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Phytochemical analysis and antifungal efficiency of Origanum majorana extracts against some phytopathogenic fungi causing tomato damping-off diseases

  • Fatimah Al-Otibi , Reem A. Alshahrani , Raedah I. Alharbi and Mohamed Taha Yassin EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: December 31, 2023
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Open Chemistry
From the journal Open Chemistry Volume 21 Issue 1

Abstract

Plant diseases represent one of the major problems causing yield loss of tomato crops, especially root rot and seedling damping-off diseases caused by some phytopathogenic fungi like Fusarium solani (Fs), F. oxysporum (Fo), and Macrophomina phaseolina (Mp) frequently detected in tomato either alone or in combination infection. The objective of the present study is to assess the antifungal activity of Origanum majorana extracts against the phytopathogenic fungi, Fs, Fo, and Mp, thereby avoiding controlling the disease with chemical fungicides. In this context, the acetonic extracts of O. majorana exhibited the highest antifungal activity against the tested phytopathogens. However, F. solani exhibited high resistance to Ridomil fungicide at the tested concentrations. A chemical analysis of the O. majorana acetonic extract was conducted to determine the main phytoactive constituents exhibiting fungicidal activity. In this regard, gas chromatography and mass spectrometry confirmed that 4-terpineol was the main phytoactive compound followed by γ-terpinolene exhibiting relative percentages of 24.36 and 8.26%, respectively. These results proved that the marjoram extract may contribute to the development of an alternative and natural fungicide to protect tomato crops from damping off and root rot diseases, avoiding the usage of chemical fungicides.

Keywords: sweet marjoram; antimycotic activity; Ridomil; GC-MS analysis

1 Introduction

Because of the widespread consumption of tomatoes as well as their nutritional and economic importance to farmers, tomatoes are regarded as an essential tropical crop [1]. Fusarium solani, F. oxysporum, and Macrophomina phaseolina are responsible for tomato seedling damping-off disease resulting in huge economic loss and poor quality of yield [2]. Seedling damping-off disease can be controlled by the application of chemical fungicides, the use of pathogen-resistant varieties, and crop rotation [3]. Although chemical fungicides have proven to be effective in preventing the spread of fungal diseases, their repeated use has led to sustained residual toxicity in tomatoes, environmental pollution, disturbing the soil’s biological ecology by killing the useful microflora and causing immense fungicide resistance development [4,5]. Recently, studies have been conducted on the development of biocontrol agents that could be effective and safer for the environment [6]. Within this context, the application of plant extracts as biological controls of tomato damping-off diseases was reviewed [7]. These plant extracts are recognized as safe for the environment, are natural sources of antimicrobials that are easily decomposed by soil microflora, and do not cause any health or environmental hazards [8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16]. Origanum majorana extracts are investigated as natural sources of bioactive agents that are environmentally safe, and they do not pose protracted health hazards at any concentration [17]. O. majorana extracts have been investigated to control plant diseases caused by bacterial and fungal plant pathogens [18]. There are numerous studies on pathogens that have been effectively controlled by the use of marjoram extracts such as Sclerotinia sclerotiorum [19], Verticillium dahliae, and Penicillium aurantiogriseum [20], Botrytis cinerea which cause gray mold disease in many plants [21], Aspergillus flavus, A. fumigatus, Microsporum gypseum, Cladosporium herbarium, Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, Trichophyton mentagrophytes [22], Candida albicans [17,23], Alternaria alternata, Bipolaris oryzae, Fusarium graminearum, Fusarium equiseti, and Fusarium verticillioides [24]. Although the number of bio-control agents is developing, they still represent only a tiny proportion of applicable biocides. Consequently, there is a crucial need to find alternative approaches for controlling damping-off and root rot diseases in tomatoes. However, the use of O. majorana extracts as biocontrol agents against tomato phytopathogenic fungi has received far less attention [25]. Therefore, the objectives of the present study were planned to evaluate the antifungal activity of Origanum extracts against some phytopathogenic fungi (Fusarium oxysporum (Fo), F. solani (Fs), and M. phaseolina (Mp)) causing tomato damping-off disease and to compare efficacy of Origanum extracts as biocontrol agent with that of reference fungicide (Ridomil) in prevention of tomato phytopathogenic fungi in vitro.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Preparation of O. majorana extracts

Marjoram was purchased from Riyadh markets, Saudi Arabia. The plant (O. majorana) was identified and deposited with voucher number KSU-16653 by the herbarium of the Botany Department, College of Science, King Saud University. The active phytochemicals of Marjoram were extracted using four different solvents (ethanol, methanol, acetone, and distilled water) with corresponding polarity indexes of 4.3, 5.1, 5.1, and 10.2, respectively. A difference in the polarity of the used solvents allows the extraction of all active phytochemicals [26]. Disinfection of marjoram was performed using 0.5% sodium hypochloride (NaOCl) followed by washing of the plant three successive times with distilled water, and finally, the plant was left in the shade to dry. Maceration of the plant was done to attain a homogenized fine powder. Plant extracts were prepared by soaking 50 g of plant powder in four solvents (10 ml of solvent/g of plant powder) with stirring for 48 h, filtered through double layers of muslin, and filtered again through Whatman filter paper No. (41) to remove plant debris. and finally centrifuged at 9,000 rpm for 10 min to obtain a clear filtrate. The supernatants of all extracts were evaporated using a rotatory evaporator to concentrate the marjoram extracts and then refrigerated at 4°C until used.

2.2 Fungal cultures

Fungal cultures of F. oxysporum ATCC-52422, Fusarium solani ATTC-11712, and M. phaseolina ATCC-64334 were provided from the culture collection of the Plant Pathology Lab. at Botany and Microbiology Department, King Saudi University, Riyadh, K.S.A. The cultures were renewed on potato dextrose agar (PDA) plates, preserved in slants, and stored in a fridge at 5°C until used.

2.3 Screening of antifungal activity of marjoram extracts

Antifungal activity was evaluated on tomato phytopathogenic fungi using the food poisoning technique (Mostafa et al., 2013). Sticky plant extracts were re-dissolved in (5 ml) the corresponding solvent, sterilized with a Millipore filter (0.22 µm pores), and mixed with sterile PDA medium to obtain a final concentration of 1.0 mg ml−1 of the marjoram extract and then poured in sterile Petri dishes (90 mm diameter). For control, 5 ml of Millipore-sterilized solvents was added to (PDA) plates. Discs of 7 mm diameter of phytopathogenic fungi were cut from the periphery of 6 days actively growing cultures and placed over the center of Petri dishes of treatment and control sets and then incubated at 25°C ± 2°C for 7 days. The fungal colony diameter of treatments and control sets were measured using Vernier calipers, and the inhibition of mycelial growth was computed using the following formula: Inhibition of fungal mycelial growth (%) = (DC − DT)/DC × 100 (where DC and DT are the fungal colony diameters (mm) in control and treatment).

2.4 Efficiency of standard fungicide (Ridomil Gold) against tomato phytopathogenic fungi

The antifungal efficacy of Mefenoxam (Metalaxyl-M) with trade name (Ridomil Gold SL, 48%) was evaluated using a food poisoning technique. Different concentrations of Mefenoxam (active ingredient) (0.0, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 ppm) were prepared by mixing a measured volume of fungicide with a known volume of sterile (PDA). Fungal plugs of phytopathogenic fungi (7 mm in diameter) were obtained and placed at the center of Petri dishes containing PDA medium, supplemented with various concentrations of fungicide. The plates were incubated at 25°C ± 2°C, and the radial growth of the phytopathogenic fungi, on both control and treated plates, was estimated using Vernier calipers, and the growth inhibition percentage was computed.

2.5 Fungicidal bioassay of marjoram extracts

The marjoram (O. majorana) extract was manipulated to determine its minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimal fungicidal concentrations (MFCs) to evaluate its efficiency in controlling tomato phytopathogenic fungi compared with standard fungicide (Ridomil Gold SL, 48%).

2.5.1 Detection of MICs of O. majorana

The MIC values were determined as the minimal concentration at which minimal growth was observed compared to the control. MIC was evaluated for the acetonic extract of O. majorana as it demonstrated the highest antifungal efficiency. Different concentrations of the acetonic marjoram extract (0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and 4.0 mg/ml) were prepared separately by dissolving their requisite amount in a 10 ml of acetone, sterilized through a Millipore filter, and mixed with the PDA medium to obtain their final concentrations. Fungal discs of pathogenic fungi (7 mm in diameter) were placed at the center of Petri dishes containing PDA medium of various marjoram extract concentrations. The plates were incubated at 25°C ± 2°C, and the fungal growth was measured by Vernier calipers after 6 days. The antimycotic efficacy of the marjoram extract was compared with the fungicidal potency of the reference fungicide with three replications. The fungicidal bioactivity of the marjoram extract was computed and MIC was detected.

2.5.2 Detection of MFC

The MFCs of the acetonic marjoram extract were achieved by picking agar discs from plates showing no visible fungal growth, inoculating on sterile PDA plates, and then incubating at 25°C for 7 days. After incubation, plates showing complete inhibition of fungal growth were recorded as the MFC.

2.6 Ultracellular effect of the acetonic marjoram extract on the fungal cells of phytopathogens using SEM

Mycelial strips of F. solani were selected to demonstrate the effect of the acetonic marjoram extract on the fungal cell morphology. Hyphal strips were obtained from marjoram-treated plates grown on PDA of concentration 1 mg/ml and fixed in 2.5% glutaraldehyde/sodium phosphate buffer (0.13 M, pH 7.2) overnight. The specimens were washed three times with buffer and then post-fixed in osmium tetraoxide for 2 h, washed again with buffer, and dehydrated using increasing ethanol levels (30–100%) for 15 min at each step. The specimens were dried at the critical point and coated with carbon to be examined using a scanning electron microscope (JEOL JSM-6380 LA) operating at 20 kV.

2.7 Gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of the acetonic marjoram extract

Acetonic extract of marjoram (O. majorana) was analyzed using a GC-MS Agilent system (model GC-7890B-MS-5975, Agilent Technologies, USA). The analysis was carried out using an HP5MS capillary column (30 m × 0.25 mm; 0.25 μm film thickness). The operating conditions were as follows: injection and detector temperature, 250 and 300°C, respectively; carrier gas, helium with a flow rate of 1.0 ml/min. The initial oven temperature program was 50–300°C, increased at a rate of 5°C/min, then by 9°C/min to 250°C. Mass spectrometer conditions were as follows: ionization potential, 70 eV; mass range from m/z, 50–650 amu; and electron multiplier energy, 2,000 V. The total run time was 60 min and the bioactive compounds of the Majoram extract were identified by comparison of their relative retention times and the mass spectra with those authentic reference compounds shown in the literature and by computer matching of their MS spectra with Wiley and Nist, 8 mass spectral library [26].

2.8 Statistical analysis

All experiments were performed in three replicates for each treatment. The data were reported as mean ± SE (standard error) and analyzed statistically using a one-way analysis of variance. Differences among the mean values were determined for significance at P ≤ 0.05 (by SPSS, 16.1 Chicago, USA).

3 Results

3.1 Screening of antifungal activity of marjoram extracts

The antifungal activity of marjoram (O. majorana) extracts was screened and evaluated against some tomato phytopathogenic fungi (F. oxysporum, F. solani, and M. phaseolina) in vitro (Table 1). The acetonic extract of marjoram at 1 mg/ml was highly effective in suppressing the mycelial growth of F. oxysporum, F. solani, and M. phaseolina to 78.13, 72.92, and 83.33% compared to the non-treated control. The marjoram ethanolic extract was moderately effective in reducing the mycelial growth of all concerned tomato phytopathogens to 55.17, 60.42, and 56.25% respectively, while methanolic and aqueous extracts of marjoram were less efficient in controlling the studied phytopathogenic fungi.

Table 1

Antifungal screening test of different marjoram extracts (1 mg/ml) against tomato phytopathogenic fungi

Marjoram-extract conc. (1 mg/ml) Diameter of mycelial fungal growth (mm) Percentage of mycelial growth inhibition
Fo Fs Mp Fo Fs Mp
Ethanolic extract 3.58* ± 0.17 3.17* ± 0.46 3.5 ± 0.14 55.17 60.42 56.25
Methanolic extract 5.85* ± 0.08 6.25* ± 0.14 4.17* ± 0.08 30.21 21.88 47.92
Acetonic extract 1.75± 0.43 2.17 ± 0.12 1.33 ± 0.23 78.13 72.92 83.33
Aqueous extract 7.00 ± 0.06 6.17 ± 0.17 6.0* ± 0.14 12.50 22.92 25.00
Control (00.0) 8.00 ± 0.13 8.00 ± 0.10 8.00 ± 0.11 — — —

* Fo: Fusarium oxysporum; Fs: Fusarium solani; Mp: Macrophomina phaseolina.

Values in the same column followed by asterisk (*) are significantly different at P = 0.05.

Data are mean (n = 3) ± SE of three replicates.

3.2 Efficiency of standard fungicide (Ridomil Gold) against tomato phytopathogenic fungi

M. phaseolina was the most sensitive fungal isolate to Ridomil-Gold fungicide at a concentration of 0.5 ppm, F. oxysporum was moderately affected, whereas F. solani was resistant to ridomil as shown in Table 2. At a concentration of 1.0 ppm, ridomil prevented the mycelial growth of M. phaseolina completely and inhibited the F. oxysprum and F. solani by 67.25 and 53.5%, respectively. Moreover, the fungicidal activity of ridomil against the tomato phytopathogens was obvious and completely suppressed the fungal growth of M. phaseolina and F. oxysporum and inhibited the growth of F. solani to 80.38% at a concentration of 2.00 ppm, respectively. Ridomil-Gold was strongly effective against M. phaseolina with an MIC of 0.125 ppm and an MFC of 1.0 ppm while it showed fungistatic activity against F. oxysporum with an MIC of 1.0 and an MFC of 2 ppm.

Table 2

Antifungal efficiency of standard fungicide (Ridomil-Gold) against some tomato phytopathogenic fungi

Ridomil-Gold conc. (ppm) Diameter of the mycelial fungal growth (mm) Inhibition of the mycelial fungal growth percentage
Fo Fs Mp Fo Fs Mp
0.000 80.0 ± 0.00 80.0 ± 0.00 80.0 ± 0.00 — — —
0.125 57.7* ± 1.21 60.0* ± 2.13 46.7* ± 1.12 27.88 25.00 41.63
0.250 52.3* ± 1.09 58.3 ± 1.46 19.2* ± 1.04 34.63 27.13 76.00
0.500 44.4* ± 0.49 51.0 ± 1.83 0.00 ± 0.00 44.50 36.25 100.0
1.000 26.2 ± 0.19 37.2 ± 1.39 0.00 ± 0.00 67.25 53.50 100.0
2.000 0.00 ± 0.00 15.7 ± 1.75 0.00 ± 0.00 100.0 80.38 100.0

Fo: Fusarium oxysporum; Fs: Fusarium solani; Mp: Macrophomina phaseolina.Values in the same column followed by asterisk (*) are significantly different at P = 0.05.

Data are means (n = 3) ± SE of three replicates.

3.3 Fungicidal bioassay of marjoram extracts

The acetonic extract of O. majorana was highly efficient and showed fungicidal and fungistatic activities against the concerned F. oxysporum, F. solani, and M. phaseolina with an MIC of 0.5 mg/ml and an MFC of 2 mg/ml, respectively (Table 3). The concentration effect of the acetonic marjoram extract (O. majorana) on the mycelial growth of tomato phytopathogens is shown in Figure 1 and plotted against the mycelial growth of the respective fungi (Figure 2). However, differences in the antifungal activities of the marjoram acetonic extract against tomato phytopathogenic fungi were highly significant at P > 0.05. F. oxysporum and M. phaseolina were significantly susceptible (P ≤ 0.05) to the marjoram acetonic extract, compared with the control, while F. solani was less susceptible. Growth inhibitions of phytopathogenic fungi were increased as the concentrations reached 80.89, 76.13, and 85.63% at 1 mg/ml and completely stifled at 2 mg/ml of the extract (Figure 3).

Table 3

Evaluation of different concentrations of the acetonic marjoram extract against some tomato phytopathogens

Acetonic marjoram-extract Conc. (mg/ml) Diameter of mycelial fungal growth (mm) Percentage of mycelial growth inhibition
Fo Fs Mp Fo Fs Mp
0.00 80.0 ± 0.00 80.0 ± 0.00 80.0 ± 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.25 74.2 ± 0.97 75.5 ± 1.16 69.8 ± 1.24 7.25 5.63 12.75
0.50 36.5* ± 0.48 40.8* ± 0.92 30.2 ± 0.58 54.38 49.00 62.25
1.00 15.3* ± 1.32 19.1* ± 0.68 11.5 ± 0.86 80.89 76.13 85.63
2.00 0.00 ±0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 100.0 100.0 100.0

Fo: Fusarium oxysporum; Fs: Fusarium solani; Mp: Macrophomina phaseolina.Values in the same column followed by asterisk (*) are significantly different at P = 0.05.

Data are mean (n = 3) ± SE of three replicates.

Figure 1 Antifungal efficiency of standard fungicide (Ridomil-Gold) against some tomato phytopathogenic fungi.
Figure 1

Antifungal efficiency of standard fungicide (Ridomil-Gold) against some tomato phytopathogenic fungi.

Figure 2 Evaluation of the antifungal efficiency of different concentrations of the acetonic marjoram extract against some tomato phytopathogens.
Figure 2

Evaluation of the antifungal efficiency of different concentrations of the acetonic marjoram extract against some tomato phytopathogens.

Figure 3 Evaluation of different concentrations of the acetonic marjoram extract against some tomato phytopathogens.
Figure 3

Evaluation of different concentrations of the acetonic marjoram extract against some tomato phytopathogens.

Finally, the O. majorana acetonic extract had fungistatic and fungicidal activities against all tested fungi with MICs of 0.5 mg/ml, suppressed fungal growth strongly at 1 mg/ml, and showed MFCs of 2 mg/ml for all tested fungi.

3.4 Ultracellular effect of the acetonic marjoram extract on the fungal cells of phytopathogens using SEM

The morphological and ultrastructure characterization of F. solani (which was selected as a model for fungal growth changes) in response to the acetonic marjoram extract using an SEM revealed dramatic alterations to the morphology and ultrastructure of the test pathogen in comparison to the control. The SEM results of the F. solani (untreated) were characterized by lengthened hyphae, of constant diameter, sub-parallel and with rounded or lightly tapering apex, smooth external surface with the presence of conidia, and the growth was very dense. Meanwhile, most of the formed fungal mycelia appeared to grow parallel and adherent at 800× power (Figure 4a). By contrast, the SEM micrographs of F. solani treated with 1 mg/ml O. majorana extract, clearly showed curly hyphae, varied diameter, irregular branching hyphae (Figure 4b), deformed, wrinkled external surfaces, and incomplete growth of apex (Figure 4c). Also, the presence of chlamydospores, besides the formed conidia, was embedded and overlapped (Figure 4d). Similar damage to morphology and ultrastructure of fungal cells when treated with different plant extracts was reported [27,28].

Figure 4 Scanning electron microphotographs of F. solani cells treated with the O. majorana ethanol extract at a concentration of 1 mg/ml. Control: untreated (a) and treated: (b)–(d).
Figure 4

Scanning electron microphotographs of F. solani cells treated with the O. majorana ethanol extract at a concentration of 1 mg/ml. Control: untreated (a) and treated: (b)–(d).

3.5 GC-MS analysis of the acetonic marjoram extract

The acetonic marjoram extract was chemically analyzed by GC-MS to estimate and identify the chemical constituents of the extract. The compound name, chemical formula, molecular weight, and structure of marjoram constituents are given in Table 4. The analysis revealed the presence of various bioactive phytochemical compounds, mainly terpines and terpines derivatives like 4-terpineol, γ-terpinolene, β-terpineol, α-terpineol, camphene, α-phellandrene, carvacol, 6-methyl-6-hepten-4-Yn-2-Ol, 1,5-hexadiyne, and undecanal, which may be responsible for the growth inhibition of tomato phytopathogenic fungi.

Table 4

Phytochemical components of the acetonic marjoram (O. majorana) extract

Retention time Compound name Structural formula Molecular weight (g mol−1) Peak area %
5.13 Pyridine borane 92.94 0.27
5.48 1,5-Hexadiyne 78.11 0.34
5.62 3-Thujene 136.24 1.18
5.90 n-Undecanal 170.29 0.65
6.14 2-pinene 136.24 2.74
6.47 Camphene 136.24 6.28
6.85 α-Phellandrene 136.24 3.81
6.94 6-Methyl-6-hepten-4-Yn-2-Ol 124.18 0.46
7.03 Myrcene 136.24 1.14
7.15 3-Carene 136.24 2.36
7.32 α-Terpilene 136.23 8.73
7.85 p-Cymene 134.22 5.21
8.47 Sabinene 136.23 3.17
9.62 γ-Terpinolene 136.23 12.83
10.22 Carvacrol 150.22 0.56
13.56 β-Terpineol 154.25 8.26
13.64 Cineol 154.25 2.47
13.97 Isoborneol 154.25 3.14
14.69 4-Terpineol 154.25 24.36
15.23 α-Terpineol 154.25 6.38
16.51 Linalool 154.25 1.15
19.71 Caryophyllene 204.36 2.18
22.14 γ-Elemene 204.36 0.61

4 Discussion

Chemical fungicides are applied to control damping-off infections in tomato seedlings. Since fungicides are thought to be responsible for a number of carcinogenic and teratogenic attributes as well as residual toxicity, there is considerable debate about the safety aspects of those currently in use. Finding natural and efficient alternatives for chemical fungicides against fungal plant pathogens is of increasing importance as the trend toward eco-friendly organic production methods in agriculture expands [29]. In this context, tomato damping-off diseases can be controlled using plant extracts like the acetonic marjoram extract. To assess the effectiveness of the marjoram extract in preventing tomato phytopathogenic fungi, it was evaluated in vitro at a concentration of 1 mg/ml against F. oxysporium, F. solani, and M. phaseolina.

Assays revealed that the O. majorana extract provided a significant inhibition of mycelial growth of all relevant phytopathogenic fungi and their sensitivity varied extensively. The O. majorana extract was highly effective in suppressing the mycelial growth of M. phaseolina and F. oxysporum and inhibited to 83.33 and 78.13%, while F. solani was less sensitive and its mycelial growth and was inhibited to 72.92% at 1 mg/ml. These results are in accordance with those of Dhaouadi et al. and Raouafi et al. [30,31]. A variation in fungi toxicity of the acetonic marjoram extract against tomato phytopathogenic fungi may be due to variation in the fungal species itself [32,33].

The study of MIC and MFC of the fungi toxicants compared with reference fungicide is necessary to evaluate their efficacy in suppressing mycelial growth of the phytopathogenic fungi. The marjoram extract was strongly active against the tomato phytopathogenic fungi but its MIC and MFC were comparatively higher than that of the reference fungicide. However, Ridomil-Gold SL 48% fungicide was the most effective fungi toxicant suppressing the growth of phytopathogenic fungi than marjoram extracts, as the mycelial growth of the three phytopathogenic fungi was completely inhibited at 2 ppm while a concentration of 2 mg/ml was required for the marjoram extract to attain the same effect.

Antifungal compounds present in the O. majorana extract were analyzed by GC-MS and 23 compounds were identified. Della-Pepa et al. identified terpinen-4-ol and carvacol as the primary bioactive constituents of O. majorana extracts using GC-MS analysis. Furthermore, Della-Pepa et al. observed that these extracts exhibited fungi toxic properties [34].

Hajlaoui et al. stated that the antifungal potency of the marjoram extract can be attributed to the major constituents of monoterpenes or the synergetic effect of these compounds [35]. Kadoglidou et al. showed that the concentration of oxygenated compounds directly affected the antifungal activity [36]. Vagi et al. and Adams and Ahmed reported that terpinen-4-ol was the main active compound for the antifungal activity [37,38]. Eventually, the antimycotic potency of the essential oil depended on the composition and concentration of the marjoram extract [39].

5 Conclusions

The antifungal potency of the O. majorana extract gives a new opportunity to control tomato damping-off diseases that cause damage at the seedling stage, especially in condensed agriculture. The present study showed that the application of marjoram extract as a bioagent was found to be effective in the suppression of some fungi causing tomato damping-off diseases. These results proved that the marjoram extract may contribute to the development of an alternative and natural fungicide to protect tomato crops from damping-off and root rot diseases, avoiding the usage of chemical fungicides.

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Acknowledgments

The authors extend their appreciation to the Researchers Supporting Project number (RSP2023R114), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia for funding this work.

  1. Funding information: This research project was supported by a grant from the Researchers Supporting Project number (RSP2023R114), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  2. Author contributions: Fatimah Al-Otibi contributed to the writing and original draft preparation. Reem A. Alshahrani contributed to the investigation, and data curation. Raedah I. Alharbi contributed to the formal analysis of results. Mohamed Taha Yassin contributed to the writing of the original draft, reviewing, and editing.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors confirm that there is no conflict of interest.

  4. Ethical approval: The conducted research is not related to either human or animal use.

  5. Data availability statement: All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files.

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Received: 2023-06-03
Revised: 2023-11-24
Accepted: 2023-12-11
Published Online: 2023-12-31

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2023-0181
Keywords for this article
sweet marjoram; antimycotic activity; Ridomil; GC-MS analysis
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Characteristics, source, and health risk assessment of aerosol polyaromatic hydrocarbons in the rural and urban regions of western Saudi Arabia
  2. Regular Articles
  3. A network-based correlation research between element electronegativity and node importance
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  9. Optimization of machining Nilo 36 superalloy parameters in turning operation
  10. Vacuum impregnation pre-treatment: A novel method for incorporating mono- and divalent cations into potato strips to reduce the acrylamide formation in French fries
  11. Characterization of effective constituents in Acanthopanax senticosus fruit for blood deficiency syndrome based on the chinmedomics strategy
  12. Comparative analysis of the metabolites in Pinellia ternata from two producing regions using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization–tandem mass spectrometry
  13. The assessment of environmental parameter along the desalination plants in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
  14. Effects of harpin and carbendazim on antioxidant accumulation in young jujube leaves
  15. The effects of in ovo injected with sodium borate on hatching performance and small intestine morphology in broiler chicks
  16. Optimization of cutting forces and surface roughness via ANOVA and grey relational analysis in machining of In718
  17. Essential oils of Origanum compactum Benth: Chemical characterization, in vitro, in silico, antioxidant, and antibacterial activities
  18. Translocation of tungsten(vi) oxide/gadolinium(iii) fluoride in tellurite glasses towards improvement of gamma-ray attenuation features in high-density glass shields
  19. Mechanical properties, elastic moduli, and gamma ray attenuation competencies of some TeO2–WO3–GdF3 glasses: Tailoring WO3–GdF3 substitution toward optimum behavioral state range
  20. Comparison between the CIDR or sponge with hormone injection to induce estrus synchronization for twining and sex preselection in Naimi sheep
  21. Exergetic performance analyses of three different cogeneration plants
  22. Psoralea corylifolia (babchi) seeds enhance proliferation of normal human cultured melanocytes: GC–MS profiling and biological investigation
  23. A novel electrochemical micro-titration method for quantitative evaluation of the DPPH free radical scavenging capacity of caffeic acid
  24. Comparative study between supported bimetallic catalysts for nitrate remediation in water
  25. Persicaline, an alkaloid from Salvadora persica, inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis and cell-cycle arrest in MCF-7 cells
  26. Determination of nicotine content in locally produced smokeless tobacco (Shammah) samples from Jazan region of Saudi Arabia using a convenient HPLC-MS/MS method
  27. Changes in oxidative stress markers in pediatric burn injury over a 1-week period
  28. Integrated geophysical techniques applied for petroleum basins structural characterization in the central part of the Western Desert, Egypt
  29. The impact of chemical modifications on gamma-ray attenuation properties of some WO3-reinforced tellurite glasses
  30. Microwave and Cs+-assisted chemo selective reaction protocol for synthesizing 2-styryl quinoline biorelevant molecules
  31. Structural, physical, and radiation absorption properties of a significant nuclear power plant component: A comparison between REX-734 and 316L SS austenitic stainless steels
  32. Effect of Moringa oleifera on serum YKL-40 level: In vivo rat periodontitis model
  33. Investigating the impact of CO2 emissions on the COVID-19 pandemic by generalized linear mixed model approach with inverse Gaussian and gamma distributions
  34. Influence of WO3 content on gamma rays attenuation characteristics of phosphate glasses at low energy range
  35. Study on CO2 absorption performance of ternary DES formed based on DEA as promoting factor
  36. Performance analyses of detonation engine cogeneration cycles
  37. Sterols from Centaurea pumilio L. with cell proliferative activity: In vitro and in silico studies
  38. Untargeted metabolomics revealing changes in aroma substances in flue-cured tobacco
  39. Effect of pumpkin enriched with calcium lactate on iron status in an animal model of postmenopausal osteoporosis
  40. Energy consumption, mechanical and metallographic properties of cryogenically treated tool steels
  41. Optimization of ultra-high pressure-assisted extraction of total phenols from Eucommia ulmoides leaves by response surface methodology
  42. Harpin enhances antioxidant nutrient accumulation and decreases enzymatic browning in stored soybean sprouts
  43. Physicochemical and biological properties of carvacrol
  44. Radix puerariae in the treatment of diabetic nephropathy: A network pharmacology analysis and experimental validation
  45. Anti-Alzheimer, antioxidants, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase effects of Taverniera glabra mediated ZnO and Fe2O3 nanoparticles in alloxan-induced diabetic rats
  46. Experimental study on photocatalytic CO2 reduction performance of ZnS/CdS-TiO2 nanotube array thin films
  47. Epoxy-reinforced heavy metal oxides for gamma ray shielding purposes
  48. Black mulberry (Morus nigra L.) fruits: As a medicinal plant rich in human health-promoting compounds
  49. Promising antioxidant and antimicrobial effects of essential oils extracted from fruits of Juniperus thurifera: In vitro and in silico investigations
  50. Chloramine-T-induced oxidation of Rizatriptan Benzoate: An integral chemical and spectroscopic study of products, mechanisms and kinetics
  51. Study on antioxidant and antimicrobial potential of chemically profiled essential oils extracted from Juniperus phoenicea (L.) by use of in vitro and in silico approaches
  52. Screening and characterization of fungal taxol-producing endophytic fungi for evaluation of antimicrobial and anticancer activities
  53. Mineral composition, principal polyphenolic components, and evaluation of the anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antioxidant properties of Cytisus villosus Pourr leaf extracts
  54. In vitro antiproliferative efficacy of Annona muricata seed and fruit extracts on several cancer cell lines
  55. An experimental study for chemical characterization of artificial anterior cruciate ligament with coated chitosan as biomaterial
  56. Prevalence of residual risks of the transfusion-transmitted infections in Riyadh hospitals: A two-year retrospective study
  57. Computational and experimental investigation of antibacterial and antifungal properties of Nicotiana tabacum extracts
  58. Reinforcement of cementitious mortars with hemp fibers and shives
  59. X-ray shielding properties of bismuth-borate glass doped with rare earth ions
  60. Green supported silver nanoparticles over modified reduced graphene oxide: Investigation of its antioxidant and anti-ovarian cancer effects
  61. Orthogonal synthesis of a versatile building block for dual functionalization of targeting vectors
  62. Thymbra spicata leaf extract driven biogenic synthesis of Au/Fe3O4 nanocomposite and its bio-application in the treatment of different types of leukemia
  63. The role of Ag2O incorporation in nuclear radiation shielding behaviors of the Li2O–Pb3O4–SiO2 glass system: A multi-step characterization study
  64. A stimuli-responsive in situ spray hydrogel co-loaded with naringenin and gentamicin for chronic wounds
  65. Assessment of the impact of γ-irradiation on the piperine content and microbial quality of black pepper
  66. Antioxidant, sensory, and functional properties of low-alcoholic IPA beer with Pinus sylvestris L. shoots addition fermented using unconventional yeast
  67. Screening and optimization of extracellular pectinase produced by Bacillus thuringiensis SH7
  68. Determination of polyphenols in Chinese jujube using ultra-performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry
  69. Synergistic effects of harpin and NaCl in determining soybean sprout quality under non-sterile conditions
  70. Field evaluation of different eco-friendly alternative control methods against Panonychus citri [Acari: Tetranychidae] spider mite and its predators in citrus orchards
  71. Exploring the antimicrobial potential of biologically synthesized zero valent iron nanoparticles
  72. NaCl regulates goldfish growth and survival at three food supply levels under hypoxia
  73. An exploration of the physical, optical, mechanical, and radiation shielding properties of PbO–MgO–ZnO–B2O3 glasses
  74. A novel statistical modeling of air pollution and the COVID-19 pandemic mortality data by Poisson, geometric, and negative binomial regression models with fixed and random effects
  75. Treatment activity of the injectable hydrogels loaded with dexamethasone In(iii) complex on glioma by inhibiting the VEGF signaling pathway
  76. An alternative approach for the excess lifetime cancer risk and prediction of radiological parameters
  77. Panax ginseng leaf aqueous extract mediated green synthesis of AgNPs under ultrasound condition and investigation of its anti-lung adenocarcinoma effects
  78. Study of hydrolysis and production of instant ginger (Zingiber officinale) tea
  79. Novel green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Salvia rosmarinus extract for treatment of human lung cancer
  80. Evaluation of second trimester plasma lipoxin A4, VEGFR-1, IL-6, and TNF-α levels in pregnant women with gestational diabetes mellitus
  81. Antidiabetic, antioxidant and cytotoxicity activities of ortho- and para-substituted Schiff bases derived from metformin hydrochloride: Validation by molecular docking and in silico ADME studies
  82. Antioxidant, antidiabetic, antiglaucoma, and anticholinergic effects of Tayfi grape (Vitis vinifera): A phytochemical screening by LC-MS/MS analysis
  83. Identification of genetic polymorphisms in the stearoyl CoA desaturase gene and its association with milk quality traits in Najdi sheep
  84. Cold-acclimation effect on cadmium absorption and biosynthesis of polyphenolics, and free proline and photosynthetic pigments in Spirogyra aequinoctialis
  85. Analysis of secondary metabolites in Xinjiang Morus nigra leaves using different extraction methods with UPLC-Q/TOF-MS/MS technology
  86. Nanoarchitectonics and performance evaluation of a Fe3O4-stabilized Pickering emulsion-type differential pressure plugging agent
  87. Investigating pyrolysis characteristics of Shengdong coal through Py-GC/MS
  88. Extraction, phytochemical characterization, and antifungal activity of Salvia rosmarinus extract
  89. Introducing a novel and natural antibiotic for the treatment of oral pathogens: Abelmoschus esculentus green-formulated silver nanoparticles
  90. Optimization of gallic acid-enriched ultrasonic-assisted extraction from mango peels
  91. Effect of gamma rays irradiation in the structure, optical, and electrical properties of samarium doped bismuth titanate ceramics
  92. Combinatory in silico investigation for potential inhibitors from Curcuma sahuynhensis Škorničk. & N.S. Lý volatile phytoconstituents against influenza A hemagglutinin, SARS-CoV-2 main protease, and Omicron-variant spike protein
  93. Physical, mechanical, and gamma ray shielding properties of the Bi2O3–BaO–B2O3–ZnO–As2O3–MgO–Na2O glass system
  94. Twofold interpenetrated 3D Cd(ii) complex: Crystal structure and luminescent property
  95. Study on the microstructure and soil quality variation of composite soil with soft rock and sand
  96. Ancient spring waters still emerging and accessible in the Roman Forum area: Chemical–physical and microbiological characterization
  97. Extraction and characterization of type I collagen from scales of Mexican Biajaiba fish
  98. Finding small molecular compounds to decrease trimethylamine oxide levels in atherosclerosis by virtual screening
  99. Prefatory in silico studies and in vitro insecticidal effect of Nigella sativa (L.) essential oil and its active compound (carvacrol) against the Callosobruchus maculatus adults (Fab), a major pest of chickpea
  100. Polymerized methyl imidazole silver bromide (CH3C6H5AgBr)6: Synthesis, crystal structures, and catalytic activity
  101. Using calcined waste fish bones as a green solid catalyst for biodiesel production from date seed oil
  102. Influence of the addition of WO3 on TeO2–Na2O glass systems in view of the feature of mechanical, optical, and photon attenuation
  103. Naringin ameliorates 5-fluorouracil elicited neurotoxicity by curtailing oxidative stress and iNOS/NF-ĸB/caspase-3 pathway
  104. GC-MS profile of extracts of an endophytic fungus Alternaria and evaluation of its anticancer and antibacterial potentialities
  105. Green synthesis, chemical characterization, and antioxidant and anti-colorectal cancer effects of vanadium nanoparticles
  106. Determination of caffeine content in coffee drinks prepared in some coffee shops in the local market in Jeddah City, Saudi Arabia
  107. A new 3D supramolecular Cu(ii) framework: Crystal structure and photocatalytic characteristics
  108. Bordeaux mixture accelerates ripening, delays senescence, and promotes metabolite accumulation in jujube fruit
  109. Important application value of injectable hydrogels loaded with omeprazole Schiff base complex in the treatment of pancreatitis
  110. Color tunable benzothiadiazole-based small molecules for lightening applications
  111. Investigation of structural, dielectric, impedance, and mechanical properties of hydroxyapatite-modified barium titanate composites for biomedical applications
  112. Metal gel particles loaded with epidermal cell growth factor promote skin wound repair mechanism by regulating miRNA
  113. In vitro exploration of Hypsizygus ulmarius (Bull.) mushroom fruiting bodies: Potential antidiabetic and anti-inflammatory agent
  114. Alteration in the molecular structure of the adenine base exposed to gamma irradiation: An ESR study
  115. Comprehensive study of optical, thermal, and gamma-ray shielding properties of Bi2O3–ZnO–PbO–B2O3 glasses
  116. Lewis acids as co-catalysts in Pd-based catalyzed systems of the octene-1 hydroethoxycarbonylation reaction
  117. Synthesis, Hirshfeld surface analysis, thermal, and selective α-glucosidase inhibitory studies of Schiff base transition metal complexes
  118. Protective properties of AgNPs green-synthesized by Abelmoschus esculentus on retinal damage on the virtue of its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects in diabetic rat
  119. Effects of green decorated AgNPs on lignin-modified magnetic nanoparticles mediated by Cydonia on cecal ligation and puncture-induced sepsis
  120. Treatment of gastric cancer by green mediated silver nanoparticles using Pistacia atlantica bark aqueous extract
  121. Preparation of newly developed porcelain ceramics containing WO3 nanoparticles for radiation shielding applications
  122. Utilization of computational methods for the identification of new natural inhibitors of human neutrophil elastase in inflammation therapy
  123. Some anticancer agents as effective glutathione S-transferase (GST) inhibitors
  124. Clay-based bricks’ rich illite mineral for gamma-ray shielding applications: An experimental evaluation of the effect of pressure rates on gamma-ray attenuation parameters
  125. Stability kinetics of orevactaene pigments produced by Epicoccum nigrum in solid-state fermentation
  126. Treatment of denture stomatitis using iron nanoparticles green-synthesized by Silybum marianum extract
  127. Characterization and antioxidant potential of white mustard (Brassica hirta) leaf extract and stabilization of sunflower oil
  128. Characteristics of Langmuir monomolecular monolayers formed by the novel oil blends
  129. Strategies for optimizing the single GdSrFeO4 phase synthesis
  130. Oleic acid and linoleic acid nanosomes boost immunity and provoke cell death via the upregulation of beta-defensin-4 at genetic and epigenetic levels
  131. Unraveling the therapeutic potential of Bombax ceiba roots: A comprehensive study of chemical composition, heavy metal content, antibacterial activity, and in silico analysis
  132. Green synthesis of AgNPs using plant extract and investigation of its anti-human colorectal cancer application
  133. The adsorption of naproxen on adsorbents obtained from pepper stalk extract by green synthesis
  134. Treatment of gastric cancer by silver nanoparticles encapsulated by chitosan polymers mediated by Pistacia atlantica extract under ultrasound condition
  135. In vitro protective and anti-inflammatory effects of Capparis spinosa and its flavonoids profile
  136. Wear and corrosion behavior of TiC and WC coatings deposited on high-speed steels by electro-spark deposition
  137. Therapeutic effects of green-formulated gold nanoparticles by Origanum majorana on spinal cord injury in rats
  138. Melanin antibacterial activity of two new strains, SN1 and SN2, of Exophiala phaeomuriformis against five human pathogens
  139. Evaluation of the analgesic and anesthetic properties of silver nanoparticles supported over biodegradable acacia gum-modified magnetic nanoparticles
  140. Review Articles
  141. Role and mechanism of fruit waste polyphenols in diabetes management
  142. A comprehensive review of non-alkaloidal metabolites from the subfamily Amaryllidoideae (Amaryllidaceae)
  143. Discovery of the chemical constituents, structural characteristics, and pharmacological functions of Chinese caterpillar fungus
  144. Eco-friendly green approach of nickel oxide nanoparticles for biomedical applications
  145. Advances in the pharmaceutical research of curcumin for oral administration
  146. Rapid Communication
  147. Determination of the contents of bioactive compounds in St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum): Comparison of commercial and wild samples
  148. Retraction
  149. Retraction of “Two mixed-ligand coordination polymers based on 2,5-thiophenedicarboxylic acid and flexible N-donor ligands: The protective effect on periodontitis via reducing the release of IL-1β and TNF-α”
  150. Topical Issue on Phytochemicals, biological and toxicological analysis of aromatic medicinal plants
  151. Anti-plasmodial potential of selected medicinal plants and a compound Atropine isolated from Eucalyptus obliqua
  152. Anthocyanin extract from black rice attenuates chronic inflammation in DSS-induced colitis mouse model by modulating the gut microbiota
  153. Evaluation of antibiofilm and cytotoxicity effect of Rumex vesicarius methanol extract
  154. Chemical compositions of Litsea umbellata and inhibition activities
  155. Green synthesis, characterization of silver nanoparticles using Rhynchosia capitata leaf extract and their biological activities
  156. GC-MS analysis and antibacterial activities of some plants belonging to the genus Euphorbia on selected bacterial isolates
  157. The abrogative effect of propolis on acrylamide-induced toxicity in male albino rats: Histological study
  158. A phytoconstituent 6-aminoflavone ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced oxidative stress mediated synapse and memory dysfunction via p-Akt/NF-kB pathway in albino mice
  159. Anti-diabetic potentials of Sorbaria tomentosa Lindl. Rehder: Phytochemistry (GC-MS analysis), α-amylase, α-glucosidase inhibitory, in vivo hypoglycemic, and biochemical analysis
  160. Assessment of cytotoxic and apoptotic activities of the Cassia angustifolia aqueous extract against SW480 colon cancer
  161. Biochemical analysis, antioxidant, and antibacterial efficacy of the bee propolis extract (Hymenoptera: Apis mellifera) against Staphylococcus aureus-induced infection in BALB/c mice: In vitro and in vivo study
  162. Assessment of essential elements and heavy metals in Saudi Arabian rice samples underwent various processing methods
  163. Two new compounds from leaves of Capparis dongvanensis (Sy, B. H. Quang & D. V. Hai) and inhibition activities
  164. Hydroxyquinoline sulfanilamide ameliorates STZ-induced hyperglycemia-mediated amyleoid beta burden and memory impairment in adult mice
  165. An automated reading of semi-quantitative hemagglutination results in microplates: Micro-assay for plant lectins
  166. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry assessment of essential and toxic trace elements in traditional spices consumed by the population of the Middle Eastern region in their recipes
  167. Phytochemical analysis and anticancer activity of the Pithecellobium dulce seed extract in colorectal cancer cells
  168. Impact of climatic disturbances on the chemical compositions and metabolites of Salvia officinalis
  169. Physicochemical characterization, antioxidant and antifungal activities of essential oils of Urginea maritima and Allium sativum
  170. Phytochemical analysis and antifungal efficiency of Origanum majorana extracts against some phytopathogenic fungi causing tomato damping-off diseases
  171. Special Issue on 4th IC3PE
  172. Graphene quantum dots: A comprehensive overview
  173. Studies on the intercalation of calcium–aluminium layered double hydroxide-MCPA and its controlled release mechanism as a potential green herbicide
  174. Synergetic effect of adsorption and photocatalysis by zinc ferrite-anchored graphitic carbon nitride nanosheet for the removal of ciprofloxacin under visible light irradiation
  175. Exploring anticancer activity of the Indonesian guava leaf (Psidium guajava L.) fraction on various human cancer cell lines in an in vitro cell-based approach
  176. The comparison of gold extraction methods from the rock using thiourea and thiosulfate
  177. Special Issue on Marine environmental sciences and significance of the multidisciplinary approaches
  178. Sorption of alkylphenols and estrogens on microplastics in marine conditions
  179. Cytotoxic ketosteroids from the Red Sea soft coral Dendronephthya sp.
  180. Antibacterial and biofilm prevention metabolites from Acanthophora spicifera
  181. Characteristics, source, and health risk assessment of aerosol polyaromatic hydrocarbons in the rural and urban regions of western Saudi Arabia
  182. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Energy, Environmental and Biological Applications - Part II
  183. Green synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of antibacterial activities of cobalt nanoparticles produced by marine fungal species Periconia prolifica
  184. Combustion-mediated sol–gel preparation of cobalt-doped ZnO nanohybrids for the degradation of acid red and antibacterial performance
  185. Perinatal supplementation with selenium nanoparticles modified with ascorbic acid improves hepatotoxicity in rat gestational diabetes
  186. Evaluation and chemical characterization of bioactive secondary metabolites from endophytic fungi associated with the ethnomedicinal plant Bergenia ciliata
  187. Enhancing photovoltaic efficiency with SQI-Br and SQI-I sensitizers: A comparative analysis
  188. Nanostructured p-PbS/p-CuO sulfide/oxide bilayer heterojunction as a promising photoelectrode for hydrogen gas generation
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