Mohammed ALSaeedy , Fares Hezam Al-Ostoot , Adel Al-Salihy , Jawaher Q. Ghaleb , Arwa Al-Adhreai , Faizaa A. Saif , Salama A. Yaseen and Waseem Sharf Saeed
Published/Copyright: December 11, 2023
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Open Chemistry
From the journal Open Chemistry Volume 21 Issue 1

Abstract

This study investigates the use of halogen bonding to enhance the effectiveness of short-circuit current density (J SC) in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). To improve the performance of DSSCs, two dyes, SQI-Br and SQI-I, based on halogen atom-functionalized unsymmetrical squaraine dyes, were designed. These dyes were tested in DSSCs using iodolyte electrolytes (Z-50 and Z-100), and their performance was further improved by the introduction of chenodesoxycholic acid (CDCA). While both dyes exhibited unique photovoltaic characteristics without CDCA, a significant improvement was observed when three equivalents of CDCA were added. The most favorable results were achieved with the SQI-I dye, three equivalents of CDCA, and iodolyte Z-100, resulting in an efficiency of 6.74%, V OC of 0.694 V, and a short-circuit current density of 13.67 mA/cm2 of DSSCs. This enhanced performance can be attributed to the presence of a σ-hole, which strengthens the interaction between the electrolyte and the dyes on the TiO2 substrate, thereby facilitating dye regeneration.

Graphical abstract

Keywords: DSSCs; unsymmetrical squaraine dyes; CDCA; photovoltaic efficiency; DFT methods

1 Introduction

Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) are a type of thin-film solar cell. They have been the subject of extensive research for over two decades, primarily due to their easy manufacturing processes, low environmental impact, and reduced production costs. Nonetheless, achieving a substantial power conversion efficiency (PCE) in such cells is a challenging task that demands careful strategic planning. DSSCs use organic dyes to initiate the conversion of photons into electrons, raising them to higher energy levels [1,2,3]. The tandem progress of metal complex sensitizers and non-metallic organic dyes not only enhances DSSC sustainability but also boosts economic viability. This dual approach positions DSSCs as a cost-effective choice for widespread renewable energy applications, marking a significant stride in the global shift towards sustainable power sources [4,5]. Organic dye molecules, with their substantial absorption capabilities, cost-effectiveness, and durability, are gaining increasing preference [6,7]. Many electron-donating (alkyl, amino, hydroxyl, ether, and amides) groups have been thoroughly investigated. The research efforts in this area have produced encouraging and promising results. These electron-donating groups play a crucial role in enhancing the performance of metal-free sensitizers, contributing to advancements in various applications such as solar cells or other light-sensitive technologies [8,9,18,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17]. Intelligently introducing hydrophobic alkyl groups into the sensitizer provides two key advantages: it offers surface protection and helps reduce electron recombination in TiO2 with oxidized electrolyte species [8,9,10,11,12]. This innovative approach depends on manipulating dyes to control their aggregation on the surface of TiO2. This method involves strategically influencing how the dyes come together or disperse on the TiO2 substrate. By regulating the aggregation of dyes in this way, the approach aims to achieve specific and desired outcomes, such as enhanced performance or improved efficiency in applications where TiO2 is utilized, such as in solar cells or photocatalysis. Researchers in the field of DSSCs often focus on improving the regeneration kinetics by designing new dye molecules or optimizing the components of the cell to enhance the overall performance. Enhancing the regeneration kinetics helps to maintain a continuous flow of electrons and holes, leading to higher V OC and J SC, and ultimately improving the overall efficiency of the solar cells. Therefore, the incorporation of additional components to improve dye regeneration, in accordance with the sensitizer’s inherent electronic and steric characteristics, is essential [19,20,21,22,23,24]. The distinctive directionality of halogen bonds has applications in various areas of chemistry and chemical biology [25,26,27,28]. Their efficacy arises from their capability to efficiently facilitate the regeneration of oxidized dyes through non-covalent interactions, wherein halogen atoms in the dye interact with iodide ions in the I−/ I 3 − redox couple. This non-covalent interaction is pivotal for the regeneration process, where the positively charged dye molecules are replenished by acquiring electrons from the iodide ions [29,30,31]. The advantageous impact of including polarizable atoms in sensitizers becomes particularly pronounced in the context of donor–π–acceptor systems, especially when paired with electrolytes containing I−/ I 3 − . This strategic combination enhances the regeneration process within the system, promoting more effective electron transfer. The presence of bromine (−Br) or iodine (−I) contributes to a favorable electronic environment, facilitating improved charge separation and transfer dynamics. Consequently, the overall efficiency of the sensitized solar cell is increased, underscoring the significance of the inclusion of polarizable atoms in optimizing the performance of these systems. Adding a pyridyl unit to the dye’s structure has resulted in a substantial improvement in the regeneration process speed and the overall efficiency of the device. The significance and applications of SQI-Br and SQI-I are of utmost importance. These compounds hold significant potential across various fields, with a particular emphasis on DSSCs due to their unique photovoltaic characteristics. Their ability to improve DSSC efficiency and their compatibility with iodide-based electrolytes, along with 3,4-dicyanopyridine (CDCA) sensitization, position them as promising candidates for advancing third-generation solar energy conversion technology. Furthermore, these compounds show promise in various areas, including organic photodetectors and electrochromic devices, where their inherent properties can be utilized to enhance overall performance and functionality [32,33,34]. This underscores the significance of incorporating functional components that expedite the dye-regeneration process. This acceleration can be achieved either through halogen bonding or by harnessing the σ-hole in dyes containing halogen atoms [33].

The pursuit of enhancing the J SC and overall efficiency of DSSCs is significantly contingent on organic dyes. This dependence arises predominantly from the scarcity of chromophores capable of efficiently capturing photons within the near-infrared (NIR) spectral regions [35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44]. This study is designed to investigate the potential of halogen bonding in D–A–D unsymmetrical squaraine dyes (USQs). By synthesizing and characterizing SQI-Br and SQI-I dyes specifically for use in DSSCs, our goal is to understand how they interact with iodolyte electrolytes and the significant role of CDCA in improving their photovoltaic performance. Furthermore, we aim to clarify how these interactions lead to enhanced efficiency of the DSSC device, thereby enhancing our overall understanding of the interplay between dyes and electrolytes and their implications for future solar technologies.

2 Materials and methods

We synthesized the dyes, SQI-Br and SQI-I, using chemical materials obtained from Sigma-Aldrich, following standard solvent drying procedures. To determine their molecular structures, we employed advanced NMR spectroscopy, capturing precise 1HNMR and 13CNMR spectra with Bruker NMR spectrometers, using CDCl3 as the solvents. A MALDI TOF mass spectrometer was used for dye analyses. UV-visible spectra were meticulously recorded in DMSO within the wavelength range of 200–900 nm, employing a JASCO-V-750 spectrophotometer. Subsequently, we accurately captured absorption spectra using aSPECORD® 210/PLUS spectrophotometer and derived light-harvesting efficiency (LHE) from these data. We used the Edinburgh FS5 spectrofluorometer at room temperature (RT) to perform fluorescence assessment on SQI-Br and SQI-I dyes. The dyes’ oxidation/reduction properties were analyzed using cyclic voltammetry (CV) in a DMSO solution, employing the precise Metrohm Autolab PGSTAT 128N. The photovoltaic performance of fabricated DSSCs, employing various dyes, was evaluated under sunlight conditions (AM 1.5, 100 mW/cm²) utilizing a solar simulator from Dayton Instruments, USA. The measurements were carried out at 25°C, employing a source meter from Keithley (model 2400). For computational analysis, we employed Gaussian 09 software to conduct quantum mechanical evaluations. Ground-state geometry refinement was carried out at the density functional theory (DFT) level with B3LYP/6-311++G(d,p) basis sets, providing the detailed molecular configurations and properties of SQI-Br and SQI-I dyes.

2.1 Synthesis and characterization

2.1.1 Synthesis of compounds (2a, 2b, and 5)

We synthesized compounds 2a, 2b, and 5 following the procedures outlined in the study of Al-horaibi et al. [3].

2.1.2 Synthesis of compound (3a)

In a round bottom flask (50 ml), compound 2a (1 g, 0.00193 mol) and 1-iodododecane (C12H25I) (0.74 g, 0.00251 mol) were dissolved in 20 mL of CH3CN. The solution was then refluxed for 45 h. After refluxing, the mixture was allowed to cool, and the solvent was then removed via reduced pressure. The resulting mixture was washed five times with 4 mL each of pentane (C5H12) to isolate the desired compound, which appeared as a brown-red colored viscous liquid, resulting in a yield of 72%. 1HNMR-CDCl3-400 MHz: δ 0.87–0.92(m, 4CH3, 12H), 1.16–1.28(m, 26CH2, 52H), 1.91–1.95(m, 2CH2, 4H), 2.12–2.15(m, 2CH2, 4H), 4.83(t, CH2, 2H, J = 7.18 Hz), 7.59–7.61(m, 2H), 7.83(m, 1H). 13CNMR-CDCl3: δ 14.1, 23.5, 25.0, 18.5, 23.6, 24.4, 27.8, 29.4, 30.2, 30.3, 30.5, 31.4, 32.8, 34.4, 38.1, 46.2, 51.9, 64.7, 118.1, 125.5, 127.8, 133.9, 141.8, 142.2, 196.7.

2.1.3 Synthesis of compound 3b

In a round bottom flask (50 ml), compound 2b (1 g, 0.00177 mol) and 1-iodododecane (0.68 g, 0.0023 mol) were dissolved in 20 mL of CH3CN. The solution was then refluxed for 45 h. After refluxing, the reaction mixture was allowed to cool, and the solvent was then removed via reduced pressure. The resulting mixture was washed five times with 4 mL each of pentane to isolate the desired compound 3b, which appeared as a brown-red colored viscous liquid, resulting in a yield of 81%. 1HNMR-CDCl3-400 MHz: δ0.86–1.09 (m, 4CH3, 12H), 1.12–1.25(m, 26CH2, 52H), 1.81–1.86(m, 2CH2, 4H), 2.10–2.13(m, 2CH2, 4H), 4.82(t, CH2, 2H, J = 7.21 Hz), 7.81(m, 1H), 7.96–8.01(m, 2H). 13CNMR-CDCl3: δ 14.2, 17.01, 23.5, 23.6, 25.0, 29.4, 30.2, 30.3, 30.5, 32.8, 34.4, 37.8, 38.2, 64.1, 64.7, 97.1, 126.3, 129.8, 133.6, 139.8, 141.9, 196.4.

2.1.4 Synthesis of unsymmetrical (SQI-Br) dye

In a 100 mL round-bottom flask, 1 g of compound 3a (0.00145 mol) and 0.46 g of compound 5 (0.00145 mol) were dissolved in 40 mL of n-butanol/toluene (1:1 V/V). The reaction continued for 23 h in a Dean–Stark apparatus. Subsequently, the mixture was cooled to RT, followed by the removal of the solvents. The mixture was then purified using column chromatography (60–120 mesh) with a solvent mixture of DCM/MeOH in (5:0.51 V/V) to obtain the required SQI-Br dye. The procedure resulted in a yield of 51%. 1HNMR (CDCl3 – 400 MHz): δ0.50(2H, CH2), 0.75(2H, CH2), 0.82–0.89(t, 9H, 3CH3), 1.1–1.19(m, 52H, 26CH2), 1.38–1.44(m, 2H, CH2), 1.84–1.95(m, 8H, 4CH2), 1.96–1.98(m, 2H, CH2), 3.0(2H, CH2), 3.5(s, 3H, CH3), 4.02(2H, CH2), 6.0(s, 1H, ═CH–), 6.16(s, 1H, ═CH–), 6.98–7.0(dd, 2H, J = 8 Hz), 7.27–7.47(ds, 2H, J = 8 Hz), 8.1(s, 1H), 8.13(d, 1H, J = 8 Hz). 13CNMR-CDCl3: δ 14.13, 22.64, 22.72, 27.32, 29.28, 29.37, 29.48, 29.54, 29.63, 31.91, 48.42, 58.68, 59.26, 76.73, 77.05, 77.05, 77.25, 88.32, 108.26, 110.88, 117.54, 123.98, 124.48, 125.61, 125.93, 130.84, 131.18, 131.34, 141.91, 142.04, 147.29, 169.48, 169.73, 170.46, 176.44, 177.94, 182.77. HRMS (m/z): [M + H]+ calculated for C60H89 BrN2O4: 982.286, found, 981.663.

2.1.5 Synthesis of unsymmetrical (SQI-I) dye

In a 100 mL round-bottom flask, compound 3d (1 g, 0.00136 mol) and compound 5 (0.43 g, 0.00136 mol) were dissolved in 20 mL of n-butanol/toluene (1:1 V/V). The reaction continued for 23 h in a Dean–Stark apparatus. Subsequently, the mixture was cooled to RT, followed by the removal of the solvents under reduced pressure. The resulting mixture was then purified using column chromatography (60–120 mesh) with a solvent mixture of DCM/MeOH (5:0.5 V/V) to obtain the required SQI-I dye. The procedure resulted in a yield of 56%. 1HNMR (CDCl3 – ‒400 MHz): δ0.45(2H, CH2), 0.73(2H, CH2), 0.82–0.86(t, 9H, 3CH3), 1.1–1.19(m, 52H, 26CH2), 1.39–1.42(m, 2H, CH2), 1.84–1.94(m, 8H, ═4CH2), 1.96–1.98(m, 2H, CH2), 3.0(2H, CH2), 3.5(s, 3H, CH3), 4.02(2H, CH2), 6.0(s, 1H, ═CH), 6.16(s, 1H, ═CH), 6.78, 7.0(dd, 2H, J = 8 Hz), 7.27, 7.64(ds, 2H, J = 8 Hz), 8.1(s, 1H), 8.13(d, 1H, J = 8 Hz). 13CNMR-CDCl3: δ13.86, 13.88, 22.41, 29.01, 29.16, 29.27, 29.36, 29.61, 31.65, 39.71, 47.87, 48.18, 48.28, 49.28, 59.13, 76.46, 76.78, 77.10, 87.80, 88.15, 107.76, 109.61, 122.19, 123.68, 124.46, 127.60, 129.35, 130.91, 141.51, 143.63, 147.26, 168.06, 170.26, 170.98, 175.80, 182.03. HRMS (m/z): [M + H]+ calculated for C60H89IN2O4: 1029.2865; found, 1029.701.

2.2 DSSCs fabrication protocol

The manufacturing process for DSSCs commences with the utilization of an FTO glass substrate characterized by a sheet resistance ranging from 8 to 10 Ω/sq. This substrate undergoes a rigorous two-stage cleaning procedure. Initially, it is cleansed with a 2% Mucasol solution in de-ionized water (DI-H2O), followed by isopropanol (C3H8O), aided by ultrasonic agitation. After this cleansing process, the FTO substrate is immersed in a 30 mM TiCl4 solution, maintained at 75°C for 20 min. Following this treatment, it is rinsed with DI-H2O, then with EtOH, and subsequently subjected to drying at 120°C for 10 min. A paste of TiO2 NPs, characterized by particle dimensions ≤20 nm, is applied to the conductive side of the FTO substrate using the doctor-blade method. Following application, this layer is allowed to air-dry for 20 min before undergoing a thermal treatment at 120°C for an additional 30 min. Subsequently, a layer of the TiO2 paste is applied, followed by exposure to a 15 min thermal treatment at 120°C. A structured sintering process ensues, involving a gradual increase in the substrate temperature to ultimately reach 500°C. Each of these temperature increments is maintained for a period of 15 min. Post-sintering, the substrate is treated once again with 40 mM TiCl4 at 70°C for 30 min, followed by rinsing and an additional 30-min sintering step at 500°C. The ultimate substrate, showcasing a surface area of TiO2NPs amounting to 0.23 cm², is submerged in a solution containing SQI-Br and SQI-I for a period of 15 h under dark conditions. The preparation of the counter electrode involved dissolving a mixture of 1 g of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and 0.3 g of H2PtCl6 in 2 ml of DI-H2O with stirring. The addition of a NaBH4 solution resulted in a change in the mixture’s color from orange to black. Following this, the PVP-coated counter electrode was placed in a furnace at 500°C for 30 min. The electrolyte employed is a blend of Iodolyte Z-50 and Z-100, procured from Solaronix. The effective cell area is defined as 0.36 cm² using a black mask. The effectiveness of the SQI-Br and SQI-I dyes is evaluated under standard solar simulator conditions.

3 Results and analysis

3.1 Synthesis of SQI-Br and SQI-I dyes

The halogen-functionalized USQs, known as SQI-Br and SQI-I, were synthesized using a specific procedure. This process is primarily based on the condensation of customized indolium salts with 3,4-dibutoxy-3-cyclobutene-1,2-dione. The synthesis process commenced by employing 1-(4-bromophenyl)-2-chlorohydrazine and 1-chloro-2-(4-iodophenyl) hydrazine, known as composites 1a and 1b. These compounds underwent a reaction with methyl isopropyl ketone, resulting in the generation of indoline compounds with halogen substitutions, denoted 2a and 2b. Subsequently, these newly formed indoline derivatives underwent a reaction with 1-iodododecane (C12H25I), leading to the formation of indolium salts as intermediate compounds, identified as compounds 3a and 3b. Following this, intermediate compounds 3a and 3b underwent a reaction with a composite dye known as compound 5, under carefully controlled azeotropic conditions to remove water. This sequence of reactions in the synthesis of USQ featuring halogen functionalities, specifically SQI-Br and SQI-I, as shown in Figure 1. The preparation procedure yielded significant results, ranging from 43 to 56%. After synthesis, the resulting SQI-Br and SQI-I presented as deep blue dyes and demonstrated solubility in various solvents, such as EtOH, MeOH, and CHCl3. Comprehensive characterization of these dyes was accomplished using 1HNMR and 13CNMR techniques, as well as mass spectrometry.

Figure 1 Synthesis process for SQI-Br and SQI-I dyes.
Figure 1

Synthesis process for SQI-Br and SQI-I dyes.

3.2 Assessment of photophysical and electrochemical characteristics

A comprehensive examination of the photo-electrochemical properties of USQs was performed in EtOH solution. In the context of unsymmetrical squaraine (SQI-Br and SQI-I) dyes based on indoline donors, their UV-visible absorption revealed a distinct peak with an absorptivity surpassing 105 M−1 cm−1, located at approximately 644 and 647 nm. This prominent peak is attributed to the π–π* electronic transition and agrees with a vibronic side peak detected at a higher-energy position around 597 nm. Figure 2 elucidates the normalized absorption and emission spectra for SQI-Br and SQI-I dyes, providing a detailed representation of the characteristic electronic transitions and emission properties of these compounds. The normalization of the spectra allows for a clear comparison of the relative intensities and positions of the absorption and emission peaks, offering insights into the molecular structure and electronic configurations of SQI-Br and SQI-I. These spectra are essential for understanding the optical behavior of the dyes, particularly in the context of their application in various optoelectronic devices, such as DSSCs or light-emitting devices. Evidently, a discernible shift toward longer wavelengths is apparent in the absorption bands of these dyes, commonly denoted a ‘redshift.’ This phenomenon is likewise observed in the emission spectra, with SQI-Br exhibiting emission at 655 nm and SQI-I at 658 nm. The molar extinction coefficients for USQ dyes are situated within the range of (2.2–3.1) × 105 M−1 cm−1.

Figure 2 The normalized UV-visible and emission spectra of SQI-Br and SQI-I in EtOH solution.
Figure 2

The normalized UV-visible and emission spectra of SQI-Br and SQI-I in EtOH solution.

UV-Visible spectroscopy was used on TiO2 substrates to assess the potential for aggregation of SQI-Br and SQI-I dyes and to comprehend their efficiency in capturing photonic energy. The electrodes were submerged for a duration of 13 h in a 0.1 mM dye solution in EtOH, as depicted in Figure 3 and further detailed in Table 1. It is worth noting that both SQI-Br and SQI-I dyes displayed charge transfer peaks, showcasing a shift toward longer wavelengths, notably at 647 and 652 nm, respectively. Intriguingly, with the introduction of the optically transparent co-adsorbent, CDCA, there was a distinct observation of competitive adsorption of CDCA at the dye interface.

Figure 3 UV-visible spectra of SQI-Br and SQI-I on a TiO2NP electrode.
Figure 3

UV-visible spectra of SQI-Br and SQI-I on a TiO2NP electrode.

Table 1

Photo-electrochemical properties of SQI-Br and SQI-I dyes

Dye λ maxa (nm)a Ɛmax (M−1 cm−1)b λ em (nm)a λ max TiO2 (nm) LHE Δλ (60%) (nm) E oxd c (V vs NHE) E g (eV)b HOMO (eV)c LUMO (eV)c HOMO (eV)d LUMO (eV)d E g (eV)d
SQI-Br 644 2.2 × 105 655 647 208 0.81 1.93 −6.00 −4.07 −5.13 −3.12 2.01
SQI-I 647 3.1 × 105 658 652 213 0.83 1.94 −6.02 −4.08 −5.14 −3.15 1.99

HOMO, highest occupied molecular orbital; LHE, light-harvesting efficiency; LUMO, lowest unoccupied molecular orbital.

aMeasured in DMSO solution. aThe band gap (E g) was determined by analyzing absorption (λ max) and emission spectra (λ em).

bThe oxidation potential (E ox) was measured in a solution of 0.1 M TBAPF6 in DMSO, using a three-electrode setup that included a platinum counter electrode (Pt), a silver/silver chloride reference electrode (Ag/AgCl), and a platinum working electrode. Calibration was carried out with the ferrocene/ferrocenium (Fc/Fc+).

cComputational calculations were performed using the Gaussian 09 software suite.

The ability of dyes in DSSCs to capture light is assessed using LHE. The LHE data for SQI-Br and SQI-I dyes can be found in Figure 4 and Table 1. Notably, when these dyes are applied to thin films of TiO2, they exhibit a strong capacity to absorb light within the 477–750 nm wavelength range. This capacity is further emphasized by the widening of the absorption spectrum, with extensions of 208 nm for SQI-Br and 213 nm for SQI-I, all while maintaining an LHE of 60%. This indicates a strong interaction of these dye molecules with the TiO2 surface. Table 1 provides more detailed information about the properties of SQI-Br and SQI-I. Both dyes have similar emission wavelengths, with 655 nm for SQI-Br and 658 nm for SQI-I. When combined with TiO2, their primary absorption peaks are located at 647 and 652 nm, respectively. Both dyes shift their LHE wavelengths by 208 and 213 nm at 60% efficiency. Their oxidation potentials are closely aligned, with a slight increase for SQI-I. Their energy gaps are nearly identical, as are the energy levels of their highest occupied molecular orbitals (HOMOs) and lowest unoccupied molecular orbitals (LUMOs). These data reveal subtle changes in the dye properties when different halogens are utilized. These variations could have an impact on how effectively the dyes perform in DSSCs. Therefore, adjusting the halogens in the dyes might lead to an enhancement in their performance in solar cells.

Figure 4 LHE for SQI-Br and SQI-I dyes on the TiO2 electrode, represented as LHE = 1–10−A .
Figure 4

LHE for SQI-Br and SQI-I dyes on the TiO2 electrode, represented as LHE = 1–10−A .

CV plays a crucial role in assessing the electrochemical characteristics of squaraine dyes. This is of utmost importance for their utilization in various fields, including DSSCs, organic photodetectors, and electrochromic devices. The information obtained by CV is instrumental in fine-tuning the formulation and performance of materials based on squaraine dyes, enabling their application in a diverse range of domains in chemistry and materials science. In this context, we applied CV to explore the electrochemical properties of SQI-Br and SQI-I, two dyes dissolved in a solvent system containing a 0.1 M solution of tetra-n-butylammonium hexafluorophosphate (TBAPF6) in DMSO solution. This analysis was performed at a scan rate of 25 mV/s, spanning a potential range from −0.1 to 1.2 V, as depicted in Figure 5. The evaluation of the photo-electrochemical characteristics of SQI-Br and SQI-I is given in Table 1. By analyzing the CV curve, we determined the oxidation potentials (E oxd) for SQI-Br and SQI-I, which were found to be 0.80 and 0.82 V, respectively. These values denote the absolute energy levels of −6.0 and −6.02 eV, offering insights into the precise energy positions associated with the analyzed system. To enhance our understanding and explore the energy levels of the HOMO, we used equations (1) and (2). These equations integrate the onset oxidation potentials of SQI-Br and SQI-I, comparing them to the oxidation potential of ferrocene while utilizing the Ag/AgCl reference electrode as a reference point. A crucial aspect of this method is to establish a connection between the HOMO energy level of ferrocene and vacuum, as elucidated in equation (1). This comprehensive approach not only enhances our understanding of the electrochemical properties of these dyes but also underscores the broad utility of CV in the realm of materials science and analytical chemistry [2]:

(1) E HOMO = − E OX Onest − E FC FC + Onest − 4.8 .

Figure 5 CVs of SQI-Br and SQI-I dyes conducted using a 1 mM dye solution in DMSO, with a 0.1 M Bu4NPF6 supporting electrolyte. An Ag/AgCl reference electrode was employed, along with an internal standard (Fc/Fc+), and the scan rate was set at 25 mV/s.
Figure 5

CVs of SQI-Br and SQI-I dyes conducted using a 1 mM dye solution in DMSO, with a 0.1 M Bu4NPF6 supporting electrolyte. An Ag/AgCl reference electrode was employed, along with an internal standard (Fc/Fc+), and the scan rate was set at 25 mV/s.

The energy values for the LUMO were determined using equation (2):

(2) LUMO = HOMO − E g .

Furthermore, it is worth noting that the E ox values, which represent HOMO energy levels for SQI-Br and SQI-I, exhibited substantial positive deviations in comparison to the redox potential of the I−/ I 3 − electrolyte. This discrepancy emphasizes the impressive capability of these dyes to efficiently donate electrons, making them effective electron donors in electrochemical processes. On the other hand, the E red values, representing the LUMO energy levels, exhibited notably negative tendencies for SQI-Br and SQI-I. This observation confirms their ability to inject electrons into the conduction band of TiO2, showcasing their potential as materials suited for applications that require electron injection and transport, such as in photovoltaic devices.

3.3 DFT computations

DFT computations enable researchers to explore the electronic structure of squaraine dyes in their ground state, including the energy levels of their HOMO and LUMO. These energy levels play a crucial role in determining the optical and electrochemical properties of squaraine dyes, making DFT a valuable tool for customizing and optimizing these dyes for DSSC applications. Moreover, by simulating how squaraine dyes behave in different solvents or under varying conditions, DFT computations can offer insights into their interactions with the surrounding environment. This knowledge is essential for the design and engineering of squaraine-based materials with improved performance and efficiency. In this study, we utilized computational methods based on DFT to investigate the molecular orbital structures of the target system when it was placed in a dichloromethane (DCM). To achieve this, we performed calculations using the B3LYP/6-311++G(d, p) basis sets [45,46,47,48,49].

Our analysis showed that the underlying electronic configurations, specifically the HOMO and LUMO, underwent minimal alterations with the introduction of halogen elements. This observation is of paramount significance, as it expedites the swift transfer of electrons from SQI-Br and SQI-I to the conductive TiO2 layer upon exposure to light. Simultaneously, the preservation of charge separation subsequent to this electron transfer process is of utmost importance. To optimize this intricate mechanism, it is imperative that the HOMO be strategically positioned at a sufficient distance from TiO2 to prevent any reverse electron flow, while ensuring the LUMO’s proximity to the TiO2 layer, thereby promoting efficient electron movement away from the HOMO. Furthermore, our pursuit of knowledge led to further investigations aimed at gaining deeper insights into the energy levels of the HOMO and LUMO for SQI-Br and SQI-I. The results of these investigations are meticulously presented in Figure 6 and comprehensively detailed in Table 1. An insightful comparison between the theoretically predicted HOMO values and the experimental data underscores a substantial concordance, affirming the reliability of the theoretical predictions. The judicious selection of suitable functionals and basis sets paves the way for the development of innovative sensitizers. The integration of USQs into DSSCs is motivated by a primary goal: to augment the efficiency of converting incident light into electrical power. Remarkably, SQI-Br and SQI-I surpass conventional dyes owing to their superior molar extinction coefficients, notably boosting their capacity to absorb light. Their enhanced stability, in comparison to standard dyes, emphasizes their suitability for integration into DSSCs. Concerning their electronic configurations, SQI-Br and SQI-I dyes reveal HOMO distributions primarily concentrated within the polymethine structure, with relatively lower electron densities within the indoline donor regions. In contrast, the LUMO is predominantly distributed across the carboxylic acid-donor regions, aligning seamlessly with the polymethine structure. This strategic configuration ensures the efficient transfer of charge following photo-excitation. When in tandem with TiO2, an increased charge density across the LUMOs is to be expected, contributing to the enhancement of dye stability. Furthermore, the inclusion of −COOH groups strategically provides optimal sites for the seamless transfer of electrons from SQI-Br and SQI-I to the TiO2. Ensuring the efficient transfer of charge between the excited dye molecule and the abundant D-orbitals of the semiconductor necessitates a substantial electron density at the anchoring site of the dye. This strategic arrangement enables the quick movement of electrons from the LUMOs of the SQI-Br and SQI-I to the accessible CB of TiO2. This is clearly illustrated by the electron density distribution into the LUMOs of SQI-Br and SQI-I, as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6 The density of the HOMO and LUMO, as well as the HOMO−1 and LUMO + 1 frontier molecular orbitals of SQI-Br and SQI-I at the B3LYP/6-311 ++G(d,p) level of theory.
Figure 6

The density of the HOMO and LUMO, as well as the HOMO−1 and LUMO + 1 frontier molecular orbitals of SQI-Br and SQI-I at the B3LYP/6-311 ++G(d,p) level of theory.

DFT investigations on the oxidized SQI-Br and SQI-I dyes revealed the influence of halogen atoms at the HOMO-1 level. Additionally, the molecular electrostatic potential indicates the presence of a σ-hole in the oxidized dye. The significantly lower HOMO energy levels of SQI-Br and SQI-I at −5.13 and −5.14 eV, respectively, in comparison to the redox potential of I− 3/I− (−4.8 eV), play a crucial role in enhancing the regeneration of dye in DSSCs. This characteristic contributes to the efficient cycling of the dye, a crucial aspect for sustained performance in DSSCs. This energy level alignment is critical for efficient electron transfer and contributes to improved photovoltaic performance. In a solvent, SQI-Br and SQI-I exhibit HOMO values of −3.12 and −3.15 eV, respectively (Table 1). Of significant importance is the surpassing of the energy threshold of the TiO2 conduction band (CB) by the LUMO values of SQI-Br and SQI-I. This accomplishment facilitates the efficient transfer of electrons from SQI-Br and SQI-I to the TiO2, affirming their favorable alignment with the TiO2 conduction path and the I− 3/I− redox potential. These outcomes validate that SQI-Br and SQI-I meet the requisite conditions for the optimal functioning of DSSCs [50]. According to a previous study, it is established that the redox potential of I− 3/I− = −4.00 eV, and the conduction band (CB) energy level of TiO2 = −4.90 eV. Figure 7 illustrates that the LUMO energy levels of all SQI-Br and SQI-I dyes are positioned above the energy thresholds of TiO2’s CB. This strategic arrangement ensures efficient electron transfer subsequent to light absorption. Furthermore, the relatively conservative HOMO energy levels of the dyes, in comparison to the redox potential of I− 3/I−, facilitate the swift regeneration of oxidized SQI-Br and SQI-I after the electron transfer [3].

Figure 7 Energy band gap (E g) diagram for SQI-Br and SQI-I, calculated using the B3LYP computational method in combination with the 6-311++G (p, d) basis set.
Figure 7

Energy band gap (E g) diagram for SQI-Br and SQI-I, calculated using the B3LYP computational method in combination with the 6-311++G (p, d) basis set.

3.4 Elucidation of photovoltaic traits in halogen-infused squaraines (SQI-Br and SQI-I) dyes

A comprehensive investigation was carried out to assess the photovoltaic properties of halogen-incorporated dyes, SQI-Br and SQI-I. This study employed a dual iodolyte electrolyte system (I−/ I 3 − ) and involved a meticulous optimization process with different concentrations of CDCA. Demonstrating remarkable photovoltaic performance, the USQs are emerging as formidable contenders in the realm of NIR-DSSCs [51,52,53,54,55,56,57]. These individual dyes exhibit strong light-absorbing properties in the NIR range, enabling them to capture photons that are typically out of reach for conventional DSSCs. Facilitating the capture of photons usually inaccessible to conventional DSSCs, these USQ dyes assert their prowess in the field of NIR-DSSCs, showcasing remarkable photovoltaic performance. The designated SQI-Br and SQI-I enhance this phenomenon due to their high molar extinction coefficient, which increases the efficiency of photon absorption by these cells. However, integrating USQs into NIR-DSSCs comes with complexities. Reaching peak performance involves overcoming challenges such as identifying appropriate electron pathways and improving the stability of the solar cells. Consequently, diligent academic research and creative strategies are essential to fully exploit the potential of USQs in the NIR-DSSC framework. DSSC structures were carefully assembled, taking advantage of two different iodolyte concentrations. To elucidate further, the I 3 − molarities were meticulously chosen: 50 mM for the Z-50 composition and 100 mM for its Z-100 counterpart. Table 2 provides an in-depth delineation of photovoltaic attributes, specifically, V OC, J SC, ff, and η. Employing iodolyte Z-50 with CDCA in the DSSC fabrication yielded an inferior J SC and efficacy for SQI-Br when juxtaposed against its hydrogen-infused analogue, SQI-I. Opting for iodolyte Z-100 enriched the J SC while concurrently attenuating the V OC across dyes bereft of CDCA. The peak efficiency reached 7.09% for SQI-Br, in stark contrast to 7.82% for SQI-I. Devices encompassing a trifold of CDCA demonstrated an increase in all parameters for both SQI-Br and SQI-I dyes across Z-50 and Z-100 iodolyte milieu compared to their CDCA-exempt counterparts. Within these electrolytic frameworks, SQI-I, unsensitized by CDCA, showcased superior DSSC efficacy against SQI-Br. Moreover, tripartite CDCA’s amalgamation with SQI-I manifested a peak efficiency vis-a-vis other SQI-I iterations across both iodolyte blueprints. The peak efficiency of DSSCs was achieved at 7.82% with SQI-I in the Z-100 environment, with a trifold of CDCA, as opposed to a mere 7.09% for SQI-Br. SQI-Br and SQI-I exhibited commendable IPCE trajectories across the visible-NIR spectrum. The pinnacle of the DSSC device performance has been realized with an efficiency of 7.81%, characterized by a V OC of 0.694 V and a J SC of 15.30 mA/cm² when utilizing the SQI-I dye in conjunction with the iodolyte Z-150 electrolyte. This noteworthy efficiency was achieved when the SQI-I dye was sensitized employing 3 equivalents of CDCA. The elevation of IPCE within the Z-100 matrix facilitated an increased J SC compared to the Z-50 analogue. Furthermore, an increase in the I− 3/I− concentration was found to enhance the formation of stronger halogen bonds between the oxidized states of SQI-Br and SQI-I and iodide ions at the TiO2 interface. This increase in the speed of dye regeneration led to an improved J SC in DSSCs. The relatively inferior performance of SQI-Br in DSSCs when compared to SQI-I can be ascribed to the electronic influences exerted by the bromide atom attached to the indoline fragment. Figure 8 depicts the variations in V OC and J SC for both SQI-Br and SQI-I in solutions, denoted Z-50 and Z-100, both in the absence and presence of CDCA. The noticeable increase in short-circuit current production with Z-100, especially in the case of SQI-I, underscores the interaction between the I− 3/I− and the oxidized halogen component of SQI-I. This emphasizes the significance of both CDCA and the choice of iodide-based electrolyte on photovoltaic characteristics, with the SQI-I dye exhibiting superior performance, particularly in the Z-100 solution enriched with 0.3 mM CDCA.

Table 2

Comparative analysis of the photo-electrochemical properties of SQI-Br and SQI-I, with (SQI-F and SQI-Cl)a in the presence and absence of CDCA, under two conditions labeled (Z-50 and Z-100)b

Dyes CDCA (mM) J sc (mA/cm2)b (Z-50/Z-100) V oc (V)b (Z-50/Z-100) FFb (Z-50/Z-100) ƞ (%)b (Z-50/Z-100)
SQI-Br 0 11.64/12.46 0.717/0.689 0.73/0.73 5.92/6.12
SQI-I 0 12.03/13.44 0.705/0.678 0.72/0.73 5.92/6.46
SQI-Br 0.3 13.23/13.85 0.717/0.692 0.76/0.76 7.01/7.09
SQI-I 0.3 14.21/15.30 0.712/0.692 0.75/0.76 7.37/7.82
SQI-Fa 0.3 12.22/13.67 0.723/0.694 0.75/0.73 6.46/6.74
SQI-Cla 0.3 11.20/12.09 0.707/0.680 0.72/0.71 5.55/5.64

aSQI-F and SQI-Cl are comparative reference compounds mentioned in the study of Al-horaibi et al. [3].

bThe concentrations of I 3 − were set at 50 and 100 mM.

Figure 8 (a), (b) Detailed analysis of the current–voltage (I–V) characteristics and (c), (d) incident photon-to-current efficiency (IPCE) for both SQI-Br and SQI-I under two conditions (denoted Z-50 and Z-100).
Figure 8

(a), (b) Detailed analysis of the current–voltage (I–V) characteristics and (c), (d) incident photon-to-current efficiency (IPCE) for both SQI-Br and SQI-I under two conditions (denoted Z-50 and Z-100).

3.5 Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS): Probing into SQI-Br and SQI-I dynamics

Leveraging the EIS technique, this section delves into pivotal attributes like charge recombination resistance (R ct), chemical capacitance (C μ), and the electron lifetime (τ) at the juxtaposition of dye-TiO2 and the electrolyte. Our scrutiny was centered on halogen-imbued SQI-Br and SQI-I dyes, and the evaluation spanned across non-lit conditions with an array of applied potentials, utilizing iodolyte versions Z-50 and Z-100. An exhaustive exposition of the EIS findings, particularly in scenarios augmented with CDCA, is shown in Figure 9 and Table 3. Bearing in mind the analogous steric configurations of SQI-Br and SQI-I dyes, a pronounced disparity was not observed in the R ct, C μ, and τ values, irrespective of the iodolyte type (Z-50 or Z-100) employed during device fabrication, in synergy with CDCA. Notably, peak values of R ct = 7.14 Ω, C μ = 0.447 mF, and τ = 3.18 ms resonated with the SQI-I dye when amalgamated with the Z-100 iodolyte, supported by CDCA. This might underscore its superior efficaciousness in device execution relative to the SQI-Br dye (Table 3). Intriguing deviation surfaces upon discerning that elevated R ct values procured from EIS are not congruent with the attenuated V OC within the DSSC devise under the protection of the Z-100 electrolyte. The infusion of a distinct functional moiety within the dye’s molecular structure might modulate inherent traits, exemplified by the dipole moment. Such alterations might reverberate through the TiO2 conduction band orientation, inducing fluctuations in the V OC readings of the apparatus, even amidst a conspicuous R ct augmentation as evinced by the EIS dataset.

Figure 9 Nyquist plots, which represent the impedance behavior, of SQI-Br and SQI-I in the presence and absence of CDCA when combined with iodide electrolytes Z-50 and Z-100.
Figure 9

Nyquist plots, which represent the impedance behavior, of SQI-Br and SQI-I in the presence and absence of CDCA when combined with iodide electrolytes Z-50 and Z-100.

Table 3

Results of EIS analysis conducted under dark conditions for SQI-Br and SQI-I, utilizing (Z-50 and Z-100)a electrolytes

Dye R ct (Ω)a (Z-50/Z-100) C μ (mF)a (Z-50/Z-100) τ (ms)a (Z-50/Z-100)
SQI-Br 6.14/5.72 0.394/0.393 2.41/2.24
SQI-Br (CDCA 1:3) 6.29/6.60 0.434/0.452 2.72/2.98
SQI-I 6.12/6.25 0.415/0.420 2.53/2.62
SQI-I (CDCA 1:3) 7.05/7.14 0.436/0.447 3.07/3.18

aThe concentrations of I 3 − were set at 50 and 100 mM.

4 Conclusion

In our effort to harness the benefits of halogen bonding to enhance the J SC and overall efficiency of DSSCs, we conducted a thorough synthesis and characterization of SQI-Br and SQI-I. These dyes are derived from unsymmetrical squaraine structures with strategically incorporated halogen atoms, precisely tailored for use in DSSCs. Devices that integrated these dyes, along with iodide-based electrolytes, referred to as Z-50 and Z-100, underwent further refinement through the inclusion of chenodesoxycholic acid (CDCA). Notably, in the absence of CDCA, both SQI-Br and SQI-I exhibited a wide range of photovoltaic properties when used with the previously mentioned electrolytes. However, after sensitization with 3 equivalents of CDCA, these dyes demonstrated markedly enhanced photovoltaic characteristics, surpassing the performance of their unsensitized counterparts. Importantly, the SQI-I dye emerged as the top performer in terms of the DSSC device efficiency, achieving an impressive 7.81% efficiency, along with a V OC of 0.694 V and a J SC of 15.30 mA/cm². This outstanding performance was achieved in conjunction with the Z-100 electrolyte and sensitization with three equivalents of CDCA. The SQI-I dye, when combined with the Z-100 electrolyte and enhanced with CDCA, exhibited distinctive electrochemical attributes, including R ct = 7.14 Ω, a C μ = 0.447 mF, and a τ = 3.18 ms. These findings underscore the potential of SQI-I to elevate the performance of DSSCs through enhanced electrochemical properties. The increased efficiency and current density (J SC) observed in the Z-100 electrolyte can be ascribed to the presence of a σ-hole, which represents a region of positive electrostatic potential. This σ-hole plays a crucial role in facilitating an enhanced interaction between the electrolyte and the dye molecules at the interface with the titanium dioxide (TiO2) layer. This, in turn, accelerates the dye regeneration mechanism, contributing to the overall enhanced performance of DSSCs.

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to extend their sincere appreciation to the Researchers Supporting Project number (RSPD2023R703), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  1. Funding information: The authors would like to extend their sincere appreciation to the Researchers Supporting Project number (RSPD2023R703), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  2. Author contributions: S.A.A.-H.: conceptualization, writing – review & editing, methodology; A.-B.A-O.: methodology, writing – original draft; M. A.: resources, data curation; F. H. A.-O.: investigation, formal analysis; A. A-S.: investigation, visualization; J. Q.G.: resources, software; A.A.-A.: validation, resource; F.A.S.: formal analysis, visualization; S.A.Y.: visualization, investigation; and W.S.S.: data curation, funding acquisition. All authors have reviewed the published version of the manuscript and given their approval.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

  4. Ethical approval: The conducted research is not related to either human or animal use.

  5. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2023-09-28
Revised: 2023-11-19
Accepted: 2023-11-20
Published Online: 2023-12-11

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2023-0168
Keywords for this article
DSSCs; unsymmetrical squaraine dyes; CDCA; photovoltaic efficiency; DFT methods
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Characteristics, source, and health risk assessment of aerosol polyaromatic hydrocarbons in the rural and urban regions of western Saudi Arabia
  2. Regular Articles
  3. A network-based correlation research between element electronegativity and node importance
  4. Pomegranate attenuates kidney injury in cyclosporine-induced nephrotoxicity in rats by suppressing oxidative stress
  5. Ab initio study of fundamental properties of XInO3 (X = K, Rb, Cs) perovskites
  6. Responses of feldspathic sandstone and sand-reconstituted soil C and N to freeze–thaw cycles
  7. Robust fractional control based on high gain observers design (RNFC) for a Spirulina maxima culture interfaced with an advanced oxidation process
  8. Study on arsenic speciation and redistribution mechanism in Lonicera japonica plants via synchrotron techniques
  9. Optimization of machining Nilo 36 superalloy parameters in turning operation
  10. Vacuum impregnation pre-treatment: A novel method for incorporating mono- and divalent cations into potato strips to reduce the acrylamide formation in French fries
  11. Characterization of effective constituents in Acanthopanax senticosus fruit for blood deficiency syndrome based on the chinmedomics strategy
  12. Comparative analysis of the metabolites in Pinellia ternata from two producing regions using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization–tandem mass spectrometry
  13. The assessment of environmental parameter along the desalination plants in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
  14. Effects of harpin and carbendazim on antioxidant accumulation in young jujube leaves
  15. The effects of in ovo injected with sodium borate on hatching performance and small intestine morphology in broiler chicks
  16. Optimization of cutting forces and surface roughness via ANOVA and grey relational analysis in machining of In718
  17. Essential oils of Origanum compactum Benth: Chemical characterization, in vitro, in silico, antioxidant, and antibacterial activities
  18. Translocation of tungsten(vi) oxide/gadolinium(iii) fluoride in tellurite glasses towards improvement of gamma-ray attenuation features in high-density glass shields
  19. Mechanical properties, elastic moduli, and gamma ray attenuation competencies of some TeO2–WO3–GdF3 glasses: Tailoring WO3–GdF3 substitution toward optimum behavioral state range
  20. Comparison between the CIDR or sponge with hormone injection to induce estrus synchronization for twining and sex preselection in Naimi sheep
  21. Exergetic performance analyses of three different cogeneration plants
  22. Psoralea corylifolia (babchi) seeds enhance proliferation of normal human cultured melanocytes: GC–MS profiling and biological investigation
  23. A novel electrochemical micro-titration method for quantitative evaluation of the DPPH free radical scavenging capacity of caffeic acid
  24. Comparative study between supported bimetallic catalysts for nitrate remediation in water
  25. Persicaline, an alkaloid from Salvadora persica, inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis and cell-cycle arrest in MCF-7 cells
  26. Determination of nicotine content in locally produced smokeless tobacco (Shammah) samples from Jazan region of Saudi Arabia using a convenient HPLC-MS/MS method
  27. Changes in oxidative stress markers in pediatric burn injury over a 1-week period
  28. Integrated geophysical techniques applied for petroleum basins structural characterization in the central part of the Western Desert, Egypt
  29. The impact of chemical modifications on gamma-ray attenuation properties of some WO3-reinforced tellurite glasses
  30. Microwave and Cs+-assisted chemo selective reaction protocol for synthesizing 2-styryl quinoline biorelevant molecules
  31. Structural, physical, and radiation absorption properties of a significant nuclear power plant component: A comparison between REX-734 and 316L SS austenitic stainless steels
  32. Effect of Moringa oleifera on serum YKL-40 level: In vivo rat periodontitis model
  33. Investigating the impact of CO2 emissions on the COVID-19 pandemic by generalized linear mixed model approach with inverse Gaussian and gamma distributions
  34. Influence of WO3 content on gamma rays attenuation characteristics of phosphate glasses at low energy range
  35. Study on CO2 absorption performance of ternary DES formed based on DEA as promoting factor
  36. Performance analyses of detonation engine cogeneration cycles
  37. Sterols from Centaurea pumilio L. with cell proliferative activity: In vitro and in silico studies
  38. Untargeted metabolomics revealing changes in aroma substances in flue-cured tobacco
  39. Effect of pumpkin enriched with calcium lactate on iron status in an animal model of postmenopausal osteoporosis
  40. Energy consumption, mechanical and metallographic properties of cryogenically treated tool steels
  41. Optimization of ultra-high pressure-assisted extraction of total phenols from Eucommia ulmoides leaves by response surface methodology
  42. Harpin enhances antioxidant nutrient accumulation and decreases enzymatic browning in stored soybean sprouts
  43. Physicochemical and biological properties of carvacrol
  44. Radix puerariae in the treatment of diabetic nephropathy: A network pharmacology analysis and experimental validation
  45. Anti-Alzheimer, antioxidants, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase effects of Taverniera glabra mediated ZnO and Fe2O3 nanoparticles in alloxan-induced diabetic rats
  46. Experimental study on photocatalytic CO2 reduction performance of ZnS/CdS-TiO2 nanotube array thin films
  47. Epoxy-reinforced heavy metal oxides for gamma ray shielding purposes
  48. Black mulberry (Morus nigra L.) fruits: As a medicinal plant rich in human health-promoting compounds
  49. Promising antioxidant and antimicrobial effects of essential oils extracted from fruits of Juniperus thurifera: In vitro and in silico investigations
  50. Chloramine-T-induced oxidation of Rizatriptan Benzoate: An integral chemical and spectroscopic study of products, mechanisms and kinetics
  51. Study on antioxidant and antimicrobial potential of chemically profiled essential oils extracted from Juniperus phoenicea (L.) by use of in vitro and in silico approaches
  52. Screening and characterization of fungal taxol-producing endophytic fungi for evaluation of antimicrobial and anticancer activities
  53. Mineral composition, principal polyphenolic components, and evaluation of the anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antioxidant properties of Cytisus villosus Pourr leaf extracts
  54. In vitro antiproliferative efficacy of Annona muricata seed and fruit extracts on several cancer cell lines
  55. An experimental study for chemical characterization of artificial anterior cruciate ligament with coated chitosan as biomaterial
  56. Prevalence of residual risks of the transfusion-transmitted infections in Riyadh hospitals: A two-year retrospective study
  57. Computational and experimental investigation of antibacterial and antifungal properties of Nicotiana tabacum extracts
  58. Reinforcement of cementitious mortars with hemp fibers and shives
  59. X-ray shielding properties of bismuth-borate glass doped with rare earth ions
  60. Green supported silver nanoparticles over modified reduced graphene oxide: Investigation of its antioxidant and anti-ovarian cancer effects
  61. Orthogonal synthesis of a versatile building block for dual functionalization of targeting vectors
  62. Thymbra spicata leaf extract driven biogenic synthesis of Au/Fe3O4 nanocomposite and its bio-application in the treatment of different types of leukemia
  63. The role of Ag2O incorporation in nuclear radiation shielding behaviors of the Li2O–Pb3O4–SiO2 glass system: A multi-step characterization study
  64. A stimuli-responsive in situ spray hydrogel co-loaded with naringenin and gentamicin for chronic wounds
  65. Assessment of the impact of γ-irradiation on the piperine content and microbial quality of black pepper
  66. Antioxidant, sensory, and functional properties of low-alcoholic IPA beer with Pinus sylvestris L. shoots addition fermented using unconventional yeast
  67. Screening and optimization of extracellular pectinase produced by Bacillus thuringiensis SH7
  68. Determination of polyphenols in Chinese jujube using ultra-performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry
  69. Synergistic effects of harpin and NaCl in determining soybean sprout quality under non-sterile conditions
  70. Field evaluation of different eco-friendly alternative control methods against Panonychus citri [Acari: Tetranychidae] spider mite and its predators in citrus orchards
  71. Exploring the antimicrobial potential of biologically synthesized zero valent iron nanoparticles
  72. NaCl regulates goldfish growth and survival at three food supply levels under hypoxia
  73. An exploration of the physical, optical, mechanical, and radiation shielding properties of PbO–MgO–ZnO–B2O3 glasses
  74. A novel statistical modeling of air pollution and the COVID-19 pandemic mortality data by Poisson, geometric, and negative binomial regression models with fixed and random effects
  75. Treatment activity of the injectable hydrogels loaded with dexamethasone In(iii) complex on glioma by inhibiting the VEGF signaling pathway
  76. An alternative approach for the excess lifetime cancer risk and prediction of radiological parameters
  77. Panax ginseng leaf aqueous extract mediated green synthesis of AgNPs under ultrasound condition and investigation of its anti-lung adenocarcinoma effects
  78. Study of hydrolysis and production of instant ginger (Zingiber officinale) tea
  79. Novel green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Salvia rosmarinus extract for treatment of human lung cancer
  80. Evaluation of second trimester plasma lipoxin A4, VEGFR-1, IL-6, and TNF-α levels in pregnant women with gestational diabetes mellitus
  81. Antidiabetic, antioxidant and cytotoxicity activities of ortho- and para-substituted Schiff bases derived from metformin hydrochloride: Validation by molecular docking and in silico ADME studies
  82. Antioxidant, antidiabetic, antiglaucoma, and anticholinergic effects of Tayfi grape (Vitis vinifera): A phytochemical screening by LC-MS/MS analysis
  83. Identification of genetic polymorphisms in the stearoyl CoA desaturase gene and its association with milk quality traits in Najdi sheep
  84. Cold-acclimation effect on cadmium absorption and biosynthesis of polyphenolics, and free proline and photosynthetic pigments in Spirogyra aequinoctialis
  85. Analysis of secondary metabolites in Xinjiang Morus nigra leaves using different extraction methods with UPLC-Q/TOF-MS/MS technology
  86. Nanoarchitectonics and performance evaluation of a Fe3O4-stabilized Pickering emulsion-type differential pressure plugging agent
  87. Investigating pyrolysis characteristics of Shengdong coal through Py-GC/MS
  88. Extraction, phytochemical characterization, and antifungal activity of Salvia rosmarinus extract
  89. Introducing a novel and natural antibiotic for the treatment of oral pathogens: Abelmoschus esculentus green-formulated silver nanoparticles
  90. Optimization of gallic acid-enriched ultrasonic-assisted extraction from mango peels
  91. Effect of gamma rays irradiation in the structure, optical, and electrical properties of samarium doped bismuth titanate ceramics
  92. Combinatory in silico investigation for potential inhibitors from Curcuma sahuynhensis Škorničk. & N.S. Lý volatile phytoconstituents against influenza A hemagglutinin, SARS-CoV-2 main protease, and Omicron-variant spike protein
  93. Physical, mechanical, and gamma ray shielding properties of the Bi2O3–BaO–B2O3–ZnO–As2O3–MgO–Na2O glass system
  94. Twofold interpenetrated 3D Cd(ii) complex: Crystal structure and luminescent property
  95. Study on the microstructure and soil quality variation of composite soil with soft rock and sand
  96. Ancient spring waters still emerging and accessible in the Roman Forum area: Chemical–physical and microbiological characterization
  97. Extraction and characterization of type I collagen from scales of Mexican Biajaiba fish
  98. Finding small molecular compounds to decrease trimethylamine oxide levels in atherosclerosis by virtual screening
  99. Prefatory in silico studies and in vitro insecticidal effect of Nigella sativa (L.) essential oil and its active compound (carvacrol) against the Callosobruchus maculatus adults (Fab), a major pest of chickpea
  100. Polymerized methyl imidazole silver bromide (CH3C6H5AgBr)6: Synthesis, crystal structures, and catalytic activity
  101. Using calcined waste fish bones as a green solid catalyst for biodiesel production from date seed oil
  102. Influence of the addition of WO3 on TeO2–Na2O glass systems in view of the feature of mechanical, optical, and photon attenuation
  103. Naringin ameliorates 5-fluorouracil elicited neurotoxicity by curtailing oxidative stress and iNOS/NF-ĸB/caspase-3 pathway
  104. GC-MS profile of extracts of an endophytic fungus Alternaria and evaluation of its anticancer and antibacterial potentialities
  105. Green synthesis, chemical characterization, and antioxidant and anti-colorectal cancer effects of vanadium nanoparticles
  106. Determination of caffeine content in coffee drinks prepared in some coffee shops in the local market in Jeddah City, Saudi Arabia
  107. A new 3D supramolecular Cu(ii) framework: Crystal structure and photocatalytic characteristics
  108. Bordeaux mixture accelerates ripening, delays senescence, and promotes metabolite accumulation in jujube fruit
  109. Important application value of injectable hydrogels loaded with omeprazole Schiff base complex in the treatment of pancreatitis
  110. Color tunable benzothiadiazole-based small molecules for lightening applications
  111. Investigation of structural, dielectric, impedance, and mechanical properties of hydroxyapatite-modified barium titanate composites for biomedical applications
  112. Metal gel particles loaded with epidermal cell growth factor promote skin wound repair mechanism by regulating miRNA
  113. In vitro exploration of Hypsizygus ulmarius (Bull.) mushroom fruiting bodies: Potential antidiabetic and anti-inflammatory agent
  114. Alteration in the molecular structure of the adenine base exposed to gamma irradiation: An ESR study
  115. Comprehensive study of optical, thermal, and gamma-ray shielding properties of Bi2O3–ZnO–PbO–B2O3 glasses
  116. Lewis acids as co-catalysts in Pd-based catalyzed systems of the octene-1 hydroethoxycarbonylation reaction
  117. Synthesis, Hirshfeld surface analysis, thermal, and selective α-glucosidase inhibitory studies of Schiff base transition metal complexes
  118. Protective properties of AgNPs green-synthesized by Abelmoschus esculentus on retinal damage on the virtue of its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects in diabetic rat
  119. Effects of green decorated AgNPs on lignin-modified magnetic nanoparticles mediated by Cydonia on cecal ligation and puncture-induced sepsis
  120. Treatment of gastric cancer by green mediated silver nanoparticles using Pistacia atlantica bark aqueous extract
  121. Preparation of newly developed porcelain ceramics containing WO3 nanoparticles for radiation shielding applications
  122. Utilization of computational methods for the identification of new natural inhibitors of human neutrophil elastase in inflammation therapy
  123. Some anticancer agents as effective glutathione S-transferase (GST) inhibitors
  124. Clay-based bricks’ rich illite mineral for gamma-ray shielding applications: An experimental evaluation of the effect of pressure rates on gamma-ray attenuation parameters
  125. Stability kinetics of orevactaene pigments produced by Epicoccum nigrum in solid-state fermentation
  126. Treatment of denture stomatitis using iron nanoparticles green-synthesized by Silybum marianum extract
  127. Characterization and antioxidant potential of white mustard (Brassica hirta) leaf extract and stabilization of sunflower oil
  128. Characteristics of Langmuir monomolecular monolayers formed by the novel oil blends
  129. Strategies for optimizing the single GdSrFeO4 phase synthesis
  130. Oleic acid and linoleic acid nanosomes boost immunity and provoke cell death via the upregulation of beta-defensin-4 at genetic and epigenetic levels
  131. Unraveling the therapeutic potential of Bombax ceiba roots: A comprehensive study of chemical composition, heavy metal content, antibacterial activity, and in silico analysis
  132. Green synthesis of AgNPs using plant extract and investigation of its anti-human colorectal cancer application
  133. The adsorption of naproxen on adsorbents obtained from pepper stalk extract by green synthesis
  134. Treatment of gastric cancer by silver nanoparticles encapsulated by chitosan polymers mediated by Pistacia atlantica extract under ultrasound condition
  135. In vitro protective and anti-inflammatory effects of Capparis spinosa and its flavonoids profile
  136. Wear and corrosion behavior of TiC and WC coatings deposited on high-speed steels by electro-spark deposition
  137. Therapeutic effects of green-formulated gold nanoparticles by Origanum majorana on spinal cord injury in rats
  138. Melanin antibacterial activity of two new strains, SN1 and SN2, of Exophiala phaeomuriformis against five human pathogens
  139. Evaluation of the analgesic and anesthetic properties of silver nanoparticles supported over biodegradable acacia gum-modified magnetic nanoparticles
  140. Review Articles
  141. Role and mechanism of fruit waste polyphenols in diabetes management
  142. A comprehensive review of non-alkaloidal metabolites from the subfamily Amaryllidoideae (Amaryllidaceae)
  143. Discovery of the chemical constituents, structural characteristics, and pharmacological functions of Chinese caterpillar fungus
  144. Eco-friendly green approach of nickel oxide nanoparticles for biomedical applications
  145. Advances in the pharmaceutical research of curcumin for oral administration
  146. Rapid Communication
  147. Determination of the contents of bioactive compounds in St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum): Comparison of commercial and wild samples
  148. Retraction
  149. Retraction of “Two mixed-ligand coordination polymers based on 2,5-thiophenedicarboxylic acid and flexible N-donor ligands: The protective effect on periodontitis via reducing the release of IL-1β and TNF-α”
  150. Topical Issue on Phytochemicals, biological and toxicological analysis of aromatic medicinal plants
  151. Anti-plasmodial potential of selected medicinal plants and a compound Atropine isolated from Eucalyptus obliqua
  152. Anthocyanin extract from black rice attenuates chronic inflammation in DSS-induced colitis mouse model by modulating the gut microbiota
  153. Evaluation of antibiofilm and cytotoxicity effect of Rumex vesicarius methanol extract
  154. Chemical compositions of Litsea umbellata and inhibition activities
  155. Green synthesis, characterization of silver nanoparticles using Rhynchosia capitata leaf extract and their biological activities
  156. GC-MS analysis and antibacterial activities of some plants belonging to the genus Euphorbia on selected bacterial isolates
  157. The abrogative effect of propolis on acrylamide-induced toxicity in male albino rats: Histological study
  158. A phytoconstituent 6-aminoflavone ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced oxidative stress mediated synapse and memory dysfunction via p-Akt/NF-kB pathway in albino mice
  159. Anti-diabetic potentials of Sorbaria tomentosa Lindl. Rehder: Phytochemistry (GC-MS analysis), α-amylase, α-glucosidase inhibitory, in vivo hypoglycemic, and biochemical analysis
  160. Assessment of cytotoxic and apoptotic activities of the Cassia angustifolia aqueous extract against SW480 colon cancer
  161. Biochemical analysis, antioxidant, and antibacterial efficacy of the bee propolis extract (Hymenoptera: Apis mellifera) against Staphylococcus aureus-induced infection in BALB/c mice: In vitro and in vivo study
  162. Assessment of essential elements and heavy metals in Saudi Arabian rice samples underwent various processing methods
  163. Two new compounds from leaves of Capparis dongvanensis (Sy, B. H. Quang & D. V. Hai) and inhibition activities
  164. Hydroxyquinoline sulfanilamide ameliorates STZ-induced hyperglycemia-mediated amyleoid beta burden and memory impairment in adult mice
  165. An automated reading of semi-quantitative hemagglutination results in microplates: Micro-assay for plant lectins
  166. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry assessment of essential and toxic trace elements in traditional spices consumed by the population of the Middle Eastern region in their recipes
  167. Phytochemical analysis and anticancer activity of the Pithecellobium dulce seed extract in colorectal cancer cells
  168. Impact of climatic disturbances on the chemical compositions and metabolites of Salvia officinalis
  169. Physicochemical characterization, antioxidant and antifungal activities of essential oils of Urginea maritima and Allium sativum
  170. Phytochemical analysis and antifungal efficiency of Origanum majorana extracts against some phytopathogenic fungi causing tomato damping-off diseases
  171. Special Issue on 4th IC3PE
  172. Graphene quantum dots: A comprehensive overview
  173. Studies on the intercalation of calcium–aluminium layered double hydroxide-MCPA and its controlled release mechanism as a potential green herbicide
  174. Synergetic effect of adsorption and photocatalysis by zinc ferrite-anchored graphitic carbon nitride nanosheet for the removal of ciprofloxacin under visible light irradiation
  175. Exploring anticancer activity of the Indonesian guava leaf (Psidium guajava L.) fraction on various human cancer cell lines in an in vitro cell-based approach
  176. The comparison of gold extraction methods from the rock using thiourea and thiosulfate
  177. Special Issue on Marine environmental sciences and significance of the multidisciplinary approaches
  178. Sorption of alkylphenols and estrogens on microplastics in marine conditions
  179. Cytotoxic ketosteroids from the Red Sea soft coral Dendronephthya sp.
  180. Antibacterial and biofilm prevention metabolites from Acanthophora spicifera
  181. Characteristics, source, and health risk assessment of aerosol polyaromatic hydrocarbons in the rural and urban regions of western Saudi Arabia
  182. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Energy, Environmental and Biological Applications - Part II
  183. Green synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of antibacterial activities of cobalt nanoparticles produced by marine fungal species Periconia prolifica
  184. Combustion-mediated sol–gel preparation of cobalt-doped ZnO nanohybrids for the degradation of acid red and antibacterial performance
  185. Perinatal supplementation with selenium nanoparticles modified with ascorbic acid improves hepatotoxicity in rat gestational diabetes
  186. Evaluation and chemical characterization of bioactive secondary metabolites from endophytic fungi associated with the ethnomedicinal plant Bergenia ciliata
  187. Enhancing photovoltaic efficiency with SQI-Br and SQI-I sensitizers: A comparative analysis
  188. Nanostructured p-PbS/p-CuO sulfide/oxide bilayer heterojunction as a promising photoelectrode for hydrogen gas generation
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