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A novel electrochemical micro-titration method for quantitative evaluation of the DPPH free radical scavenging capacity of caffeic acid

  • Xiaofen Li , Zhi Yang , Yuntao Gao EMAIL logo and Huabin Xiong EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: March 1, 2023
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Open Chemistry
From the journal Open Chemistry Volume 21 Issue 1

Abstract

In this report, the stoichiometric ratio (R) for the interaction of diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radicals with the antioxidant was employed as an evaluation index for the DPPH radical scavenging activity of antioxidants. This evaluation index was related only to the stoichiometric relationship of DPPH radicals with the antioxidant and had no relationship with the initial DPPH amount and the sample volume, which could offer a solution to the problem of poor comparability of EC50 values under different conditions. A novel electrochemical micro-titration method was proposed for the determination of the stoichiometric ratio (R) for the interaction of DPPH radicals with the antioxidant. This electrochemical micro-titration model was verified using caffeic acid as the DPPH radical scavenger, with the stoichiometric ratio (R) of DPPH radicals to caffeic acid determined to be in the range of 2.003–2.046. The calculated EC50 values were 0.513, 1.011, and 1.981 × 10–5 mol/L for 2.10, 4.05, and 8.02 × 10–7 moL of added DPPH radicals, respectively. The proposed method showed no differences from the conventional method, but had better precision and reliability, and used a smaller amount of sample.

Keywords: 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl; electrochemical titration; titration curve; stoichiometric ratio; caffeic acid

1 Introduction

In the last decade, many analytical methods have been developed to determine antioxidant activity in vitro, measure the ability to reduce oxidant species/probes, or scavenge free radicals, such as superoxide anion, hydroxyl, peroxyl, and alkoxyl radicals [1]. One such popular method for in vitro evaluation of antioxidant capacity is based on using stable free radical diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH) [2,3]. The DPPH method is described as a simple, rapid, accurate, and inexpensive assay that is widely used for the determination of radical scavenging activity [4,5,6,7]. Since the late 1950s, a variety of DPPH-based methods have been introduced for estimating the antioxidant activity of natural compounds or foods, including spectrophotometric [6], chemiluminescence [8], high-performance liquid chromatography with DPPH [9–11], gas chromatography mass spectrometry [12], fluorescence probe detection [13], and electron paramagnetic resonance methods [14]. Flow injection-based methods for the determination of scavenging capacity against DPPH have also been reported [15,16]. A DPPH-based optical sensor for screening antioxidant activity was introduced by Steinberg and Milardovic [17].

Electrochemical methods provide a rapid, simple, and sensitive alternative for analyzing bioactive compounds and determining antioxidant capacity and have still seen recent developments to determine the antioxidant activity [18–20]. The relationship between the electrochemical behavior of compounds with antioxidant activity and their resulting “antioxidant power” (capacity) has attracted great interest due to “low oxidation potential” corresponding with “high antioxidant power” [21]. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) on carbon electrodes seems to be a suitable method for antioxidant capacity determination, especially due to its simplicity, rapidity, and ability to be used directly in biological and crude samples, including red and white wine, tea, coffee, juices, and even blood serum [22]. Differential pulse voltammetry (DPV), as a selective and sensitive technique, has also been explored in the detection of natural polyphenolic antioxidants in both complex and clinical samples [23]. Malagutti et al. used square wave voltammetry with a solid carbon polyurethane electrode (rigid carbon-polyurethane composite electrode) to compare the antioxidant capacity of green tea samples [24].

Electrochemical methods based on the amperometric reduction of DPPH have also been introduced, for example, the evaluation of DPPH free radical scavenging at a glassy carbon electrode or a platinum screen-printed working electrode [25,26]. Amatatongchai et al. [27] developed amperometric detection of the residual concentration of non-reacted DPPH using a carbon nanotube modified-glassy carbon electrode, which had sensitivity more than 25 times greater than that of the bare GC electrode. Milardović et al. used amperometric detection of DPPH free radical scavenging to evaluate the antioxidant activity of some water or ethanol-soluble pure compounds from samples of tea, wine, and some other beverages [28]. As mentioned earlier, electrochemical methods show good prospects in the determination of antioxidant capacity, but, to our knowledge, there have been few reports of voltammetric determination of DPPH scavenging activity. Recently, multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) have been widely used in the fabrication of the modified electrode because of their huge specific surface area, strong mechanical performance, stable chemical property, good electrocatalytic effect, and charge transfer ability [29–31].

Caffeic acid, known as 3,4-dihydroxycinnamic acid, is a typical phenolic acid compound found in plants. It is the main active ingredient in many traditional herbs, such as Terminalia and Penthorum chinense Pursh [32]. Pharmacological studies have proven that caffeic acid scavenges and inhibits free radical, antibiotic, antivirus, antitumor, decreasing blood lipid, hypoglycemic, and anti-aging activities, which has been widely applied in the medical industry [33].

A novel voltammetry-based electrochemical micro-titration method for the quantitative assessment of the DPPH free radical scavenging capacity of caffeic acid is described herein. This method is based on the stoichiometric relationship of the interaction between caffeic acid and DPPH free radicals, and a micro-titration method was proposed to determine this stoichiometric relationship. The stoichiometric ratio (R) of the stoichiometric relationship was employed as an evaluation index for DPPH radical scavenging activity. This method offers a rapid and inexpensive solution for the evaluation of DPPH radical scavenging activity in antioxidants.

2 Experimental

2.1 Reagents and chemicals

DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl, purity > 99.0%) was obtained from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO). Caffeic acid (trans-caffeic, purity > 99.0%) was purchased from the National Institute of China for the Control of Pharmaceutical and Biological Products (NICPBP, Beijing, China). All other reagents used were analytical-reagent grade. Twice-distilled water was used throughout all experiments.

The DPPH and caffeic acid were soluble in methanol. Fresh DPPH stock solution (10 mL) at a concentration of 0.1 mg/mL was prepared on each day of analysis. The stock solutions of caffeic acid were prepared in methanol at a concentration of 1.0 mg/mL. All stock solutions were stored at 4°C.

2.2 Apparatus

ZAHNER Zennium IM6 Electrochemical Workstation was the apparatus used (ZAHNER-elektrik GmbH & Co. KG, Kronach, Germany). A three-electrode system was established, using a GR-MWNTs/GCE working electrode, a platinum wire counter electrode, and a saturated calomel electrode (SCE) as the reference electrode. Ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectrometry was recorded on an 8453 UV-Vis spectrophotometer (Agilent Technologies, USA).

The TNMH3 carboxyl functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs, purity > 95%), purchased from Chengdu Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences; spectrum pure graphite rod (purchased from Qingdao tengrui carbon co., LTD, diameter: 0.6 cm).

2.3 Experimental methods

2.3.1 Preparation for the modified electrode

First, 6 cm graphite rod was taken and sealed in the polyethylene pipe using an epoxy resin binder. One of the ends was used as an electrode connection, and the other end was polished to a mirror-like surface with the different sizes of the metallographic sandpaper. Then, the mirror side was carefully polished for about 15 min using functionalized MWNTs on parchment paper, in order to embed MWNTs uniformly on the surface of the electrode and got the inlaid MWNTs/GE. Finally, the prepared electrode was electrochemically cleaned in a based solution by cycling potentials between −0.4 and +2.0 V at 0.1 V/s until a steady cyclic voltammogram was obtained.

2.3.2 Electrochemical behavior of the interaction of CA and DPPH free radicals

A certain amount of 1 mg/mL CA solution was taken into a 10 mL colorimetric tube, which was diluted to a fixed volume with a concentration of 0.1 mg/mL HAc-NaAc buffer solution. CA solution was transferred to an electrolytic tank and connected to the three-electrode cell in pH 4.0 HAc-NaAc buffer solution between the potential range of 0.1 and 0.8 V at a scan rate of 50 mV/s. Recorded the CV curve of CA. At the same time, DPV curves of CA were measured under the conditions: pulse width 200 ms, pulse amplitude 20 mV, and pulse interval 250 ms.

2.3.3 Electrochemical micro-titration of CA scavenging DPPH radical

About 1.0 mL of CA solution at a certain concentration was added to 9.0 mL of 0.1 mg/mL HAc-NaAc buffer solution (pH 4.0). CV and DPV analysis of the mixed solutions was performed using the three-electrode system in the potential range 0.1–0.8 V (vs SCE). Then, a certain volume of 1.0 × 10–3 moL/L DPPH solution was added into the mixed solution successively using a 10.0-μL microsyringe with stirring until the value of the DPV oxidation peak was almost unchanged. The changes in oxidation peak in CV and DPV during this process were measured.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Electrochemical behavior of the interaction of caffeic acid with DPPH

Figure 1 shows the cyclic voltammograms (CV) of the interaction of caffeic acid with DPPH free radicals in HAc-NaAc buffer solution (pH = 4.0) at the graphite electrode. A pair of quasi-reversible redox peaks with peak potentials of E pa = 0.42 V (vs SCE) and E pc = 0.27 V can be observed, while the redox peaks of DPPH were not observed under the same conditions. This result suggested that the caffeic acid electrochemical reaction displayed a typical quasi-reversible process. There was a good linear relationship between oxidation or reduction peak current and scan rate (v), with a linear regression equation of i pa (μA) = 255.7ν + 27.49 (r = 0.9979) or i pa (μA) = 246.3ν + 27.04 (r = 0.9980), respectively, which showed that the reaction process was mainly controlled by adsorption. Figure 1c–d shows that both the oxidation peak and reduction peak of caffeic acid significantly decreased with the addition of DPPH, from 2.0 × 10–5 to 4.0 × 10–5 mol/L, while their peak potential remained almost unchanged, indicating that caffeic acid was consumed and reduced according to a dose–effect relationship when DPPH was added.

Figure 1 The cyclic voltammograms of the interaction of caffeic acid with DPPH: (a) graphite electrode; (b) 5.0 × 10−5 moL/L caffeic acid; (c) b + 2.0 × 10−5 moL/L DPPH; (d) b + 4.0 × 10−5 moL/L DPPH.
Figure 1

The cyclic voltammograms of the interaction of caffeic acid with DPPH: (a) graphite electrode; (b) 5.0 × 10−5 moL/L caffeic acid; (c) b + 2.0 × 10−5 moL/L DPPH; (d) b + 4.0 × 10−5 moL/L DPPH.

The DPV curves of the interaction of caffeic acid with DPPH are shown in Figure 2. A sensitive DPV oxidation peak was observed for caffeic acid at 0.35 V (vs SCE). The oxidation peak current of caffeic acid decreased remarkably with the addition of DPPH, as depicted by curves b–e in Figure 2. A good linear relationship was observed between the oxidation peak current (i pa) and the caffeic acid concentration (c), with a linear regression equation of i pa (mA) = 53.444c (μmol/L) + 2.7513 (r = 0.9991), meaning that the interaction of caffeic acid with DPPH could be more clearly evaluated via DPV by adding DPPH gradually into caffeic acid solution. Furthermore, a good linear relationship between the oxidation peak current of caffeic acid decreasing (Δi pa) and the cumulative amount of added DPPH (n DPPH) was obtained when varying its concentration from 1.0 × 10–5 to 6.0 × 10–5 moL/L, and the linear regression equation could be described as follows: Δi pa (μA) = 10.708n DPPH – 0.242 (r = 0.9980). These results suggested that caffeic acid and DPPH interacted according to a certain stoichiometric relationship.

Figure 2 The differential pulse voltammeter curves of the interaction of caffeic acid with DPPH: (a) 5.0 × 10−5 moL/L caffeic acid; (b) a + 1.0 × 10−5 moL/L DPPH; (c) a + 2.0 × 10−5 moL/L DPPH; (d) a + 4.0 × 10−5 mol/L DPPH; (e) a + 6.0 × 10−5 moL/LDPPH.
Figure 2

The differential pulse voltammeter curves of the interaction of caffeic acid with DPPH: (a) 5.0 × 10−5 moL/L caffeic acid; (b) a + 1.0 × 10−5 moL/L DPPH; (c) a + 2.0 × 10−5 moL/L DPPH; (d) a + 4.0 × 10−5 mol/L DPPH; (e) a + 6.0 × 10−5 moL/LDPPH.

3.2 Mathematical model of electrochemical micro-titration

The concentration of caffeic acid showed a good linear relationship with the oxidation peak current (i pa), as mentioned earlier, which can be depicted as follows:

(1) i pa = K c CA + b ,

where c CA and i pa represent the concentration and oxidation peak current of caffeic acid, respectively. c CA decreases with the addition of DPPH, resulting in a decrease in i pa, as described by equation (2):

(2) Δ i pa = i pa 0 − i pa = K ( c CA 0 − c CA ) = K n CA 0 V 0 − n CA V 0 + ∑ i = 1 N V i ,

where i pa 0 , c CA 0 , and n CA 0 represent the initial oxidation peak current, concentration, and amount of caffeic acid, respectively; V 0 is the initial volume of the solution mixture for analysis; n CA is the amount of caffeic acid; V i is the volume for a single addition of DPPH; and ∑ i = 1 N V i is the volume change during the titration process. In our experiment, V 0 and V i were 10.0 mL and 10.0 μL, respectively, and the number of additions was about 10; thus, the volume change in the titration process was less than 1.0%. equation (2) can be reformulated as follows:

(3) Δ i pa = K V 0 ( n CA 0 − n CA ) = K V 0 Δ n CA ,

where Δn CA is the amount of caffeic acid consumed by DPPH in the titration process. According to the aforementioned experimental result, the interaction between caffeic acid and DPPH was based on a certain stoichiometric relationship, meaning that DPPH might react with caffeic acid according to a stoichiometric ratio of R, R = 1.983, Δn CA = Rn DPPH. Therefore, equation (3) can be further rewritten as:

(4) Δ i pa = K V 0 Δ n CA = K R V 0 n DPPH ,

where R is the stoichiometric ratio, nDPPH is the amount of DPPH consumed in the titration process, K is the slope of the linear regression equation (equation (2)) for the oxidation peak current (i pa), and the caffeic acid concentration (c) can be calculated using equation (1). As shown in equation (2), Δn CA (in equation (2)) could be transformed when nDPPH was added, which meant that the stoichiometric ratio (R) for DPPH and caffeic acid could be easily obtained using the proposed electrochemical micro-titration method. The evaluation of DPPH radical scavenging activity of antioxidants is normally based on the median elimination concentration (EC50), as defined in equation (5):

(5) EC 50 ( mol / L ) = c A50 = n A50 V 0 ,

where c A50 and n A50 are the median elimination concentration and amount of antioxidants that cause the initial DPPH concentration to decrease by 50%, respectively. Substituting the stoichiometric ratio of R = n DPPH/Δn CA into equation (5) gives the following equation:

(6) EC 50 ( mol / L ) = n A50 V 0 = n DPPH 0 2 R V 0 ,

where n DPPH 0 is the initial amount of DPPH. equation (6) shows an alternative way to calculate EC50 using the stoichiometric ratio of DPPH and antioxidant. Moreover, the stoichiometric ratio (R) could also be used as a key parameter to characterize the antioxidant capacity of antioxidant compounds. For a certain antioxidant compound, a higher R value denotes the ability to scavenge more DPPH radicals and possession of a higher antioxidant capacity.

3.3 Electrochemical micro-titration of caffeic acid scavenging DPPH radicals

Electrochemical micro-titration was performed according to the method in Section 2. Figure 3 shows the titration curve, which depicts the cumulative added amounts of DPPH (n DPPH) and the change in oxidation peak current value of caffeic acid (Δi pa), calculated using equation (2). Δi pa increased rapidly with the addition of DPPH and remained almost unchanged after DPPH addition reached a certain amount, indicating that caffeic acid was consumed almost completely. The inflexion in the titration curve can be characterized as the endpoint.

Figure 3 The titration curve of the cumulative addition amounts of DPPH and the value of oxidation peak current change of caffeic acid (Δi pa). n DPPH = 2.10 × 10−7 moL, n CA = 1.00 × 10−7 moL (curve 1); n DPPH = 4.05 × 10−7 moL, n CA = 2.00 × 10−7 moL (curve 2); n DPPH = 8.02 × 10−7 moL, n CA = 4.00 × 10−7 moL (curve 3); V 0 = 10.0 mL, 10.0 μL of 1.0 × 10−4 mol/L DPPH for each addition.
Figure 3

The titration curve of the cumulative addition amounts of DPPH and the value of oxidation peak current change of caffeic acid (Δi pa). n DPPH = 2.10 × 10−7 moL, n CA = 1.00 × 10−7 moL (curve 1); n DPPH = 4.05 × 10−7 moL, n CA = 2.00 × 10−7 moL (curve 2); n DPPH = 8.02 × 10−7 moL, n CA = 4.00 × 10−7 moL (curve 3); V 0 = 10.0 mL, 10.0 μL of 1.0 × 10−4 mol/L DPPH for each addition.

The stoichiometric ratio (R) of the reaction of caffeic acid with DPPH radicals was calculated using equation (4) based on the titration curve in Figure 3. And the result of stoichiometric ratio (R) is shown in Table 1. Moreover, the EC50 of CA was calculated using the stoichiometric ratio (R) according to equation (6). The EC50 result was compared with conventional photometric analysis, as shown in Table 2. The R value was consistent for different n DPPH values, and the EC50 increased with the increase in n DPPH. The EC50 resulting from this method was in agreement with that of the conventional method, and had a lower RSD, indicating that this method was reliable.

Table 1

Results of stoichiometric ratio (R) (n = 6)

Initial caffeic acid amount/(n 0 × 10−7 moL) DPPH added for consumed almost completely/(n 0 × 10−7 moL) Stoichiometric ratio/( R ¯ ± RSD/%) Δi pa (μA) = Kn DPPH + b V 0/mL
1.00 2.10 2.046 ± 3.14 Δi pa (μA) = 10.935n DPPH − 0.060 (r = 0.998) 10
2.00 4.05 2.003 ± 2.07 Δi pa (μA) = 10.708n DPPH − 0.242 (r = 0.998) 10
4.00 8.02 2.024 ± 2.69 Δi pa (μA) = 10.818n DPPH − 0.461 (r = 0.998) 10
Table 2

Results of half of the scavenging rate (EC50) (n = 6)

DPPH amount/(n 0 × 10−7 moL) Stoichiometric ratio/( R ¯ ± RSD/%) EC ¯ 50% × 10−5mol/L ± RSD/%
2.10 1.956 ± 2.12 0.518 + 3.82
4.05 2.015 ± 2.85 1.015 + 3.62
8.02 1.945 ± 2.75 1.989 + 2.82

3.4 The spectroscopy study of CA scavenging DPPH radical

The DPPH radical scavenging activity of CA was also determined by conventional photometric analysis [34], the result is shown in Figure 4, a good linear relationship between CA concentration and scavenging rate was obtained, with a linear regression equation of E (%) = 14,518c + 0.1980 (r = 0.9910) before reaching the maximum, which ensure experimental results possesses better accuracy. The EC50 was calculated based on the linear regression equation, as shown in Table 2.

Figure 4 DPPH radical scavenging activity of CA.
Figure 4

DPPH radical scavenging activity of CA.

Traditional evaluation methods for estimating the DPPH radical scavenging activity of antioxidants are mainly based on the median elimination concentration (EC50). However, the inadequacies of this method are that EC50 values for the same antioxidants under different conditions are quite different due to clear changes in EC50 with changing initial DPPH amounts and sample volumes used for determination. Therefore, an electrochemical micro-titration method was used to obtain the stoichiometric ratio (R) of CA for DPPH radical scavenging. And the stoichiometric ratio (R) for the interaction of DPPH radicals with the antioxidant was employed as an evaluation index for the DPPH radical scavenging activity of antioxidants. And the result indicated that this evaluation index was related only to the stoichiometric relationship of DPPH radicals with the antioxidant and had no relationship with the initial DPPH amount and the sample volume, which could overcome the problem of poor comparability of EC50 values under different conditions. Furthermore, the EC50% values corresponding to different initial DPPH can be accurately deduced according to the R value, and the results are consistent with the conventional method. Therefore, the stoichiometric ratio (R) is superior to the conventional methods in terms of comparability, applicability, and reliability in evaluating antioxidant activity, and the amount of reagent is significantly reduced, which reduces the analysis cost and it has a good application prospect.

4 Conclusion

In this report, a novel sensitive electrochemical micro-titration method for determination and estimation of the DPPH free radical scavenging activity of active materials was proposed based on the interaction between caffeic acid and DPPH. An electrochemical micro-titration model was established based on titration curves between oxidation peak current change of the antioxidant (Δi pa) and the added amount of DPPH radicals in the titration process. The stoichiometric ratio (R) for the reaction of antioxidant with the amount of DPPH radicals added was determined using the obtained titration equation, while the DPPH median elimination concentration (EC50) of antioxidants was calculated from the stoichiometric ratio (R). The above-mentioned electrochemical micro-titration model, verified using caffeic acid, indicated that the proposed method was simple, quick, sensitive, and low cost, providing a novel approach to the evaluation of antioxidant properties.

  1. Funding information: This work was supported by the National Natural Science Fundation of China (No. 201367025), and program for the National Natural Science Fundation of China (No. 21665027), and program for the Applied Basic Research Project of Yunnan Province Youth Program (No. 2017FD118), and Scientific research fund project of Yunnan Education Department (No. 2022J0443).

  2. Author contributions: Investigation: X.L., X.H.; resources: Y.G., X.H.; funding acquisition: Y.G., X.H.; methodology: Z.Y.; data curation: X.L.

  3. Conflict of interest: We declare that we have no financial and personal relationships with other people or organizations that can inappropriately influence our work, and there is no professional or other personal interest of any nature or kind in any product, service, and/or company that could be construed as influencing the position presented in, or the review of, the manuscript entitled “A Novel Electrochemical Micro-Titration Method for Quantitative Evaluation of the DPPH Free Radical Scavenging Capacity of Caffeic Acid.”

  4. Ethical approval: The conducted research is not related to either human or animal use.

  5. Data availability statement: Raw data were generated at facility name: ZAHNER Zennium IM6 Electrochemical Workstation, UV–Vis spectrophotometer, etc. Derived data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author on request. The data sets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2022-06-30
Revised: 2022-10-03
Accepted: 2022-10-15
Published Online: 2023-03-01

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Characteristics, source, and health risk assessment of aerosol polyaromatic hydrocarbons in the rural and urban regions of western Saudi Arabia
  2. Regular Articles
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  4. Pomegranate attenuates kidney injury in cyclosporine-induced nephrotoxicity in rats by suppressing oxidative stress
  5. Ab initio study of fundamental properties of XInO3 (X = K, Rb, Cs) perovskites
  6. Responses of feldspathic sandstone and sand-reconstituted soil C and N to freeze–thaw cycles
  7. Robust fractional control based on high gain observers design (RNFC) for a Spirulina maxima culture interfaced with an advanced oxidation process
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  16. Optimization of cutting forces and surface roughness via ANOVA and grey relational analysis in machining of In718
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https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2022-0228
Keywords for this article
1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl; electrochemical titration; titration curve; stoichiometric ratio; caffeic acid
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Characteristics, source, and health risk assessment of aerosol polyaromatic hydrocarbons in the rural and urban regions of western Saudi Arabia
  2. Regular Articles
  3. A network-based correlation research between element electronegativity and node importance
  4. Pomegranate attenuates kidney injury in cyclosporine-induced nephrotoxicity in rats by suppressing oxidative stress
  5. Ab initio study of fundamental properties of XInO3 (X = K, Rb, Cs) perovskites
  6. Responses of feldspathic sandstone and sand-reconstituted soil C and N to freeze–thaw cycles
  7. Robust fractional control based on high gain observers design (RNFC) for a Spirulina maxima culture interfaced with an advanced oxidation process
  8. Study on arsenic speciation and redistribution mechanism in Lonicera japonica plants via synchrotron techniques
  9. Optimization of machining Nilo 36 superalloy parameters in turning operation
  10. Vacuum impregnation pre-treatment: A novel method for incorporating mono- and divalent cations into potato strips to reduce the acrylamide formation in French fries
  11. Characterization of effective constituents in Acanthopanax senticosus fruit for blood deficiency syndrome based on the chinmedomics strategy
  12. Comparative analysis of the metabolites in Pinellia ternata from two producing regions using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization–tandem mass spectrometry
  13. The assessment of environmental parameter along the desalination plants in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
  14. Effects of harpin and carbendazim on antioxidant accumulation in young jujube leaves
  15. The effects of in ovo injected with sodium borate on hatching performance and small intestine morphology in broiler chicks
  16. Optimization of cutting forces and surface roughness via ANOVA and grey relational analysis in machining of In718
  17. Essential oils of Origanum compactum Benth: Chemical characterization, in vitro, in silico, antioxidant, and antibacterial activities
  18. Translocation of tungsten(vi) oxide/gadolinium(iii) fluoride in tellurite glasses towards improvement of gamma-ray attenuation features in high-density glass shields
  19. Mechanical properties, elastic moduli, and gamma ray attenuation competencies of some TeO2–WO3–GdF3 glasses: Tailoring WO3–GdF3 substitution toward optimum behavioral state range
  20. Comparison between the CIDR or sponge with hormone injection to induce estrus synchronization for twining and sex preselection in Naimi sheep
  21. Exergetic performance analyses of three different cogeneration plants
  22. Psoralea corylifolia (babchi) seeds enhance proliferation of normal human cultured melanocytes: GC–MS profiling and biological investigation
  23. A novel electrochemical micro-titration method for quantitative evaluation of the DPPH free radical scavenging capacity of caffeic acid
  24. Comparative study between supported bimetallic catalysts for nitrate remediation in water
  25. Persicaline, an alkaloid from Salvadora persica, inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis and cell-cycle arrest in MCF-7 cells
  26. Determination of nicotine content in locally produced smokeless tobacco (Shammah) samples from Jazan region of Saudi Arabia using a convenient HPLC-MS/MS method
  27. Changes in oxidative stress markers in pediatric burn injury over a 1-week period
  28. Integrated geophysical techniques applied for petroleum basins structural characterization in the central part of the Western Desert, Egypt
  29. The impact of chemical modifications on gamma-ray attenuation properties of some WO3-reinforced tellurite glasses
  30. Microwave and Cs+-assisted chemo selective reaction protocol for synthesizing 2-styryl quinoline biorelevant molecules
  31. Structural, physical, and radiation absorption properties of a significant nuclear power plant component: A comparison between REX-734 and 316L SS austenitic stainless steels
  32. Effect of Moringa oleifera on serum YKL-40 level: In vivo rat periodontitis model
  33. Investigating the impact of CO2 emissions on the COVID-19 pandemic by generalized linear mixed model approach with inverse Gaussian and gamma distributions
  34. Influence of WO3 content on gamma rays attenuation characteristics of phosphate glasses at low energy range
  35. Study on CO2 absorption performance of ternary DES formed based on DEA as promoting factor
  36. Performance analyses of detonation engine cogeneration cycles
  37. Sterols from Centaurea pumilio L. with cell proliferative activity: In vitro and in silico studies
  38. Untargeted metabolomics revealing changes in aroma substances in flue-cured tobacco
  39. Effect of pumpkin enriched with calcium lactate on iron status in an animal model of postmenopausal osteoporosis
  40. Energy consumption, mechanical and metallographic properties of cryogenically treated tool steels
  41. Optimization of ultra-high pressure-assisted extraction of total phenols from Eucommia ulmoides leaves by response surface methodology
  42. Harpin enhances antioxidant nutrient accumulation and decreases enzymatic browning in stored soybean sprouts
  43. Physicochemical and biological properties of carvacrol
  44. Radix puerariae in the treatment of diabetic nephropathy: A network pharmacology analysis and experimental validation
  45. Anti-Alzheimer, antioxidants, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase effects of Taverniera glabra mediated ZnO and Fe2O3 nanoparticles in alloxan-induced diabetic rats
  46. Experimental study on photocatalytic CO2 reduction performance of ZnS/CdS-TiO2 nanotube array thin films
  47. Epoxy-reinforced heavy metal oxides for gamma ray shielding purposes
  48. Black mulberry (Morus nigra L.) fruits: As a medicinal plant rich in human health-promoting compounds
  49. Promising antioxidant and antimicrobial effects of essential oils extracted from fruits of Juniperus thurifera: In vitro and in silico investigations
  50. Chloramine-T-induced oxidation of Rizatriptan Benzoate: An integral chemical and spectroscopic study of products, mechanisms and kinetics
  51. Study on antioxidant and antimicrobial potential of chemically profiled essential oils extracted from Juniperus phoenicea (L.) by use of in vitro and in silico approaches
  52. Screening and characterization of fungal taxol-producing endophytic fungi for evaluation of antimicrobial and anticancer activities
  53. Mineral composition, principal polyphenolic components, and evaluation of the anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antioxidant properties of Cytisus villosus Pourr leaf extracts
  54. In vitro antiproliferative efficacy of Annona muricata seed and fruit extracts on several cancer cell lines
  55. An experimental study for chemical characterization of artificial anterior cruciate ligament with coated chitosan as biomaterial
  56. Prevalence of residual risks of the transfusion-transmitted infections in Riyadh hospitals: A two-year retrospective study
  57. Computational and experimental investigation of antibacterial and antifungal properties of Nicotiana tabacum extracts
  58. Reinforcement of cementitious mortars with hemp fibers and shives
  59. X-ray shielding properties of bismuth-borate glass doped with rare earth ions
  60. Green supported silver nanoparticles over modified reduced graphene oxide: Investigation of its antioxidant and anti-ovarian cancer effects
  61. Orthogonal synthesis of a versatile building block for dual functionalization of targeting vectors
  62. Thymbra spicata leaf extract driven biogenic synthesis of Au/Fe3O4 nanocomposite and its bio-application in the treatment of different types of leukemia
  63. The role of Ag2O incorporation in nuclear radiation shielding behaviors of the Li2O–Pb3O4–SiO2 glass system: A multi-step characterization study
  64. A stimuli-responsive in situ spray hydrogel co-loaded with naringenin and gentamicin for chronic wounds
  65. Assessment of the impact of γ-irradiation on the piperine content and microbial quality of black pepper
  66. Antioxidant, sensory, and functional properties of low-alcoholic IPA beer with Pinus sylvestris L. shoots addition fermented using unconventional yeast
  67. Screening and optimization of extracellular pectinase produced by Bacillus thuringiensis SH7
  68. Determination of polyphenols in Chinese jujube using ultra-performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry
  69. Synergistic effects of harpin and NaCl in determining soybean sprout quality under non-sterile conditions
  70. Field evaluation of different eco-friendly alternative control methods against Panonychus citri [Acari: Tetranychidae] spider mite and its predators in citrus orchards
  71. Exploring the antimicrobial potential of biologically synthesized zero valent iron nanoparticles
  72. NaCl regulates goldfish growth and survival at three food supply levels under hypoxia
  73. An exploration of the physical, optical, mechanical, and radiation shielding properties of PbO–MgO–ZnO–B2O3 glasses
  74. A novel statistical modeling of air pollution and the COVID-19 pandemic mortality data by Poisson, geometric, and negative binomial regression models with fixed and random effects
  75. Treatment activity of the injectable hydrogels loaded with dexamethasone In(iii) complex on glioma by inhibiting the VEGF signaling pathway
  76. An alternative approach for the excess lifetime cancer risk and prediction of radiological parameters
  77. Panax ginseng leaf aqueous extract mediated green synthesis of AgNPs under ultrasound condition and investigation of its anti-lung adenocarcinoma effects
  78. Study of hydrolysis and production of instant ginger (Zingiber officinale) tea
  79. Novel green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Salvia rosmarinus extract for treatment of human lung cancer
  80. Evaluation of second trimester plasma lipoxin A4, VEGFR-1, IL-6, and TNF-α levels in pregnant women with gestational diabetes mellitus
  81. Antidiabetic, antioxidant and cytotoxicity activities of ortho- and para-substituted Schiff bases derived from metformin hydrochloride: Validation by molecular docking and in silico ADME studies
  82. Antioxidant, antidiabetic, antiglaucoma, and anticholinergic effects of Tayfi grape (Vitis vinifera): A phytochemical screening by LC-MS/MS analysis
  83. Identification of genetic polymorphisms in the stearoyl CoA desaturase gene and its association with milk quality traits in Najdi sheep
  84. Cold-acclimation effect on cadmium absorption and biosynthesis of polyphenolics, and free proline and photosynthetic pigments in Spirogyra aequinoctialis
  85. Analysis of secondary metabolites in Xinjiang Morus nigra leaves using different extraction methods with UPLC-Q/TOF-MS/MS technology
  86. Nanoarchitectonics and performance evaluation of a Fe3O4-stabilized Pickering emulsion-type differential pressure plugging agent
  87. Investigating pyrolysis characteristics of Shengdong coal through Py-GC/MS
  88. Extraction, phytochemical characterization, and antifungal activity of Salvia rosmarinus extract
  89. Introducing a novel and natural antibiotic for the treatment of oral pathogens: Abelmoschus esculentus green-formulated silver nanoparticles
  90. Optimization of gallic acid-enriched ultrasonic-assisted extraction from mango peels
  91. Effect of gamma rays irradiation in the structure, optical, and electrical properties of samarium doped bismuth titanate ceramics
  92. Combinatory in silico investigation for potential inhibitors from Curcuma sahuynhensis Škorničk. & N.S. Lý volatile phytoconstituents against influenza A hemagglutinin, SARS-CoV-2 main protease, and Omicron-variant spike protein
  93. Physical, mechanical, and gamma ray shielding properties of the Bi2O3–BaO–B2O3–ZnO–As2O3–MgO–Na2O glass system
  94. Twofold interpenetrated 3D Cd(ii) complex: Crystal structure and luminescent property
  95. Study on the microstructure and soil quality variation of composite soil with soft rock and sand
  96. Ancient spring waters still emerging and accessible in the Roman Forum area: Chemical–physical and microbiological characterization
  97. Extraction and characterization of type I collagen from scales of Mexican Biajaiba fish
  98. Finding small molecular compounds to decrease trimethylamine oxide levels in atherosclerosis by virtual screening
  99. Prefatory in silico studies and in vitro insecticidal effect of Nigella sativa (L.) essential oil and its active compound (carvacrol) against the Callosobruchus maculatus adults (Fab), a major pest of chickpea
  100. Polymerized methyl imidazole silver bromide (CH3C6H5AgBr)6: Synthesis, crystal structures, and catalytic activity
  101. Using calcined waste fish bones as a green solid catalyst for biodiesel production from date seed oil
  102. Influence of the addition of WO3 on TeO2–Na2O glass systems in view of the feature of mechanical, optical, and photon attenuation
  103. Naringin ameliorates 5-fluorouracil elicited neurotoxicity by curtailing oxidative stress and iNOS/NF-ĸB/caspase-3 pathway
  104. GC-MS profile of extracts of an endophytic fungus Alternaria and evaluation of its anticancer and antibacterial potentialities
  105. Green synthesis, chemical characterization, and antioxidant and anti-colorectal cancer effects of vanadium nanoparticles
  106. Determination of caffeine content in coffee drinks prepared in some coffee shops in the local market in Jeddah City, Saudi Arabia
  107. A new 3D supramolecular Cu(ii) framework: Crystal structure and photocatalytic characteristics
  108. Bordeaux mixture accelerates ripening, delays senescence, and promotes metabolite accumulation in jujube fruit
  109. Important application value of injectable hydrogels loaded with omeprazole Schiff base complex in the treatment of pancreatitis
  110. Color tunable benzothiadiazole-based small molecules for lightening applications
  111. Investigation of structural, dielectric, impedance, and mechanical properties of hydroxyapatite-modified barium titanate composites for biomedical applications
  112. Metal gel particles loaded with epidermal cell growth factor promote skin wound repair mechanism by regulating miRNA
  113. In vitro exploration of Hypsizygus ulmarius (Bull.) mushroom fruiting bodies: Potential antidiabetic and anti-inflammatory agent
  114. Alteration in the molecular structure of the adenine base exposed to gamma irradiation: An ESR study
  115. Comprehensive study of optical, thermal, and gamma-ray shielding properties of Bi2O3–ZnO–PbO–B2O3 glasses
  116. Lewis acids as co-catalysts in Pd-based catalyzed systems of the octene-1 hydroethoxycarbonylation reaction
  117. Synthesis, Hirshfeld surface analysis, thermal, and selective α-glucosidase inhibitory studies of Schiff base transition metal complexes
  118. Protective properties of AgNPs green-synthesized by Abelmoschus esculentus on retinal damage on the virtue of its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects in diabetic rat
  119. Effects of green decorated AgNPs on lignin-modified magnetic nanoparticles mediated by Cydonia on cecal ligation and puncture-induced sepsis
  120. Treatment of gastric cancer by green mediated silver nanoparticles using Pistacia atlantica bark aqueous extract
  121. Preparation of newly developed porcelain ceramics containing WO3 nanoparticles for radiation shielding applications
  122. Utilization of computational methods for the identification of new natural inhibitors of human neutrophil elastase in inflammation therapy
  123. Some anticancer agents as effective glutathione S-transferase (GST) inhibitors
  124. Clay-based bricks’ rich illite mineral for gamma-ray shielding applications: An experimental evaluation of the effect of pressure rates on gamma-ray attenuation parameters
  125. Stability kinetics of orevactaene pigments produced by Epicoccum nigrum in solid-state fermentation
  126. Treatment of denture stomatitis using iron nanoparticles green-synthesized by Silybum marianum extract
  127. Characterization and antioxidant potential of white mustard (Brassica hirta) leaf extract and stabilization of sunflower oil
  128. Characteristics of Langmuir monomolecular monolayers formed by the novel oil blends
  129. Strategies for optimizing the single GdSrFeO4 phase synthesis
  130. Oleic acid and linoleic acid nanosomes boost immunity and provoke cell death via the upregulation of beta-defensin-4 at genetic and epigenetic levels
  131. Unraveling the therapeutic potential of Bombax ceiba roots: A comprehensive study of chemical composition, heavy metal content, antibacterial activity, and in silico analysis
  132. Green synthesis of AgNPs using plant extract and investigation of its anti-human colorectal cancer application
  133. The adsorption of naproxen on adsorbents obtained from pepper stalk extract by green synthesis
  134. Treatment of gastric cancer by silver nanoparticles encapsulated by chitosan polymers mediated by Pistacia atlantica extract under ultrasound condition
  135. In vitro protective and anti-inflammatory effects of Capparis spinosa and its flavonoids profile
  136. Wear and corrosion behavior of TiC and WC coatings deposited on high-speed steels by electro-spark deposition
  137. Therapeutic effects of green-formulated gold nanoparticles by Origanum majorana on spinal cord injury in rats
  138. Melanin antibacterial activity of two new strains, SN1 and SN2, of Exophiala phaeomuriformis against five human pathogens
  139. Evaluation of the analgesic and anesthetic properties of silver nanoparticles supported over biodegradable acacia gum-modified magnetic nanoparticles
  140. Review Articles
  141. Role and mechanism of fruit waste polyphenols in diabetes management
  142. A comprehensive review of non-alkaloidal metabolites from the subfamily Amaryllidoideae (Amaryllidaceae)
  143. Discovery of the chemical constituents, structural characteristics, and pharmacological functions of Chinese caterpillar fungus
  144. Eco-friendly green approach of nickel oxide nanoparticles for biomedical applications
  145. Advances in the pharmaceutical research of curcumin for oral administration
  146. Rapid Communication
  147. Determination of the contents of bioactive compounds in St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum): Comparison of commercial and wild samples
  148. Retraction
  149. Retraction of “Two mixed-ligand coordination polymers based on 2,5-thiophenedicarboxylic acid and flexible N-donor ligands: The protective effect on periodontitis via reducing the release of IL-1β and TNF-α”
  150. Topical Issue on Phytochemicals, biological and toxicological analysis of aromatic medicinal plants
  151. Anti-plasmodial potential of selected medicinal plants and a compound Atropine isolated from Eucalyptus obliqua
  152. Anthocyanin extract from black rice attenuates chronic inflammation in DSS-induced colitis mouse model by modulating the gut microbiota
  153. Evaluation of antibiofilm and cytotoxicity effect of Rumex vesicarius methanol extract
  154. Chemical compositions of Litsea umbellata and inhibition activities
  155. Green synthesis, characterization of silver nanoparticles using Rhynchosia capitata leaf extract and their biological activities
  156. GC-MS analysis and antibacterial activities of some plants belonging to the genus Euphorbia on selected bacterial isolates
  157. The abrogative effect of propolis on acrylamide-induced toxicity in male albino rats: Histological study
  158. A phytoconstituent 6-aminoflavone ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced oxidative stress mediated synapse and memory dysfunction via p-Akt/NF-kB pathway in albino mice
  159. Anti-diabetic potentials of Sorbaria tomentosa Lindl. Rehder: Phytochemistry (GC-MS analysis), α-amylase, α-glucosidase inhibitory, in vivo hypoglycemic, and biochemical analysis
  160. Assessment of cytotoxic and apoptotic activities of the Cassia angustifolia aqueous extract against SW480 colon cancer
  161. Biochemical analysis, antioxidant, and antibacterial efficacy of the bee propolis extract (Hymenoptera: Apis mellifera) against Staphylococcus aureus-induced infection in BALB/c mice: In vitro and in vivo study
  162. Assessment of essential elements and heavy metals in Saudi Arabian rice samples underwent various processing methods
  163. Two new compounds from leaves of Capparis dongvanensis (Sy, B. H. Quang & D. V. Hai) and inhibition activities
  164. Hydroxyquinoline sulfanilamide ameliorates STZ-induced hyperglycemia-mediated amyleoid beta burden and memory impairment in adult mice
  165. An automated reading of semi-quantitative hemagglutination results in microplates: Micro-assay for plant lectins
  166. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry assessment of essential and toxic trace elements in traditional spices consumed by the population of the Middle Eastern region in their recipes
  167. Phytochemical analysis and anticancer activity of the Pithecellobium dulce seed extract in colorectal cancer cells
  168. Impact of climatic disturbances on the chemical compositions and metabolites of Salvia officinalis
  169. Physicochemical characterization, antioxidant and antifungal activities of essential oils of Urginea maritima and Allium sativum
  170. Phytochemical analysis and antifungal efficiency of Origanum majorana extracts against some phytopathogenic fungi causing tomato damping-off diseases
  171. Special Issue on 4th IC3PE
  172. Graphene quantum dots: A comprehensive overview
  173. Studies on the intercalation of calcium–aluminium layered double hydroxide-MCPA and its controlled release mechanism as a potential green herbicide
  174. Synergetic effect of adsorption and photocatalysis by zinc ferrite-anchored graphitic carbon nitride nanosheet for the removal of ciprofloxacin under visible light irradiation
  175. Exploring anticancer activity of the Indonesian guava leaf (Psidium guajava L.) fraction on various human cancer cell lines in an in vitro cell-based approach
  176. The comparison of gold extraction methods from the rock using thiourea and thiosulfate
  177. Special Issue on Marine environmental sciences and significance of the multidisciplinary approaches
  178. Sorption of alkylphenols and estrogens on microplastics in marine conditions
  179. Cytotoxic ketosteroids from the Red Sea soft coral Dendronephthya sp.
  180. Antibacterial and biofilm prevention metabolites from Acanthophora spicifera
  181. Characteristics, source, and health risk assessment of aerosol polyaromatic hydrocarbons in the rural and urban regions of western Saudi Arabia
  182. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Energy, Environmental and Biological Applications - Part II
  183. Green synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of antibacterial activities of cobalt nanoparticles produced by marine fungal species Periconia prolifica
  184. Combustion-mediated sol–gel preparation of cobalt-doped ZnO nanohybrids for the degradation of acid red and antibacterial performance
  185. Perinatal supplementation with selenium nanoparticles modified with ascorbic acid improves hepatotoxicity in rat gestational diabetes
  186. Evaluation and chemical characterization of bioactive secondary metabolites from endophytic fungi associated with the ethnomedicinal plant Bergenia ciliata
  187. Enhancing photovoltaic efficiency with SQI-Br and SQI-I sensitizers: A comparative analysis
  188. Nanostructured p-PbS/p-CuO sulfide/oxide bilayer heterojunction as a promising photoelectrode for hydrogen gas generation
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