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Determination of nicotine content in locally produced smokeless tobacco (Shammah) samples from Jazan region of Saudi Arabia using a convenient HPLC-MS/MS method

  • Hassan A. Alhazmi EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: March 17, 2023
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Open Chemistry
From the journal Open Chemistry Volume 21 Issue 1

Abstract

Shammah is one of the forms of smokeless tobacco (SLT) prepared by mixing tobacco powder with other ingredients to increase its acceptability. Nicotine (NT) is the main alkaloid present in tobacco and is a precursor for carcinogenic metabolites including tobacco specific nitrosamines (TSNAs). In this study, eight varieties of Shammah samples, collected from Jazan region of Saudi Arabia, were analyzed for NT content by a validated high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry method. Electrospray ionization was used with the multiple reaction monitoring in the positive mode for data acquisition. The method was fast and short retention times (RT) of 1.4 and 3.1 min were observed for NT and lapatinib used as internal standard (IS), respectively. The inter- and intra-day accuracy and precision results met the acceptance criteria of United States Food and Drug Administration and International Council for Harmonisation validation guidelines. The developed method was successfully applied for the detection of NT contents in various Shammah samples. NT concentration was found to be in the range of 6.94 ± 0.16 to 31.69 ± 0.79% with the maximum level detected in special Shammah from Ahad Al Masarihah and the lowest level in Khadrah Shammah from Samtah city. The results of this investigation have warranted further research to determine the minor Shammah contents including additive materials and assessment of associated health effects.

Keywords: LC-MS/MS; Jazan; nicotine; Saudi Arabia; Shammah; smokeless tobacco

1 Introduction

The smokeless tobacco (SLT) is a non-combustible form of tobacco which is chewed, snuffed, or dipped [1] and is extremely popular in South and South-East Asian countries. Globally, there are more than 28 varieties of SLT, mainly consumed through oral or nasal routes and called by different names in different regions, such as Shammah, Maras, Neffa, Toombak, Snus, and Nass. Shammah is one of the SLT products locally produced by mixing the powdered tobacco leaves with lime, black pepper, ash, volatile oils as well as flavoring agents and consumed in Middle Eastern regions including Saudi Arabia and Yemen [2,3,4]. SLT may contain dependence producing levels of nicotine (NT) and hence it is equally addictive as smoked tobacco [5]. Data suggest that the absorption of NT through SLT usage is 2–3 times higher than what someone gets from a cigarette and the amount of NT received from 8–10 dips or chews of SLT per day equals smoking 30–40 cigarettes per day [6].

In Saudi Arabia, the trade and importation of SLT products is prohibited and legislation related to consumption of SLT appeared in 1990. The Ministry of Health, Saudi Arabia launched a National Tobacco Control Program in the year 2002 and the efforts further intensified after it became a member of World Health Organization (WHO) Framework Convention for Tobacco Control (FCTC) in the year 2005 [7,8]. A regional survey conducted in Jeddah among middle school students reported that 2% male students used locally produced Shammah [9]. According to a review report, Shammah use has been frequently observed in southern region (Jazan province) of Saudi Arabia, owing to its proximity to Yemen where the usage and trade of SLT is still legalized. More importantly, Shammah use by children between 10 and 13 years of age in Jazan region was also reported, which is thought to be the beginning age for its consumption. However, its use is not restricted to Jazan province; rather, its use has been observed in other regions as well [10].

The health problems associated with SLT use include cardiovascular disorders, weight loss, stillbirth, enhanced levels of creatinine and blood urea, high blood pressure, receding of gums, tooth caries, and oral sub-mucous fibrosis [3,11,12]. Approximately, 26% of all the neck and head cancer cases recorded annually in Saudi Arabia are oral cavity related tumors. Several studies reported strong correlation of increased oral cancer incidence in the country to frequent usage of SLT (Shammah). An investigation showed that 49% of oral cancer patients reported prior usage of Shammah [13,14,15,16]. Several studies reported relatively increased incidence of oral cancer in south-eastern part of Saudi Arabia, which is more predominant in Jazan province and its frequency is related to Shammah use by its residents. According to a review report of Tumor Registry record of 20 years from King Faisal Hospital and Research Center, Riyadh, almost 35.4% of all cases of oral cancer were only from Jazan region [24]. A report prepared by the Oral Maxillofacial Surgery Unit working at the Armed Forces Hospital, Riyadh indicated that out of all cancer forms, the oral cavity related tumors are the most frequent form of cancer in Jazan region, representing 72% of all head and neck cancer and 13% of total cancer cases recorded annually. The report also suggested that the higher incidence of oral cancer in the region is mainly attributed to the habit of Shammah consumption among the population [17]. The harmful effects of all SLT products including Shammah are mainly due to the presence of NT alkaloid.

Nicotine is a dibasic amine consisting of pyrrolidine and pyridine heterocyclic nucleus (Figure 1). Absorption and availability of NT in the biological system is pH dependent and is greater at basic pH. At higher pH values nicotine exists as non-ionic lipophilic molecule, and can easily cross biological membranes. The absorption of NT from SLT takes place through oral mucosa and small intestine [18]. Through consumption of SLT, NT shows slower rate of absorption in comparison to smoked form, resulting in gradual delivery to the bloodstream and taking more time to build up the plasma concentration and produce lesser pharmacological effects [18]. Although, International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) did not list NT as carcinogen, there are several reports supporting its carcinogenic potential [19]. NT is a precursor of tobacco specific nitrosamines (TSNAs) in the oral cavity through nitrosation, which can also result in the production of N-nitrosonornicotine and 4-(methyl nitrosamino)-1-(3- pyridyl)-1-butanone, that are strong carcinogens [20].

Figure 1 Chemical structures of (a) nicotine and (b) lapatinib (IS).
Figure 1

Chemical structures of (a) nicotine and (b) lapatinib (IS).

A number of analytical methods using various analytical techniques have been reported for detection and quantification of NT in tobacco and tobacco products. These methods include, titrimetric [21], HPLC-UV [22], ion-pair reversed phase HPLC [23], GC-MS [24], and high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) [25,26]. The NT content in biological samples is detected mainly by LC-MS/MS method and since the HPLC-MS/MS is highly sensitive, specific, and a workhorse technique, it is conveniently used for samples with complex matrices and fast analysis. In this study, HPLC-MS/MS technique was chosen to screen the Shammah samples for NT content using lapatinib (Figure 1) as internal standard (IS). Furthermore, according to literature, no HPLC-MS/MS method has been employed for NT estimation in Shammah samples from this region. A simple and single-step procedure with limited quantity of solvent was used for NT extraction from Shammah matrix. Validation of the developed analytical method was performed as per the guidelines provided by United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) [27] and the general recommendation of International Council for Harmonisation (ICH) [28].

2 Material and methods

2.1 Chemicals and reagents

NT, acetonitrile (HPLC grade), formic acid (HCOOH), ammonia solution, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), and chloroform were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (West Chester, PA, US). Lapatinib was procured from LC Laboratories (Woburn, MA, USA) and used as an IS. Ultrapure water was produced in our lab using Milli-Q plus water purification system (Millipore, Bedford, US).

2.2 Collection of Shammah samples

Shammah is produced by local manufacturers who mix the powdered tobacco leaves with a number of other ingredients such as coloring and flavoring agents, lime, volatile oils, black pepper, ash etc., to increase the potency and acceptability of their products among consumers. In the current study, 21 Shammah samples were procured from local suppliers in Jazan, Sabya, Ahad Al Masarihah, Samtah, and Abu Arish localities of the Jazan region of Saudi Arabia. Eight different varieties of Shammah, including Arishi, Khadrah, Special, Adani, Adani cold, Adani hot, Suhail, and Sudani Shammah were collected. The collected samples were of different colors including yellow, black/gray, white, and brown depending on the types of additives added. The samples were stored in refrigerator at 2–8°C until analysis.

2.3 Instrumentation

A HPLC-MS/MS system coupled with Agilent 6410 QqQ mass spectrometer (Agilent Technologies, CA, USA) attached to Agilent HPLC 1200 Series system (Agilent Technologies, CA, USA) was utilized for the analysis of NT and IS. The mass spectrometer was equipped with an electrospray ionization (ESI) interface. The HPLC system consisted of G1316A binary pump, G1316 temperature regulated column chamber, G1316A degasser, and G1316B autosampler. The instrument was monitored and data acquisition was performed using Mass Hunter software (Agilent Technologies, CA, USA).

2.4 HPLC-MS/MS conditions

Agilent eclipsed plus C18 column (50 mm × 2.1 mm internal diameter, 1.8 µm particle size) (Agilent Technologies, CA, USA) was utilized to perform chromatographic separation of NT and IS at a column oven temperature of 22 ± 2°C. The injection volume was 5 µL and elution of the analyte was achieved in isocratic flow mode using a mixture of formic acid (0.1%) in water (70% v/v, pH∼3.2) and acetonitrile (30% v/v) as mobile phase at a flow rate of 0.3 mL/min. Total run time of the current method was 5 min and NT and IS were detected at 1.4 and 3.1 min retention times (RTs), respectively. A QqQ mass spectrometric detector was used for the identification and quantification of NT and IS. The source of ionization was through ESI operated in the positive mode. The multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode was used for the detection of analytes by monitoring their transitions. Standard solutions of analytes were injected into the mass spectrometer using a syringe pump and the parameters were optimized to achieve highest [M–H]+ abundance. At a flow rate of 12 L/min, high purity nitrogen gas was employed as a drying gas and as a collision gas at a pressure of 60 psi, capillary voltage was 4,000 V, and the ion source temperature was 350°C. Fragmentor voltage was set at 140 and 145 V with collision energy of 16 and 15 eV for NT and IS, respectively. The molecular ion peaks for NT and IS were observed at m/z 163 and 584, respectively, in the positive MS scan.

2.5 Preparation of working standard solution

Stock solution of NT at a concentration of 1.0 mg/mL was prepared by dissolving NT in the mobile phase. The standard working solution-1 (WS-1, 100 µg/mL) was obtained by diluting the stock solution ten folds using mobile phase. The WS-1 was further diluted ten folds using the mobile phase to obtain a standard working solution-2 (WS-2) in order to obtain a final concentration of 10 µg/mL. The stock solution of IS (100 µg/mL) was obtained by dissolving lapatinib in DMSO and the working solution for IS (2 µg/mL, WI) was then prepared by diluting the stock solution using the mobile phase.

2.6 Preparation of quality control solutions and calibration standards (CSs)

Liquid–liquid extraction using ammonia/chloroform was employed for the preparation of CSs and samples extraction. The CSs were prepared by serially diluting the working standard solution in the mobile phase. WS-2 (10 µg/mL) was diluted to achieve 11 calibration concentrations, 5, 10, 15, 30, 50, 100, 150, 200, 300, 400, and 500 ng/mL, keeping the final volume to at least 10 mL for each. The CSs were re-prepared by transferring 10 mL of each CS to a separating flask followed by addition of 5 mL ammonia solution. The flask was shaken and approximately 25 mL of chloroform was added. Flasks were then closed using a stopper and placed on a mechanical shaker for about 1 h. All the flasks were manually shaken again for another 2 min. The chloroform layer was collected and evaporated under vacuum to obtain a solid residue. The dried residue was reconstituted with 10 mL of mobile phase and 0.1 mL IS solution was added to correct any sudden change in MS detection efficiency (WHO, 2014). The quality control solutions were prepared similarly to obtain low quality control (LQC), medium quality control (MQC), and high quality control (HQC) solutions with nominal concentrations of 15, 150, and 400 ng/mL. Blank solutions with and without IS were prepared by following the same procedure by omitting NT alone and NT and IS both, respectively. Blank solutions were injected in the system to rule out any interference at the RTs of NT and IS.

2.7 Extraction of NT from Shammah powder and preparation of sample solution

One gram of Shammah sample was taken in a separating conical flask and the NT was extracted by following the same procedure used for preparing the CSs. Appropriately measured volume of IS was added after final dilution to achieve sample solutions possessing an analytical concentration within the calibration range with the same final IS concentration as in the CSs. The sample solutions were transferred to autosampler inserts and 5 µL of sample from each vial was injected into HPLC-MS/MS for analysis.

2.8 Method validation

The proposed method for analysis of NT in Shammah samples was validated by following the analytical method validation guidelines of USFDA [27] and the general recommendation of ICH [28] with respect to sensitivity, linearity, specificity, accuracy, and precision.

2.8.1 Linearity and sensitivity

Linearity of the developed method was evaluated by injecting six replicates of all the CSs. The ratio of peak area obtained for NT and IS against the nominal NT concentrations were used to plot the calibration curve. A linear least-square regression analysis was performed to assess the linearity using appropriate weighting. The detection limit (LOD) and quantitation limit (LOQ), based on the standard deviation of the intercept and slope of the calibration plot, were calculated to determine the method’s sensitivity. It was calculated using equation (1).

(1) LOD or LOQ = mS n ,

where “S” is the standard deviation of the intercept and “n”’ represents the slope of the calibration plot; and ”m” equals 3.3 for LOD and 10 for LOQ.

2.8.2 Precision and accuracy

To establish the repeatability of the current method, inter- and intra-day precision and accuracy were determined. The QC samples were analyzed at LQC, MQC, and HQC concentrations at three different times on the same day to determine the intra-day precision and accuracy, and the analysis was done at three different times on three different days to determine the inter-day precision and accuracy (six determinations). The percent relative standard deviation (% RSD) and percent relative error (% RE) between the measured and nominal values were used to express precision and accuracy, respectively. The % RSD values less than 15% and % RE values within ± 15% were set at acceptance criteria for precision and accuracy, respectively. The % RSD and % RE were calculated using the following formulae (2) and (3):

(2) % RSD = SD Mean × 100 ,

(3) % RE = ( Average back calculated concentration − Expected concentration ) Expected concentration × 100 .

2.8.3 Specificity and selectivity

Double blank solution (n = 6; no NT and no IS) and blank solution with IS (n = 6) after analysis of highest calibration standard were analyzed in order to establish the specificity and selectivity of the developed method. Interference responses at the RTs of NT and IS was examined and response less than 20% of the lowest calibration standard and 5% of the mean response of the working solution of IS (WI) were considered as acceptance criterion for NT and IS, respectively.

2.9 Statistical analysis

Chemometric analysis of the collected Shammah samples were performed using NCSS-2021 statistical software and the amount of nicotine present in all the samples were compared and analyzed. A commonly used multivariate technique, hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) was employed to divide the samples into clusters on the basis of amount of nicotine present as variables and a dendrogram tree was developed to establish similarities between the samples.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Chromatographic and spectrometric conditions

Chromatographic parameters such as mobile phase composition are extremely important to achieve good chromatographic outcomes including selectivity, sensitivity, symmetric peaks, and short run time. It also affects the ionization characteristics of the analytes in MS detector [29]. Consequently, after several trials, an optimum composition of mobile phase which consisted of formic acid (0.1%) in water (pH ∼ 3.2, 70% v/v) with acetonitrile (30% v/v) using isocratic mode of elution at 0.3 mL/min flow rate offered best peak shape with optimum response and short runtime. Peaks of NT and IS were detected at 1.4 and 3.1 min, respectively, with a total runtime of 5 min. Both NT and IS were found to be resolved properly and no carryover was observed in the blank chromatograms. Representative chromatograms of analytes and blanks are depicted in Figure 2. Lapatinib was chosen as IS for this analysis because it showed closest chromatographic behavior to NT.

Figure 2 Total ion chromatogram MRM chromatograms of (a) NT and lapatinib (IS), (b) blank with IS and (c) double blank (without NT and IS).
Figure 2

Total ion chromatogram MRM chromatograms of (a) NT and lapatinib (IS), (b) blank with IS and (c) double blank (without NT and IS).

To optimize the MS conditions, experiments were conducted by employing positive mode of ionization in order to achieve good detection sensitivity for both precursor and product ions [25,26]. However, higher responses for both NT and IS were achieved in the positive mode in comparison to negative ionization mode. Consequently, positive mode of ionization was finalized for the current HPLC-MS/MS method and optimized to receive the best result. The molecular ion peaks for NT and IS were observed at m/z 163 and m/z 581.1, respectively. Two product ions at m/z 365 and m/z 350 were identified for IS, whereas further fragmentation of NT produced two fragment ions at m/z 130 and m/z 84. In accordance with the established method, these ions were chosen for the MRM of NT and IS. Figure 3 shows the MS/MS spectra obtained for NT and IS.

Figure 3 The MS/MS spectra of NT and lapatinib (IS) in positive mode.
Figure 3

The MS/MS spectra of NT and lapatinib (IS) in positive mode.

3.2 Method validation

3.2.1 Linearity and sensitivity

HPLC-MS/MS analysis of a series of calibration standards were performed (n = 6) and calibration curve was obtained by plotting the peak area ratio of NT to IS against the nominal concentrations to perform a regression analysis using 1/X 2 weighting factor (MS Excel). Results showed excellent linearity within the range 5–500 ng/mL as indicated by the correlation coefficient value (r 2 > 0.999) which was close to unity. The regression equation of the calibration curve was obtained to be y = 3.06x – 10.39. These results indicated good linearity of the current method over a wide range of concentrations. Additionally, the calibration points were validated in order to generate the calibration curve as shown by the low SD value of the intercept and slope. The LOD and LOQ values were calculated to be 4.36 and 13.23 ng/mL, respectively, demonstrating appropriate sensitivity. After that, the working standard solutions above the LOQ (15–500 ng/mL, r 2 > 0.999, y = 3.06x – 10.99) have been used for routine calibration curve preparation and quantification of NT.

3.2.2 Precision, accuracy, and stability

The intra- and inter-day precision and accuracy of NT in the LQC, MQC, and HQC samples are summarized in Table 1. The intra-day precision (% RSD, n = 6) at all three QC concentrations were ≤3.34% and the accuracy (% RE, n = 6) was in the range of −1.26 to 2.46%; whereas, the inter-day precision showed % RSD (n = 6) values ≤3.03% and the accuracy (% RE) values were within −1.45 to 1.57%. These results were within the acceptable limits as required by the guidelines, demonstrating that the current method was precise, accurate, repeatable, and reliable. Recovery of the analyte in the intra- and inter-day analysis at all three QC concentrations were in the range of 100.9–98.8%, which further proved the accuracy of the present method.

Table 1

Intra- and inter-day precision and accuracy results of the developed method for NT in the quality control samples

Parameters LQC (15 ng/mL) MQC (150 ng/mL) HQC (400 ng/mL)
Intra-day analysis* Inter-day analysis** Intra-day analysis* Inter-day analysis** Intra-day analysis* Inter-day analysis**
Mean observed concentrations (ng/mL) 15.09 15.14 149.11 148.68 396.21 395.34
Percent recovery 100.6 100.9 99.4 99.1 99.1 98.8
Standard deviation (SD) 0.51 0.46 3.47 3.58 5.49 5.51
Precision (% RSD) 3.34 3.03 2.32 2.42 1.39 1.40
Accuracy (% RE) 2.46 1.57 −0.30 −1.13 −1.26 −1.45

*Average of 6 replicates of day 1 analysis. **Average of 6 replicates performed in 3 consecutive days.

The stability of the standard solutions has been evaluated using LQC, MQC, and HQC at normal laboratory temperature for 3 days and refrigerated (2–8°C) for 14 days. The overall recovery percentage was in the range of 100 ± 3% indicating good stability for routine analysis purpose.

3.2.3 Specificity/selectivity

It was evident from the representative chromatograms of double blank (no NT and IS) and blank with IS (no NT) that there was no interference at the RTs of NT (1.4 min) as well as IS (3.1 min) and no carryover effect was present for either main analyte (NT) or IS. Consequently, the method was considered to be specific for the analyte determination. The specificity/selectivity of the method was further proved by excellent recovery of analyte (NT) in the assay of QC samples at LQC, MQC, and HQC levels (Tables 1 and 2).

Table 2

Recovery, precision, and accuracy data of NT in Shammah sample*

Nominal concentration (ng/mL) Mean back calculated concentration (ng/mL) Percent recovery SD Precision (% RSD) Relative accuracy error (RE%) Absolute accuracy error (ng/mL)
15.00 15.38 102.5 0.51 3.34 2.51 +0.38
150.00 149.55 99.7 3.47 2.32 −0.30 −0.45
400.00 395.30 98.8 5.49 1.39 −1.17 −4.70

*Average of six determinations.

3.3 Method performance in the presence of Shammah ingredients

In order to ensure the performance of the proposed method, recovery of NT was determined in Shammah samples at LQC (15 ng/mL), MQC (150 ng/mL), and HQC (400 ng/mL) levels. The QC samples were prepared in six replicates and the precision and accuracy for analyte were calculated as % RSD and % RE between the back calculated and nominal concentrations of NT, respectively. Results revealed that the current method was precise and accurate for NT analysis in the Shammah samples, as the % RSD values were below 5% and % RE values were in the range of −1.17 to 2.51%. The recoveries at all QC concentrations were within 100 ± 15% (Table 2). The appropriateness of the method was further demonstrated by the lack of any interference from the sample matrix at the NT and IS retention periods. The acceptable recovery results and absence of interference in the chromatograms of analyte and IS indicated the selectivity of the present analytical method.

3.4 Determination of NT content in Shammah samples

Shammah contains remarkable concentrations of NT along with other constituents with known pharmacological and toxicological potentials. After examining the suitability, the validated method was used to estimate the amount of NT present in the collected 21 Shammah samples and the results are shown in Table 3. The NT present in Shammah samples was extracted in chloroform by following the procedure described in Section 2. Samples were injected into the HPLC-MS/MS system for the detection and quantification of NT using the developed method. All the samples were analyzed in triplicate and results were reported as NT content in mg/g on received basis ±% RSD. As evident from Table 3, NT content present in the samples varied considerably from one sample to another and was detected in the range of 6.94 ± 0.16 to 31.69 ± 0.79 mg/g of Shammah, with an average of 16.58 ± 5.00 mg/g. Maximum NT (31.69 ± 0.79 mg/g) was recorded in Special Shammah collected from Ahad Al Masarihah, while the lowest NT content (6.94 ± 0.16 mg/g) was measured in Khadrah Shammah from Samtah.

Table 3

Nicotine contents observed in different Shammah samples collected from Jazan region of Saudi Arabia

Sample code Shammah samples Collection site/city NT content (mg/g)* ± SD**
SLT-1 Special Shammah Ahad Al Masarihah 31.69 ± 0.79
SLT-2 Khadrah Shammah 14.41 ± 0.27
SLT-3 Arishi Shammah 23.26 ± 0.26
SLT-4 Adani cold 15.33 ± 0.21
SLT-5 Adani hot Shammah 20.04 ± 0.13
SLT-6 Special Shammah Sabya 19.42 ± 0.41
SLT-7 Khadrah Shammah 12.39 ± 0.17
SLT-8 Arishi Shammah 16.32 ± 0.18
SLT-9 Adani cold Shammah 15.54 ± 0.14
SLT-10 Sudani Shammah 13.55 ± 0.17
SLT-11 Suhail Shammah 17.61 ± 0.33
SLT-12 Khadrah Shammah Jazan 10.53 ± 0.15
SLT-13 Arishi Shammah 17.89 ± 0.26
SLT-14 Adani cold 18.15 ± 0.19
SLT-15 Special Shammah Samtah 17.69 ± 0.16
SLT-16 Khadrah Shammah 6.94 ± 0.16
SLT-17 Special Shammah Abu Arish 15.46 ± 0.19
SLT-18 Khadrah Shammah 17.82 ± 0.26
SLT-19 Arishi Shammah 11.00 ± 0.10
SLT-20 Adani cold Shammah 17.76 ± 0.23
SLT-21 Adani hot Shammah 15.46 ± 0.13
Mean value ± SD 16.58 ± 5.00

*On as received basis. **Average of three determinations.

Although the type of tobacco used to prepare all Shammah varieties remains similar, the variation in NT content was due to the variability in amounts of tobacco along with other natural and chemical ingredients used in different types and lots. The variation in the NT content in different Shammah samples is obvious because there is no standard protocol in the preparation being followed. Therefore, same Shammah samples obtained from different locations were found to have different levels of NT. The NT content might even vary from one batch of Shammah to another from same manufacturer (lot variation). Therefore, comparison between the products of same type or the products made at different time points may not be generalized. For instance, the NT content detected in Khadrah Shammah collected from Ahad Al Masarihah was 14.41 ± 0.27 mg/g, while those from Sabya, Jazan, Samtah, and Abu Arish were found to contain 12.39 ± 0.17, 10.53 ± 0.15, 6.94 ± 0.16, and 17.82 ± 0.26 mg/g, respectively. With respect to the location of sample collection, highest average NT content was observed in the sample from Ahad Al Masarihah, whereas the minimum content was found in samples from Samtah.

3.5 Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA)

A cluster-hierarchy was developed using agglomerative hierarchical clustering algorithms represented as a tree diagram also called as dendrogram. Each object was placed in separate clusters and at every step, two most similar clusters were joined into a single new cluster. The HCA of all 21 SLT samples were performed using nicotine content as variable and a dendrogram tree was obtained (Figure 4). The horizontal axis of the dendrogram shows the distance or dissimilarities between the samples and the vertical axis represents the clusters or objects.

Figure 4 Dendrogram tree obtained for the 21 Shammah samples showing clusters of samples and distance indicating similarities between them.
Figure 4

Dendrogram tree obtained for the 21 Shammah samples showing clusters of samples and distance indicating similarities between them.

As evident from Figure 4, all the 21 samples were divided into two distinct clusters which were differentiated by red and blue color lines. The first cluster was the major cluster represented by red horizontal lines consisting of 16 samples with NT content from 11 to 20 mg/g. The other cluster was represented in blue lines and consisted of only three samples SLT-12, SLT-16, and SLT-19 having NT content in range of 6–11 mg/g. Interestingly, two samples, SLT-1 (Special Shammah) and SLT-3 (Arishi Shammah) from Ahad Al Masarihah city could not be placed in any cluster and were different from all other samples since their NT content was more than 20 mg/g. These two samples were separated from cluster – 1 and cluster – 2 with distances more than 1 showing dissimilarities between them. Also, the two samples were separated with a large distance as evident from the figure. This indicated that the tobacco used to prepare these two samples might have different origins than the others as they might be of a grade having higher NT content or a pure NT powder could be added. The dendrogram divides the samples in clusters on the basis of similarities between them. More is the distance between the two samples, more will be the dissimilarity between them. Generally, the distance less than 1 is considered to be significant and two samples separated by distance less than 1 are considered to be similar which might have originated from a single source. Lesser distances will have more probability of getting originated from the same source and these samples share similar characteristics. Fusion of two clusters is represented by splitting of a horizontal line into two horizontal lines on the dendrogram and their position show the dissimilarity between the two clusters.

4 Conclusion

NT is a well-known alkaloid present in tobacco and in addition to its strongly addictive nature it adversely affects almost all organs of the body. Several studies indicated its carcinogenic potential and there are evidences indicating that nitrosation of NT in vivo could lead to formation of known carcinogens including TSNAs. In this research, a fast, sensitive, and selective HPLC-MS/MS method for the detection and quantification of NT was developed and validated. The chromatographic method allowed quick elution of analyte under isocratic mode and applied for determination of NT in the Shammah samples collected from Jazan region of Saudi Arabia. A simple and single-step procedure for the extraction of NT from the SLT matrix was used and the detection was made under MRM using positive mode ESI technique. The present investigation found considerably variable concentrations of NT (6.94 ± 0.16 to 31.69 ± 0.79%) among the tested Shammah samples, which is mainly due to variable amounts of the tobacco used in the mixture from one manufacturer to another. Further research is warranted to measure the contents of minor alkaloids, TSNAs, and other potentially harmful ingredients and to assess the health impact associated with the use of these products. This study would help to enhance the awareness among the common people of the region about the harmful effects associated with the use of Shammah through educational measures and would help the decision makers and government bodies to restrict and minimize its production and sale.

Acknowledgments

The author extends his appreciation to the Deputyship for Research & Innovation, Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia for funding this research work through the project number: ISP22-12.

  1. Funding information: This work was funded by the Deputyship for Research & Innovation, Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia through the project number: ISP22-12.

  2. Author contributions: Conceptualization, formal analysis, writing – original draft preparation, and writing – review and editing: HAA.

  3. Conflict of interest: Author declares no conflict of interest.

  4. Ethical approval: The conducted research is not related to either human or animal use.

  5. Data availability statement: All final data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article. The sub-datasets are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2022-09-14
Revised: 2023-02-10
Accepted: 2023-02-24
Published Online: 2023-03-17

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2022-0300
Keywords for this article
LC-MS/MS; Jazan; nicotine; Saudi Arabia; Shammah; smokeless tobacco
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Characteristics, source, and health risk assessment of aerosol polyaromatic hydrocarbons in the rural and urban regions of western Saudi Arabia
  2. Regular Articles
  3. A network-based correlation research between element electronegativity and node importance
  4. Pomegranate attenuates kidney injury in cyclosporine-induced nephrotoxicity in rats by suppressing oxidative stress
  5. Ab initio study of fundamental properties of XInO3 (X = K, Rb, Cs) perovskites
  6. Responses of feldspathic sandstone and sand-reconstituted soil C and N to freeze–thaw cycles
  7. Robust fractional control based on high gain observers design (RNFC) for a Spirulina maxima culture interfaced with an advanced oxidation process
  8. Study on arsenic speciation and redistribution mechanism in Lonicera japonica plants via synchrotron techniques
  9. Optimization of machining Nilo 36 superalloy parameters in turning operation
  10. Vacuum impregnation pre-treatment: A novel method for incorporating mono- and divalent cations into potato strips to reduce the acrylamide formation in French fries
  11. Characterization of effective constituents in Acanthopanax senticosus fruit for blood deficiency syndrome based on the chinmedomics strategy
  12. Comparative analysis of the metabolites in Pinellia ternata from two producing regions using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization–tandem mass spectrometry
  13. The assessment of environmental parameter along the desalination plants in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
  14. Effects of harpin and carbendazim on antioxidant accumulation in young jujube leaves
  15. The effects of in ovo injected with sodium borate on hatching performance and small intestine morphology in broiler chicks
  16. Optimization of cutting forces and surface roughness via ANOVA and grey relational analysis in machining of In718
  17. Essential oils of Origanum compactum Benth: Chemical characterization, in vitro, in silico, antioxidant, and antibacterial activities
  18. Translocation of tungsten(vi) oxide/gadolinium(iii) fluoride in tellurite glasses towards improvement of gamma-ray attenuation features in high-density glass shields
  19. Mechanical properties, elastic moduli, and gamma ray attenuation competencies of some TeO2–WO3–GdF3 glasses: Tailoring WO3–GdF3 substitution toward optimum behavioral state range
  20. Comparison between the CIDR or sponge with hormone injection to induce estrus synchronization for twining and sex preselection in Naimi sheep
  21. Exergetic performance analyses of three different cogeneration plants
  22. Psoralea corylifolia (babchi) seeds enhance proliferation of normal human cultured melanocytes: GC–MS profiling and biological investigation
  23. A novel electrochemical micro-titration method for quantitative evaluation of the DPPH free radical scavenging capacity of caffeic acid
  24. Comparative study between supported bimetallic catalysts for nitrate remediation in water
  25. Persicaline, an alkaloid from Salvadora persica, inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis and cell-cycle arrest in MCF-7 cells
  26. Determination of nicotine content in locally produced smokeless tobacco (Shammah) samples from Jazan region of Saudi Arabia using a convenient HPLC-MS/MS method
  27. Changes in oxidative stress markers in pediatric burn injury over a 1-week period
  28. Integrated geophysical techniques applied for petroleum basins structural characterization in the central part of the Western Desert, Egypt
  29. The impact of chemical modifications on gamma-ray attenuation properties of some WO3-reinforced tellurite glasses
  30. Microwave and Cs+-assisted chemo selective reaction protocol for synthesizing 2-styryl quinoline biorelevant molecules
  31. Structural, physical, and radiation absorption properties of a significant nuclear power plant component: A comparison between REX-734 and 316L SS austenitic stainless steels
  32. Effect of Moringa oleifera on serum YKL-40 level: In vivo rat periodontitis model
  33. Investigating the impact of CO2 emissions on the COVID-19 pandemic by generalized linear mixed model approach with inverse Gaussian and gamma distributions
  34. Influence of WO3 content on gamma rays attenuation characteristics of phosphate glasses at low energy range
  35. Study on CO2 absorption performance of ternary DES formed based on DEA as promoting factor
  36. Performance analyses of detonation engine cogeneration cycles
  37. Sterols from Centaurea pumilio L. with cell proliferative activity: In vitro and in silico studies
  38. Untargeted metabolomics revealing changes in aroma substances in flue-cured tobacco
  39. Effect of pumpkin enriched with calcium lactate on iron status in an animal model of postmenopausal osteoporosis
  40. Energy consumption, mechanical and metallographic properties of cryogenically treated tool steels
  41. Optimization of ultra-high pressure-assisted extraction of total phenols from Eucommia ulmoides leaves by response surface methodology
  42. Harpin enhances antioxidant nutrient accumulation and decreases enzymatic browning in stored soybean sprouts
  43. Physicochemical and biological properties of carvacrol
  44. Radix puerariae in the treatment of diabetic nephropathy: A network pharmacology analysis and experimental validation
  45. Anti-Alzheimer, antioxidants, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase effects of Taverniera glabra mediated ZnO and Fe2O3 nanoparticles in alloxan-induced diabetic rats
  46. Experimental study on photocatalytic CO2 reduction performance of ZnS/CdS-TiO2 nanotube array thin films
  47. Epoxy-reinforced heavy metal oxides for gamma ray shielding purposes
  48. Black mulberry (Morus nigra L.) fruits: As a medicinal plant rich in human health-promoting compounds
  49. Promising antioxidant and antimicrobial effects of essential oils extracted from fruits of Juniperus thurifera: In vitro and in silico investigations
  50. Chloramine-T-induced oxidation of Rizatriptan Benzoate: An integral chemical and spectroscopic study of products, mechanisms and kinetics
  51. Study on antioxidant and antimicrobial potential of chemically profiled essential oils extracted from Juniperus phoenicea (L.) by use of in vitro and in silico approaches
  52. Screening and characterization of fungal taxol-producing endophytic fungi for evaluation of antimicrobial and anticancer activities
  53. Mineral composition, principal polyphenolic components, and evaluation of the anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antioxidant properties of Cytisus villosus Pourr leaf extracts
  54. In vitro antiproliferative efficacy of Annona muricata seed and fruit extracts on several cancer cell lines
  55. An experimental study for chemical characterization of artificial anterior cruciate ligament with coated chitosan as biomaterial
  56. Prevalence of residual risks of the transfusion-transmitted infections in Riyadh hospitals: A two-year retrospective study
  57. Computational and experimental investigation of antibacterial and antifungal properties of Nicotiana tabacum extracts
  58. Reinforcement of cementitious mortars with hemp fibers and shives
  59. X-ray shielding properties of bismuth-borate glass doped with rare earth ions
  60. Green supported silver nanoparticles over modified reduced graphene oxide: Investigation of its antioxidant and anti-ovarian cancer effects
  61. Orthogonal synthesis of a versatile building block for dual functionalization of targeting vectors
  62. Thymbra spicata leaf extract driven biogenic synthesis of Au/Fe3O4 nanocomposite and its bio-application in the treatment of different types of leukemia
  63. The role of Ag2O incorporation in nuclear radiation shielding behaviors of the Li2O–Pb3O4–SiO2 glass system: A multi-step characterization study
  64. A stimuli-responsive in situ spray hydrogel co-loaded with naringenin and gentamicin for chronic wounds
  65. Assessment of the impact of γ-irradiation on the piperine content and microbial quality of black pepper
  66. Antioxidant, sensory, and functional properties of low-alcoholic IPA beer with Pinus sylvestris L. shoots addition fermented using unconventional yeast
  67. Screening and optimization of extracellular pectinase produced by Bacillus thuringiensis SH7
  68. Determination of polyphenols in Chinese jujube using ultra-performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry
  69. Synergistic effects of harpin and NaCl in determining soybean sprout quality under non-sterile conditions
  70. Field evaluation of different eco-friendly alternative control methods against Panonychus citri [Acari: Tetranychidae] spider mite and its predators in citrus orchards
  71. Exploring the antimicrobial potential of biologically synthesized zero valent iron nanoparticles
  72. NaCl regulates goldfish growth and survival at three food supply levels under hypoxia
  73. An exploration of the physical, optical, mechanical, and radiation shielding properties of PbO–MgO–ZnO–B2O3 glasses
  74. A novel statistical modeling of air pollution and the COVID-19 pandemic mortality data by Poisson, geometric, and negative binomial regression models with fixed and random effects
  75. Treatment activity of the injectable hydrogels loaded with dexamethasone In(iii) complex on glioma by inhibiting the VEGF signaling pathway
  76. An alternative approach for the excess lifetime cancer risk and prediction of radiological parameters
  77. Panax ginseng leaf aqueous extract mediated green synthesis of AgNPs under ultrasound condition and investigation of its anti-lung adenocarcinoma effects
  78. Study of hydrolysis and production of instant ginger (Zingiber officinale) tea
  79. Novel green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Salvia rosmarinus extract for treatment of human lung cancer
  80. Evaluation of second trimester plasma lipoxin A4, VEGFR-1, IL-6, and TNF-α levels in pregnant women with gestational diabetes mellitus
  81. Antidiabetic, antioxidant and cytotoxicity activities of ortho- and para-substituted Schiff bases derived from metformin hydrochloride: Validation by molecular docking and in silico ADME studies
  82. Antioxidant, antidiabetic, antiglaucoma, and anticholinergic effects of Tayfi grape (Vitis vinifera): A phytochemical screening by LC-MS/MS analysis
  83. Identification of genetic polymorphisms in the stearoyl CoA desaturase gene and its association with milk quality traits in Najdi sheep
  84. Cold-acclimation effect on cadmium absorption and biosynthesis of polyphenolics, and free proline and photosynthetic pigments in Spirogyra aequinoctialis
  85. Analysis of secondary metabolites in Xinjiang Morus nigra leaves using different extraction methods with UPLC-Q/TOF-MS/MS technology
  86. Nanoarchitectonics and performance evaluation of a Fe3O4-stabilized Pickering emulsion-type differential pressure plugging agent
  87. Investigating pyrolysis characteristics of Shengdong coal through Py-GC/MS
  88. Extraction, phytochemical characterization, and antifungal activity of Salvia rosmarinus extract
  89. Introducing a novel and natural antibiotic for the treatment of oral pathogens: Abelmoschus esculentus green-formulated silver nanoparticles
  90. Optimization of gallic acid-enriched ultrasonic-assisted extraction from mango peels
  91. Effect of gamma rays irradiation in the structure, optical, and electrical properties of samarium doped bismuth titanate ceramics
  92. Combinatory in silico investigation for potential inhibitors from Curcuma sahuynhensis Škorničk. & N.S. Lý volatile phytoconstituents against influenza A hemagglutinin, SARS-CoV-2 main protease, and Omicron-variant spike protein
  93. Physical, mechanical, and gamma ray shielding properties of the Bi2O3–BaO–B2O3–ZnO–As2O3–MgO–Na2O glass system
  94. Twofold interpenetrated 3D Cd(ii) complex: Crystal structure and luminescent property
  95. Study on the microstructure and soil quality variation of composite soil with soft rock and sand
  96. Ancient spring waters still emerging and accessible in the Roman Forum area: Chemical–physical and microbiological characterization
  97. Extraction and characterization of type I collagen from scales of Mexican Biajaiba fish
  98. Finding small molecular compounds to decrease trimethylamine oxide levels in atherosclerosis by virtual screening
  99. Prefatory in silico studies and in vitro insecticidal effect of Nigella sativa (L.) essential oil and its active compound (carvacrol) against the Callosobruchus maculatus adults (Fab), a major pest of chickpea
  100. Polymerized methyl imidazole silver bromide (CH3C6H5AgBr)6: Synthesis, crystal structures, and catalytic activity
  101. Using calcined waste fish bones as a green solid catalyst for biodiesel production from date seed oil
  102. Influence of the addition of WO3 on TeO2–Na2O glass systems in view of the feature of mechanical, optical, and photon attenuation
  103. Naringin ameliorates 5-fluorouracil elicited neurotoxicity by curtailing oxidative stress and iNOS/NF-ĸB/caspase-3 pathway
  104. GC-MS profile of extracts of an endophytic fungus Alternaria and evaluation of its anticancer and antibacterial potentialities
  105. Green synthesis, chemical characterization, and antioxidant and anti-colorectal cancer effects of vanadium nanoparticles
  106. Determination of caffeine content in coffee drinks prepared in some coffee shops in the local market in Jeddah City, Saudi Arabia
  107. A new 3D supramolecular Cu(ii) framework: Crystal structure and photocatalytic characteristics
  108. Bordeaux mixture accelerates ripening, delays senescence, and promotes metabolite accumulation in jujube fruit
  109. Important application value of injectable hydrogels loaded with omeprazole Schiff base complex in the treatment of pancreatitis
  110. Color tunable benzothiadiazole-based small molecules for lightening applications
  111. Investigation of structural, dielectric, impedance, and mechanical properties of hydroxyapatite-modified barium titanate composites for biomedical applications
  112. Metal gel particles loaded with epidermal cell growth factor promote skin wound repair mechanism by regulating miRNA
  113. In vitro exploration of Hypsizygus ulmarius (Bull.) mushroom fruiting bodies: Potential antidiabetic and anti-inflammatory agent
  114. Alteration in the molecular structure of the adenine base exposed to gamma irradiation: An ESR study
  115. Comprehensive study of optical, thermal, and gamma-ray shielding properties of Bi2O3–ZnO–PbO–B2O3 glasses
  116. Lewis acids as co-catalysts in Pd-based catalyzed systems of the octene-1 hydroethoxycarbonylation reaction
  117. Synthesis, Hirshfeld surface analysis, thermal, and selective α-glucosidase inhibitory studies of Schiff base transition metal complexes
  118. Protective properties of AgNPs green-synthesized by Abelmoschus esculentus on retinal damage on the virtue of its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects in diabetic rat
  119. Effects of green decorated AgNPs on lignin-modified magnetic nanoparticles mediated by Cydonia on cecal ligation and puncture-induced sepsis
  120. Treatment of gastric cancer by green mediated silver nanoparticles using Pistacia atlantica bark aqueous extract
  121. Preparation of newly developed porcelain ceramics containing WO3 nanoparticles for radiation shielding applications
  122. Utilization of computational methods for the identification of new natural inhibitors of human neutrophil elastase in inflammation therapy
  123. Some anticancer agents as effective glutathione S-transferase (GST) inhibitors
  124. Clay-based bricks’ rich illite mineral for gamma-ray shielding applications: An experimental evaluation of the effect of pressure rates on gamma-ray attenuation parameters
  125. Stability kinetics of orevactaene pigments produced by Epicoccum nigrum in solid-state fermentation
  126. Treatment of denture stomatitis using iron nanoparticles green-synthesized by Silybum marianum extract
  127. Characterization and antioxidant potential of white mustard (Brassica hirta) leaf extract and stabilization of sunflower oil
  128. Characteristics of Langmuir monomolecular monolayers formed by the novel oil blends
  129. Strategies for optimizing the single GdSrFeO4 phase synthesis
  130. Oleic acid and linoleic acid nanosomes boost immunity and provoke cell death via the upregulation of beta-defensin-4 at genetic and epigenetic levels
  131. Unraveling the therapeutic potential of Bombax ceiba roots: A comprehensive study of chemical composition, heavy metal content, antibacterial activity, and in silico analysis
  132. Green synthesis of AgNPs using plant extract and investigation of its anti-human colorectal cancer application
  133. The adsorption of naproxen on adsorbents obtained from pepper stalk extract by green synthesis
  134. Treatment of gastric cancer by silver nanoparticles encapsulated by chitosan polymers mediated by Pistacia atlantica extract under ultrasound condition
  135. In vitro protective and anti-inflammatory effects of Capparis spinosa and its flavonoids profile
  136. Wear and corrosion behavior of TiC and WC coatings deposited on high-speed steels by electro-spark deposition
  137. Therapeutic effects of green-formulated gold nanoparticles by Origanum majorana on spinal cord injury in rats
  138. Melanin antibacterial activity of two new strains, SN1 and SN2, of Exophiala phaeomuriformis against five human pathogens
  139. Evaluation of the analgesic and anesthetic properties of silver nanoparticles supported over biodegradable acacia gum-modified magnetic nanoparticles
  140. Review Articles
  141. Role and mechanism of fruit waste polyphenols in diabetes management
  142. A comprehensive review of non-alkaloidal metabolites from the subfamily Amaryllidoideae (Amaryllidaceae)
  143. Discovery of the chemical constituents, structural characteristics, and pharmacological functions of Chinese caterpillar fungus
  144. Eco-friendly green approach of nickel oxide nanoparticles for biomedical applications
  145. Advances in the pharmaceutical research of curcumin for oral administration
  146. Rapid Communication
  147. Determination of the contents of bioactive compounds in St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum): Comparison of commercial and wild samples
  148. Retraction
  149. Retraction of “Two mixed-ligand coordination polymers based on 2,5-thiophenedicarboxylic acid and flexible N-donor ligands: The protective effect on periodontitis via reducing the release of IL-1β and TNF-α”
  150. Topical Issue on Phytochemicals, biological and toxicological analysis of aromatic medicinal plants
  151. Anti-plasmodial potential of selected medicinal plants and a compound Atropine isolated from Eucalyptus obliqua
  152. Anthocyanin extract from black rice attenuates chronic inflammation in DSS-induced colitis mouse model by modulating the gut microbiota
  153. Evaluation of antibiofilm and cytotoxicity effect of Rumex vesicarius methanol extract
  154. Chemical compositions of Litsea umbellata and inhibition activities
  155. Green synthesis, characterization of silver nanoparticles using Rhynchosia capitata leaf extract and their biological activities
  156. GC-MS analysis and antibacterial activities of some plants belonging to the genus Euphorbia on selected bacterial isolates
  157. The abrogative effect of propolis on acrylamide-induced toxicity in male albino rats: Histological study
  158. A phytoconstituent 6-aminoflavone ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced oxidative stress mediated synapse and memory dysfunction via p-Akt/NF-kB pathway in albino mice
  159. Anti-diabetic potentials of Sorbaria tomentosa Lindl. Rehder: Phytochemistry (GC-MS analysis), α-amylase, α-glucosidase inhibitory, in vivo hypoglycemic, and biochemical analysis
  160. Assessment of cytotoxic and apoptotic activities of the Cassia angustifolia aqueous extract against SW480 colon cancer
  161. Biochemical analysis, antioxidant, and antibacterial efficacy of the bee propolis extract (Hymenoptera: Apis mellifera) against Staphylococcus aureus-induced infection in BALB/c mice: In vitro and in vivo study
  162. Assessment of essential elements and heavy metals in Saudi Arabian rice samples underwent various processing methods
  163. Two new compounds from leaves of Capparis dongvanensis (Sy, B. H. Quang & D. V. Hai) and inhibition activities
  164. Hydroxyquinoline sulfanilamide ameliorates STZ-induced hyperglycemia-mediated amyleoid beta burden and memory impairment in adult mice
  165. An automated reading of semi-quantitative hemagglutination results in microplates: Micro-assay for plant lectins
  166. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry assessment of essential and toxic trace elements in traditional spices consumed by the population of the Middle Eastern region in their recipes
  167. Phytochemical analysis and anticancer activity of the Pithecellobium dulce seed extract in colorectal cancer cells
  168. Impact of climatic disturbances on the chemical compositions and metabolites of Salvia officinalis
  169. Physicochemical characterization, antioxidant and antifungal activities of essential oils of Urginea maritima and Allium sativum
  170. Phytochemical analysis and antifungal efficiency of Origanum majorana extracts against some phytopathogenic fungi causing tomato damping-off diseases
  171. Special Issue on 4th IC3PE
  172. Graphene quantum dots: A comprehensive overview
  173. Studies on the intercalation of calcium–aluminium layered double hydroxide-MCPA and its controlled release mechanism as a potential green herbicide
  174. Synergetic effect of adsorption and photocatalysis by zinc ferrite-anchored graphitic carbon nitride nanosheet for the removal of ciprofloxacin under visible light irradiation
  175. Exploring anticancer activity of the Indonesian guava leaf (Psidium guajava L.) fraction on various human cancer cell lines in an in vitro cell-based approach
  176. The comparison of gold extraction methods from the rock using thiourea and thiosulfate
  177. Special Issue on Marine environmental sciences and significance of the multidisciplinary approaches
  178. Sorption of alkylphenols and estrogens on microplastics in marine conditions
  179. Cytotoxic ketosteroids from the Red Sea soft coral Dendronephthya sp.
  180. Antibacterial and biofilm prevention metabolites from Acanthophora spicifera
  181. Characteristics, source, and health risk assessment of aerosol polyaromatic hydrocarbons in the rural and urban regions of western Saudi Arabia
  182. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Energy, Environmental and Biological Applications - Part II
  183. Green synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of antibacterial activities of cobalt nanoparticles produced by marine fungal species Periconia prolifica
  184. Combustion-mediated sol–gel preparation of cobalt-doped ZnO nanohybrids for the degradation of acid red and antibacterial performance
  185. Perinatal supplementation with selenium nanoparticles modified with ascorbic acid improves hepatotoxicity in rat gestational diabetes
  186. Evaluation and chemical characterization of bioactive secondary metabolites from endophytic fungi associated with the ethnomedicinal plant Bergenia ciliata
  187. Enhancing photovoltaic efficiency with SQI-Br and SQI-I sensitizers: A comparative analysis
  188. Nanostructured p-PbS/p-CuO sulfide/oxide bilayer heterojunction as a promising photoelectrode for hydrogen gas generation
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