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Study of hydrolysis and production of instant ginger (Zingiber officinale) tea

  • Nguyen Phu Thuong Nhan , Van Chi Khang EMAIL logo , Pham Van Hung , Tran Thi Tuu , Nguyen Huu Thuan Anh and Le Thi Hong Nhan
Published/Copyright: September 6, 2023
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Open Chemistry
From the journal Open Chemistry Volume 21 Issue 1

Abstract

The aim of this study is to determine the suitable conditions for enzyme-assisted hydrolysis and the production of instant tea from hydrolysed ginger. Several parameters of ginger hydrolysis were investigated, such as the enzyme concentration from 0.1 to 0.4 g/100 g ginger powder (w/w), material/water ratios of 1/10; 1/15; 1/20; and 1/25 (w/w), pH from 3.5 to 5.0; temperature of hydrolysis process from 45 to 60°C, and time of hydrolysis process from 90 to 150 min. Subsequently, the hydrolysed ginger was spray-dried to produce instant products with surveyed parameters, including the maltodextrin concentration from 15 to 35 g/100 g ginger extraction, feed flow rates from 120 to 600 mL/h, and the temperatures of spray drying from 120 to 150°C. The suitable parameters for enzyme-assisted hydrolysis and production of instant tea were determined, including enzyme concentration as 0.2 g/100 g ginger powder (w/w), material/water ratio as 1/10 (w/w), pH at 5.0, temperature process as 55°C, the time of hydrolysis process as 120 min, the maltodextrin concentration as 15 g/100 g extraction (w/w), feed flow rate as 240 mL h−1, and the inlet temperature as 140°C. Furthermore, the physicochemical properties of the product were identified with moisture content as 2.36 ± 0.09%, total phenolic content as 98.34 ± 0.59 mg gallic acid equivalent/g DW, and IC50 value as 1,082 µgAA/mL.

Keywords: ginger; instant tea; enzymatic hydrolysis; physicochemical properties of ginger

1 Introduction

Gingers (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) are nutritionally and economically essential food grown worldwide [1]. Gingers also provide a wide range of nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fibre, minerals, vitamins, and polyphenol compounds [2]. Previous studies have identified more than 100 compounds in ginger, of which gingerol, shogaols, zingiberene, zingerone as well as terpenes, vitamins, and minerals are commonly found [3,4]. Ginger is a common flavour in home kitchen for food, teas, and herbal medicines. Ginger is often used to aid digestion, anti-inflammation, and cure for morning sickness [5]. Vietnam is one of the world-leading producers of ginger, with 1.68 million tons in 2020 [6]. Currently, the consumption of instant tea products on the market is limited due to reduced nutritional content and unfavourable taste. Furthermore, fresh ginger is only used in methods of conventional processing. This could limit their scope of use in many fields, such as the food industry, cosmetics, pharmacy, and so on.

Enzymatic hydrolysis employs enzymes to break down the structure and release the active ingredients of the raw material [7]. The hydrolysis method with assisted enzyme provides many benefits, such as less formation of undesirable by-products, no need for corrosion-resistant processing equipment, less acid waste, and high potentials for complete conversion and safety products to consumers [8]. In the previous study, hydrolysis of ginger extraction with cellulase-assisted enzymes to break down cellulose structure to release many beneficial physicochemical compounds were reported [9]. Due to the above reasons, enzyme-assisted hydrolysis was chosen for ginger extraction aiming to separate beneficial compounds in it easily, and this extraction is used as a material for other processes.

The spray-drying method involves atomizing a solution, slurry, or emulsion containing one or more components of the desired product into droplets by spraying, and then allowing the water to quickly evaporate from atomised droplets into solid powder by hot air at a specific temperature and pressure [10], leaving the heat sensitive compounds in the product undenatured for a long time [11]. Moreover, the spray-drying method offers many economic benefits, such as very short drying time, large-scale continuous production, low labour costs, and relatively simple operation and maintenance [12]. From these advantages, spray-drying method is suitable for preserving beneficial compounds in ginger extraction.

The aim of this study is to determine the appropriate parameters for hydrolysis of ginger juice by using “green” enzyme catalysis to increase the yield of beneficial compounds and produce instant product with retained valuable compounds. Furthermore, the physicochemical properties of products, including total phenolic content and antioxidant activities, were thoroughly investigated in this research. The findings provide a new research direction for diversifying ginger products.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Materials

Gingers were purchased from a local farm in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, with maturity from 240 to 270 days (since planting). The chemicals, including sodium carbonate (99%) and gallic acid (99%), were purchased from Xilong (China). 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH, 99%) and Folin–Ciocalteu reagent (99%) were supplied by Sigma-Aldrich (Germany). Enzyme cellulase (activity 10,000 U/g) was purchased from AngelYeast Co. Ltd (China). Acid citric (99.5%), acid ascorbic (99%), ethanol (96%), and maltodextrin (DE 12) were supplied by Xilong (China).

2.2 Production of instant ginger tea

The hydrolysis process of ginger: Fresh ginger (which were about 240–270 days mature since planting) was purchased from the local market, and stored at 4°C prior to further experiments within the following 30 days. Fresh ginger was peeled, washed, and cut into slices with a thickness of 1–1.5 nm. Ginger slices were dried at 50°C for 6 h using a convection dryer until moisture content after drying was 10.52%. Then, the dried ginger was ground into fine powder. The powder was dissolved in water and then added with cellulase enzymes with concentration ranges from 0.1 to 0.4 g/100 g of ginger powder. Then, citric acid was used to adjust the pH solution from 3.5 to 5. The hydrolysis was conducted at a temperature range of 45–60°C and time duration of 60–150 min. The hydrolysed ginger was subjected to vacuum filtration to obtain ginger extraction. The ginger extraction was determined with parameters such as Brix content (°Brx), extraction efficiency (%), polyphenol content (mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g DW), and IC50 value (µg/mL).

The spray-drying process of ginger: Ginger extraction was added with maltodextrin at a ratio of 15–35 g/100 g ginger extraction. The mixture was then stirred at 400 rpm for 10 min. The process was conducted with feed flow rate of 120–600 mL h−1 and at an inlet temperature of 120–150°C. The ginger spray drying powder was determined with parameters such as Brix content (°Brx), drying yields (%), polyphenol content (mg GAE/g DW), and IC50 (µg/ml).

2.3 Determination of physicochemical properties of the product

2.3.1 Measurement of moisture and brix content

Each sample (5 g) was placed in a moisture analyser (Ohaus MB90, US) and heated to 105°C. The moisture content was expressed on a wet percentage basis. The experiment was repeated three times for each sample.

Two drops of sample solution were added on the lower prism of the electronic refractometer by glass rod and the results were recorded. The experiment was repeated three times for each sample.

2.3.2 Determination of total polyphenol content (TPC)

The TPC was determined according to the method reported by Živić et al. [13] with some modifications. First, 1 g sample was mixed with 100 mL ethanol 96%. Then, 0.5 mL of the solution was added to 2.5 mL Folin–Ciocalteu 10% and 2 mL Na2CO3 7.5% solution. After 60 min incubation in the dark, the solution was photometrically measured at 765 nm. A gallic acid calibration curve was constructed with concentrations ranging from 0 to 200 µg/mL. TPC was shown as mg GAE per gram of sample (based on dry weight). The fitted curve was Concentration = 61.0676A + 1.8598 (R 2 = 0.9996).

2.3.3 Determination of antioxidant activity

The antioxidant activity was measured by using DPPH free radical scavenging method according to Kumar et al. [14] with some modifications. First, 200 μL of the sample was added to 2 mL of DPPH solution prepared by dissolving 3.96 mg DPPH in 100 mL of ethanol at 96%, and then incubated in the dark at room temperature for 30 min. Then, the absorbance of samples was measured at 517 nm. Vitamin C was used as the standard, and the antioxidant activity of the sample was expressed as mg vitamin C equivalent per 100 g dry matter. The vitamin C standard curve was constructed with concentrations from 0 to 100 μg/mL, and the standard curve equation of the form concentration = −31.7238A + 25.0738 (R² = 0.9998).

2.3.4 Determination of drying yields

The powder recovery (DY) is defined as the mass of the obtained spray-dried product over the quantity of feed emulsion, calculated on the dry basis according to the method reported by Geraci et al. [15]:

(1) DY = m 2 × ( 1 − y ) m 1 × x × 100 ( % ) ,

where m 1, m 2, x, and y are the mass of the feed emulsion (g), the mass of the obtained powder (g), the solid percentage (%), and the moisture content of the obtained product, respectively.

2.3.5 Determination of extraction efficiency

The amount of a solute that passes from one phase to the next is known as extraction efficiency. It is determined by the partitioning of the solute between the phases equilibrium constant and any other solute-involved side reactions.

2.3.6 Powder morphology

The powder morphology was evaluated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The ginger powder was attached to SEM stem-mounted double-sided adhesive tape 1 cm diameter and 1 cm high, coated with gold in a vacuum evaporator, and examined using an MEV 1430 VP - LEO SEM (Electron Microscope Ltd, Cambridge, UK). The SEM was operated at 20 kV with a magnification of 900−1,200×.

2.3.7 Statistical analysis

Data were processed and plotted on Microsoft Excel 2016. Statistical analysis ANOVA and LSD test were used to compare the influence of factors, processed by Statgraphics Centurion Version 20 (Statpoint Technologies, Inc., Warrenton, VA, USA). p < 0.05 were considered significantly different.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Physicochemical properties of ingredients

Table 1 shows the basic parameters of fresh ginger and ginger powder. The effects of preliminary processing factors were observed in the ingredients’ compounds, especially the TPC decreased by 29.46%. The author conducted drying at 70°C with hawthorn and wild pear fruits using a convection drier, the obtained results showed that the moisture content of the dried products was below 20% and the TPC content of the raw materials was significantly reduced by 30.95%. Nurhadi et al. showed that TPC reached 148 mg GAE/g DW in fresh ginger. Dehumidification drying affected the compounds present in fresh ginger [16].

Table 1

Physicochemical properties of gingers

Ingredients Moisture content (%) TPC (mg GAE/g DW) Antioxidant activities (μg acid ascorbic/g dry matter)
Fresh gingers 84.16 ± 0.02 168.15 ± 2.32 469.42
Ginger powder 10.52 ± 0.18 118.57 ± 4.40 663.57

3.2 Investigation factors of cellulase enzyme-assisted ginger hydrolysis

3.2.1 Effect of enzyme concentration (w/w) on physicochemical properties of the hydrolysis process

Table 2 shows the effect of enzyme concentrations on the physicochemical properties of ginger hydrolysis extraction. Results have shown that the moisture content and extraction efficiency were unchanged at different enzyme concentrations. The ANOVA analysis displayed that the enzyme concentration has not significantly affected extraction efficiency and brix content (p < 0.05).

Table 2

Effect of enzyme concentrations on the physicochemical properties of extraction

Parameter Enzyme concentration (g/100 g)
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Extraction efficiency (%) 71.54 78.31 75.37 72.38
Brix content (°Brx) 4.57 ± 0.06 4.61 ± 0.04 4.63 ± 0.02 4.65 ± 0.06

Figure 1 shows the effect of enzyme concentrations (g/100 g) on hydrolysis with the addition of cellulase enzyme catalyst. The TPC reached the highest level (92.86 ± 0.79 mg GAE/g DW) for 0.2 g of enzyme in 100 g of ginger powder and decreased for the other two ratios. The results have shown that the compatibility of enzyme concentration affected the hydrolysis ability. Kagan et al. showed that the enzymatic-assisted hydrolysis yielded the highest TPC of 37.5 mg/g DW in ethanol extraction solvent [17]. In addition, Nam et al. showed that the hydrolysis method with enzyme support is the most optimal with amylase content of 1% [18]. Overall, the enzyme concentration of 0.2 g/100 g ginger powder was selected as the optimal parameter.

Figure 1 Effect of enzyme concentrations (g/100 g) on TPC. *a, b, c: Figures with same letters indicate statistical indifference.
Figure 1

Effect of enzyme concentrations (g/100 g) on TPC. *a, b, c: Figures with same letters indicate statistical indifference.

3.2.2 Effect of material/water ratios (w/w) on physicochemical properties of the hydrolysis process

Table 3 shows the effect of material/water ratios (w/w) on physicochemical properties of extraction. The varied material/water ratios were 1:10, 1:15, 1:20, and 1:25 (w/w). The extraction efficiency did not change significantly for the four material/water ratios. Brix content also tends to be stable despite the material/water ratio change. The ANOVA analysis showed that the material/water ratios did not affect the extraction efficiency and brix content (p < 0.05).

Table 3

Effect of material/water ratios (w/w) on physicochemical properties of extraction

Parameter Material/water ratios (w/w)
1:10 1:15 1:20 1:25
Extraction efficiency (%) 79.56 79.49 74.71 74.31
Brix content (°Brx) 4.45 ± 0.01 4.54 ± 0.04 4.63 ± 0.02 4.61 ± 0.04

The ratio of 1:10 gives a high TPC in this survey (Figure 2). In the presence of the remaining ratios, the TPC was not significantly different. Ostroschi et al. have also conducted the hydrolysis of cinnamon powder at varying ratios of raw material: solvent (w/w); the results have shown that the highest content of antioxidants (36.36%) was obtained at a ratio of 1:1.75 (w/w) [19]. Therefore, the ratio 1:10 was selected for further experiments.

Figure 2 The effect of material/water ratios (w/w) on TPC. *a, b, c: Figures with same letters indicate statistical indifference.
Figure 2

The effect of material/water ratios (w/w) on TPC. *a, b, c: Figures with same letters indicate statistical indifference.

3.2.3 Effect of pH on physicochemical properties of the hydrolysis process

Table 4 shows the effects of pH on the extraction efficiency and moisture content of the ginger extract. Results have shown that the extraction efficiency increased proportionally as the pH increased, especially at pH 4.5 and 5. However, as less citric acid is used to adjust pH for economic purposes, pH 5 is selected for subsequent experiment. ANOVA analysis showed that the pH value did not significantly affect the extraction efficiency and brix content.

Table 4

Effect of pH on physicochemical properties of the extraction

Parameter pH
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Extraction efficiency (%) 77.73 77.87 79.67 79.55
Brix content (°Brx) 4.42 ± 0.06 4.39 ± 0.04 4.4 ± 0.02 4.41 ± 0.06

Figure 3 shows that the pH factor partially determines the hydrolysis ability, in which the solution with pH 4.5 and 5 showed the highest hydrolysis performance in correlation with the measured TPC. To adjust the initial solution pH 6.54 to the optimal level of investigation, more citric acid was added at pH 5 (around 1.6 g), as compared to pH 4.5 (around 1.9 g). Similar results were also obtained from the study by Nagendra Chari et al. [20]. Schweiggert et al. showed that although the pH factor was one of the determining factors in the hydrolysis process, pH range from 4 to 5 was selected as the optimal pH level due to the enzymatic activity at different pH levels [21]. Phan et al. also showed that the increase in cyanidin-3-glucoside adsorption was in line with the pH increase from 3.0 to 5.0 [22]. Therefore, pH 5 was selected as the optimal parameter of the subsequent experiments.

Figure 3 Effect of pH on TPC. *a, b, c: Figures with same letters indicate statistical indifference.
Figure 3

Effect of pH on TPC. *a, b, c: Figures with same letters indicate statistical indifference.

3.2.4 Effect of hydrolysis time on physicochemical properties of the hydrolysis process

Results have shown that the hydrolysis time caused significant difference in the physiochemical properties of ginger extraction (Table 5). The Brix content remained at 4.4%, indicating that the moisture content of the solution remains at a relatively high level. The extraction efficiency and the appearance were almost unchanged. Yusof and Ibrahim also concluded that increasing the enzyme treatment time enhanced the total solid solute in obtained solution [23]. The ANOVA analysis showed that the hydrolysis time has not significantly affected the extraction efficiency and Brix content (p < 0.05).

Table 5

Effect of hydrolysis time on physicochemical properties of the extraction

Parameter Time (min)
60 90 120 150
Extraction efficiency (%) 77.65 78.88 81.12 80.97
Brix content (°Brx) 4.39 ± 0.06 4.4 ± 0.04 4.41 ± 0.02 4.41 ± 0.16

Results showed a significant difference between the hydrolysis time of 60 and 90 min compared with the time of 120 and 150 min (Figure 4). The hydrolysis at 120 min showed the highest TPC (approximately 96.19 mg GAE/g DW). Previously, Schweiggert et al. showed that the optimal hydrolysis time for the rhizome of ginger should be under 2 h, producing a very characteristic smell of ginger due to the loss of −OH radical of 6-gingerol to 6-shagaol [21]. Xiao et al. showed that the optimal time for hydrolysis of rice mixture is 90 min; although the enzyme properties and the hydrolysate were different, the processing time was within 90 and 120 min [24]. Therefore, the present study proposed that the optimal hydrolysis time was 120 min.

Figure 4 Effect of hydrolysis time on TPC. *a, b, c: Figures with same letters indicate statistical indifference.
Figure 4

Effect of hydrolysis time on TPC. *a, b, c: Figures with same letters indicate statistical indifference.

3.2.5 Effect of hydrolysis temperature on physicochemical properties of the hydrolysis process

Table 6 shows the effects of hydrolysis temperature on the extraction efficiency of ginger extract. Results have shown that the efficiency increased proportionally from 77.98% to 83.94% as the temperature increased from 45 to 55°C. However, excessively increasing the temperature to 60°C resulted in reducing the extraction efficiency to 81.47%. According to ANOVA analysis, the hydrolysis temperature has not significantly affected the extraction efficiency and Brix content (p < 0.05).

Table 6

Effect of hydrolysis temperature on physicochemical properties of the extraction

Parameter Temperature (°C)
45 50 55 60
Extraction efficiency (%) 77.98 80.89 83.94 81.47
Brix content (°Brx) 4.38 ± 0.06 4.41 ± 0.04 4.38 ± 0.02 4.40 ± 0.16

Figure 5 shows the effect of hydrolysis temperature on the TPC of the ginger extract, with the highest TPC level of 98.34 ± 0.59 mg GAE/g DW obtained at 55°C. The temperature threshold of the survey prioritises the ability to retain 6-gingerol during hydrolysis because at pH conditions above 4, the temperature affects the ability to lose −OH radicals, leading to the formation of 6-shagaol and the unique smell of ginger extract. Gao et al. [25] have shown that the temperature affects the heat-susceptible compounds, where the most suitable temperature was 50°C in the presence of enzymes. Furthermore, Cruz et al. indicated that the optimal hydrolysis ability was at 60°C with the use of protease enzymes [26]. Therefore, 55°C was selected as the most optimal temperature for ginger hydrolysis in this study.

Figure 5 Effect of hydrolysis temperature on TPC of ginger extract. *a, b, c: Figures with same letters indicate statistical indifference.
Figure 5

Effect of hydrolysis temperature on TPC of ginger extract. *a, b, c: Figures with same letters indicate statistical indifference.

3.3 Investigation factors of production of instant ginger tea using spray drying technique

3.3.1 Effect of maltodextrin concentration on physicochemical properties of the spray drying process

Table 7 shows the effects of maltodextrin mass on the physiochemical properties of the ginger product, particularly the uniform colour and the stabilised structure of the powder. The moisture content exhibited no significant differences in this survey (Table 7). According to ANOVA analysis, the drying yields were affected by maltodextrin concentration (p < 0.05).

Table 7

Effect of maltodextrin concentration on physicochemical properties of the obtained powder

Parameter Maltodextrin concentration (g/100 g)
15 20 25 30 35
Drying yields (%) 73.31 83.92 94.81 95.24 83.80
Moisture content (%) 2.37 ± 0.03 2.34 ± 0.04 2.36 ± 0.05 2.41 ± 0.08 2.40 ± 0.10

Figure 6 shows the effects of maltodextrin concentration in the TPC of ginger extraction. Results have shown that as maltodextrin concentration increased from 15 to 35 g/100 g, the TPC in ginger extract reversely reduced from 89.1 ± 0.85 to 53.03 ± 0.78 mg GAE/g DW. Akbarbaglu et al. applied spray-drying for the encapsulation of several bioactive peptides. Results have shown that the use of maltodextrin:hydrolysate at 3:1 w/w exhibited the highest DPPH and ABTS scavenging activity, nitrogen reducing power, and chelating activity [27]. Liao et al. reported that for hot water extraction of ginger, at the highest concentration of maltodextrin, the TPC also decreased to 18.06 ± 0.05 mg GAE/g DW [28]. Therefore, the maltodextrin concentration of 15% (w/w) was selected as the optimal ratio for ginger hydrolysis extraction.

Figure 6 Effect of maltodextrin concentration on the TPC of obtained powder. *a, b, c: Figures with same letters indicate statistical indifference.
Figure 6

Effect of maltodextrin concentration on the TPC of obtained powder. *a, b, c: Figures with same letters indicate statistical indifference.

3.3.2 Effect of feed flow rate on physicochemical properties of the spray drying process

Under the investigated feed rate from 120 to 600 mL/h, the moisture content remained relatively stable at 2.37 ± 0.06% (Table 8). In contrast, at the flow rate of 120–240 mL/h, the drying yield experienced a significant increase from 71.10 to 78.24%, then gradually falling back to 71.53% at the highest feed flow rate (600 mL/h). This can be explained due to the fact that when the feed flow rate increases, the size of the droplets would increase, which makes the particles tend to stick together, leading to a decrease in drying efficiency [29]. ANOVA analysis showed that the feed flow rate has not significantly affected drying yields and moisture content (p < 0.05).

Table 8

Effect of feed flow rate on the physicochemical properties of the obtained powder

Parameter Feed rate (mL/h)
120 240 360 480 600
Drying yields (%) 71.10 78.24 77.57 73.32 71.53
Moisture content (%) 2.37 ± 0.06 2.36 ± 0.04 2.36 ± 0.02 2.41 ± 0.02 2.37 ± 0.04

Figure 7 shows the slight influence of the feed flow rate on the spray-drying efficiency through measuring the TPC of each sample. Clearly, the feed flow rate was inversely proportional to the TPC in the ginger extract. At the same time, at the flow rate of 120 and 240 mL/h, the TPC did not show significant difference. However, the spray-drying time at 240 mL/h (below 1.2 h) input rate is shorter than 120 mL/h (below 2.5 h), which affects the performance of the machine and the drying intensity. Typically, Goula and Adamopoulos’ study fixed an input rate of 105 mL/h, which is very close to the input rate of 120 mL/h [29]. Carra et al. showed that increasing feed flow rates led to a decline in active agents’ content in the microparticles’ core. Specifically, increasing the feed rate from 10 to 14 mL/min decreased polyphenol content to 37.2%; however, a slower feed flow rate could prolong drying time [30]. Therefore, the survey of two articles partly reflects the compatibility of the operating equipment with the liquid to be dried. Therefore, the feed flow rate of 240 mL/h was selected for the present study.

Figure 7 Effect of feed flow rate on the TPC of obtained powder. *a, b, c: Figures with same letters indicate statistical indifference.
Figure 7

Effect of feed flow rate on the TPC of obtained powder. *a, b, c: Figures with same letters indicate statistical indifference.

3.3.3 Effect of inlet temperature on physicochemical properties of the spray-drying process

Table 9 shows the similarities of the products in this last survey such as the average moisture content of the four experimental units at 2.42% and the average powder recovery efficiency of 74.22%. The ANOVA analysis showed that the inlet temperature did not affect the drying yields and moisture content (p < 0.05). However, when determining polyphenol content, there was a relative difference between experimental units.

Table 9

Effect of inlet temperature on the physicochemical properties of the obtained powder

Parameter Inlet temperature (°C)
120 130 140 150
Drying yields (%) 76.21 71.75 75.56 74.69
Moisture content (%) 2.51 ± 0.02 2.42 ± 0.06 2.36 ± 0.09 2.41 ± 0.04

Figure 8 shows that the influence of spray-drying temperature from 120 to 150°C on TPC of the microencapsulate is non-significant (p > 0.05). The highest TPC of 96.96 ± 0.71 mg GAE/g DW was obtained at 140°C. Previously, Jangam and Thorat investigated the input temperature range for the spray-drying process of ginger juice from 120 to 160°C, after optimizing the input temperature of the spray drying process, the author has concluded that the best temperature range is from 131.71 to 136.61°C. The author also concluded that increasing the inlet temperature can cause thermal destruction of 6-gingerol to 6-shogaol. Explaining this phenomenon, the author described that increasing the drying temperature increases the atomisation pressure and reduces the storage capacity of 6-gingerol (a specific polyphenol compound in ginger). This may be because the higher atomisation pressure results in smaller droplets, which facilitate the loss of gingerol due to the increased surface area [31]. Cortés-Camargo et al. also claimed that the inlet temperature range from 120 to 200°C was appropriate for the lemon essential oil microencapsulation process using spray drying [32]. Therefore, the spray drying temperature of 140°C was selected as the most optimal in the present study.

Figure 8 Effect of inlet temperature on the TPC of obtained powder. *a, b, c: Figures with same letters indicate statistical indifference.
Figure 8

Effect of inlet temperature on the TPC of obtained powder. *a, b, c: Figures with same letters indicate statistical indifference.

Figure 9 shows that the morphology of microparticles were produced at 140°C, with maltodextrin as 15% (w/w), and feed flow rate as 240 mL/h. SEM image analysis showed that the obtained powder particles were quite uniform in size, with an intact particle surface and no cracks, indicating the ability to retain and protect the bioactive compounds well inside. Regarding the particle shape, under the present drying temperature, most of the obtained granules are mainly spherical, with the outer surface shrinking and concave. The current study was similar to the results conducted by Zahi et al. (d-limonene powder), Ferrari et al. (raspberry juice powder), and Santiago-Adame et al. (cinnamon essential oil powder) [33, 34,35].

Figure 9 Product powder morphology.
Figure 9

Product powder morphology.

4 Conclusion

For the enzyme-assisted hydrolysis of ginger extraction, the following conditions have been selected: the enzyme concentration of 0.2/100 g ginger powder (w/w), material/water ratio of 1/10 (w/w), pH 5, hydrolysis time of 120 min, and temperature of 55°C. Results have shown that as the produced ginger extract had 95.62% of moisture (as indicated by Brix content of 4.38 ± 0.02°Brx), TPC of 98.34 ± 0.59 mg GAE/g DW, and antioxidant activity IC50 of 883 µgAA/mL. The extraction yield was 83.94% and the recovery was 71.35%. The application of cellulase enzyme in the hydrolysis of ginger is also a possible research direction due to its low cost and high applicability in practice. Ginger hydrolysate is used as a raw material for further processing in the food industry. For the production of instant tea from ginger extraction using spray-drying method, the maltodextrin coating was used at a concentration of 15 g/100 g ginger extraction, the optimal feed flow rate of 240 mL/h and the inlet spray drying temperature of 140°C. The product achieved optimal moisture content of 2.36 ± 0.09%, TPC of 96.96 ± 0.71 mg GAE/g DW, antioxidant activity IC50 of 1,082 µgAA/mL, and spray-drying efficiency of 75.56%. The process of producing ginger tea from hydrolysate is also a suitable application direction for hydrolysed products. In addition, spray-dried soluble ginger tea has low moisture content and high content of bioactive substances, which shows its wide application potential in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetics industries in the future. Additionally, sensory analysis of the final products should be carried out in further studies as this helps to assess the customer’s tastes and the commercialisation potential of ginger instant tea products in the market.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Nguyen Tat Thanh University for supporting the authors to carry out this study. We acknowledge Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HCMUT), VNU-HCM for supporting this study.

  1. Funding information: The study was supported by Nguyen Tat Thanh University, the contract number is “SPUD.2023.01.02” signed on 2nd, January, 2023.

  2. Author contributions: Conceptualisation: N.P.T.N. and V.C.K.; methodology: P.V.H. and T.T.T.; data curation: N.H.T.A.; writing – original draft preparation: P.V.H. and N.P.T.N.; and writing – review and editing: L.T.H.N. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

  3. Conflict of interest: All authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Ethical approval: The conducted research is not related to either human or animal use.

  5. Data availability statement: All data analysed during the current study are included in this published article. The detailed data can be provided on reasonable request.

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Received: 2023-04-27
Revised: 2023-07-04
Accepted: 2023-07-06
Published Online: 2023-09-06

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2023-0363
Keywords for this article
ginger; instant tea; enzymatic hydrolysis; physicochemical properties of ginger
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Characteristics, source, and health risk assessment of aerosol polyaromatic hydrocarbons in the rural and urban regions of western Saudi Arabia
  2. Regular Articles
  3. A network-based correlation research between element electronegativity and node importance
  4. Pomegranate attenuates kidney injury in cyclosporine-induced nephrotoxicity in rats by suppressing oxidative stress
  5. Ab initio study of fundamental properties of XInO3 (X = K, Rb, Cs) perovskites
  6. Responses of feldspathic sandstone and sand-reconstituted soil C and N to freeze–thaw cycles
  7. Robust fractional control based on high gain observers design (RNFC) for a Spirulina maxima culture interfaced with an advanced oxidation process
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  11. Characterization of effective constituents in Acanthopanax senticosus fruit for blood deficiency syndrome based on the chinmedomics strategy
  12. Comparative analysis of the metabolites in Pinellia ternata from two producing regions using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization–tandem mass spectrometry
  13. The assessment of environmental parameter along the desalination plants in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
  14. Effects of harpin and carbendazim on antioxidant accumulation in young jujube leaves
  15. The effects of in ovo injected with sodium borate on hatching performance and small intestine morphology in broiler chicks
  16. Optimization of cutting forces and surface roughness via ANOVA and grey relational analysis in machining of In718
  17. Essential oils of Origanum compactum Benth: Chemical characterization, in vitro, in silico, antioxidant, and antibacterial activities
  18. Translocation of tungsten(vi) oxide/gadolinium(iii) fluoride in tellurite glasses towards improvement of gamma-ray attenuation features in high-density glass shields
  19. Mechanical properties, elastic moduli, and gamma ray attenuation competencies of some TeO2–WO3–GdF3 glasses: Tailoring WO3–GdF3 substitution toward optimum behavioral state range
  20. Comparison between the CIDR or sponge with hormone injection to induce estrus synchronization for twining and sex preselection in Naimi sheep
  21. Exergetic performance analyses of three different cogeneration plants
  22. Psoralea corylifolia (babchi) seeds enhance proliferation of normal human cultured melanocytes: GC–MS profiling and biological investigation
  23. A novel electrochemical micro-titration method for quantitative evaluation of the DPPH free radical scavenging capacity of caffeic acid
  24. Comparative study between supported bimetallic catalysts for nitrate remediation in water
  25. Persicaline, an alkaloid from Salvadora persica, inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis and cell-cycle arrest in MCF-7 cells
  26. Determination of nicotine content in locally produced smokeless tobacco (Shammah) samples from Jazan region of Saudi Arabia using a convenient HPLC-MS/MS method
  27. Changes in oxidative stress markers in pediatric burn injury over a 1-week period
  28. Integrated geophysical techniques applied for petroleum basins structural characterization in the central part of the Western Desert, Egypt
  29. The impact of chemical modifications on gamma-ray attenuation properties of some WO3-reinforced tellurite glasses
  30. Microwave and Cs+-assisted chemo selective reaction protocol for synthesizing 2-styryl quinoline biorelevant molecules
  31. Structural, physical, and radiation absorption properties of a significant nuclear power plant component: A comparison between REX-734 and 316L SS austenitic stainless steels
  32. Effect of Moringa oleifera on serum YKL-40 level: In vivo rat periodontitis model
  33. Investigating the impact of CO2 emissions on the COVID-19 pandemic by generalized linear mixed model approach with inverse Gaussian and gamma distributions
  34. Influence of WO3 content on gamma rays attenuation characteristics of phosphate glasses at low energy range
  35. Study on CO2 absorption performance of ternary DES formed based on DEA as promoting factor
  36. Performance analyses of detonation engine cogeneration cycles
  37. Sterols from Centaurea pumilio L. with cell proliferative activity: In vitro and in silico studies
  38. Untargeted metabolomics revealing changes in aroma substances in flue-cured tobacco
  39. Effect of pumpkin enriched with calcium lactate on iron status in an animal model of postmenopausal osteoporosis
  40. Energy consumption, mechanical and metallographic properties of cryogenically treated tool steels
  41. Optimization of ultra-high pressure-assisted extraction of total phenols from Eucommia ulmoides leaves by response surface methodology
  42. Harpin enhances antioxidant nutrient accumulation and decreases enzymatic browning in stored soybean sprouts
  43. Physicochemical and biological properties of carvacrol
  44. Radix puerariae in the treatment of diabetic nephropathy: A network pharmacology analysis and experimental validation
  45. Anti-Alzheimer, antioxidants, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase effects of Taverniera glabra mediated ZnO and Fe2O3 nanoparticles in alloxan-induced diabetic rats
  46. Experimental study on photocatalytic CO2 reduction performance of ZnS/CdS-TiO2 nanotube array thin films
  47. Epoxy-reinforced heavy metal oxides for gamma ray shielding purposes
  48. Black mulberry (Morus nigra L.) fruits: As a medicinal plant rich in human health-promoting compounds
  49. Promising antioxidant and antimicrobial effects of essential oils extracted from fruits of Juniperus thurifera: In vitro and in silico investigations
  50. Chloramine-T-induced oxidation of Rizatriptan Benzoate: An integral chemical and spectroscopic study of products, mechanisms and kinetics
  51. Study on antioxidant and antimicrobial potential of chemically profiled essential oils extracted from Juniperus phoenicea (L.) by use of in vitro and in silico approaches
  52. Screening and characterization of fungal taxol-producing endophytic fungi for evaluation of antimicrobial and anticancer activities
  53. Mineral composition, principal polyphenolic components, and evaluation of the anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antioxidant properties of Cytisus villosus Pourr leaf extracts
  54. In vitro antiproliferative efficacy of Annona muricata seed and fruit extracts on several cancer cell lines
  55. An experimental study for chemical characterization of artificial anterior cruciate ligament with coated chitosan as biomaterial
  56. Prevalence of residual risks of the transfusion-transmitted infections in Riyadh hospitals: A two-year retrospective study
  57. Computational and experimental investigation of antibacterial and antifungal properties of Nicotiana tabacum extracts
  58. Reinforcement of cementitious mortars with hemp fibers and shives
  59. X-ray shielding properties of bismuth-borate glass doped with rare earth ions
  60. Green supported silver nanoparticles over modified reduced graphene oxide: Investigation of its antioxidant and anti-ovarian cancer effects
  61. Orthogonal synthesis of a versatile building block for dual functionalization of targeting vectors
  62. Thymbra spicata leaf extract driven biogenic synthesis of Au/Fe3O4 nanocomposite and its bio-application in the treatment of different types of leukemia
  63. The role of Ag2O incorporation in nuclear radiation shielding behaviors of the Li2O–Pb3O4–SiO2 glass system: A multi-step characterization study
  64. A stimuli-responsive in situ spray hydrogel co-loaded with naringenin and gentamicin for chronic wounds
  65. Assessment of the impact of γ-irradiation on the piperine content and microbial quality of black pepper
  66. Antioxidant, sensory, and functional properties of low-alcoholic IPA beer with Pinus sylvestris L. shoots addition fermented using unconventional yeast
  67. Screening and optimization of extracellular pectinase produced by Bacillus thuringiensis SH7
  68. Determination of polyphenols in Chinese jujube using ultra-performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry
  69. Synergistic effects of harpin and NaCl in determining soybean sprout quality under non-sterile conditions
  70. Field evaluation of different eco-friendly alternative control methods against Panonychus citri [Acari: Tetranychidae] spider mite and its predators in citrus orchards
  71. Exploring the antimicrobial potential of biologically synthesized zero valent iron nanoparticles
  72. NaCl regulates goldfish growth and survival at three food supply levels under hypoxia
  73. An exploration of the physical, optical, mechanical, and radiation shielding properties of PbO–MgO–ZnO–B2O3 glasses
  74. A novel statistical modeling of air pollution and the COVID-19 pandemic mortality data by Poisson, geometric, and negative binomial regression models with fixed and random effects
  75. Treatment activity of the injectable hydrogels loaded with dexamethasone In(iii) complex on glioma by inhibiting the VEGF signaling pathway
  76. An alternative approach for the excess lifetime cancer risk and prediction of radiological parameters
  77. Panax ginseng leaf aqueous extract mediated green synthesis of AgNPs under ultrasound condition and investigation of its anti-lung adenocarcinoma effects
  78. Study of hydrolysis and production of instant ginger (Zingiber officinale) tea
  79. Novel green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Salvia rosmarinus extract for treatment of human lung cancer
  80. Evaluation of second trimester plasma lipoxin A4, VEGFR-1, IL-6, and TNF-α levels in pregnant women with gestational diabetes mellitus
  81. Antidiabetic, antioxidant and cytotoxicity activities of ortho- and para-substituted Schiff bases derived from metformin hydrochloride: Validation by molecular docking and in silico ADME studies
  82. Antioxidant, antidiabetic, antiglaucoma, and anticholinergic effects of Tayfi grape (Vitis vinifera): A phytochemical screening by LC-MS/MS analysis
  83. Identification of genetic polymorphisms in the stearoyl CoA desaturase gene and its association with milk quality traits in Najdi sheep
  84. Cold-acclimation effect on cadmium absorption and biosynthesis of polyphenolics, and free proline and photosynthetic pigments in Spirogyra aequinoctialis
  85. Analysis of secondary metabolites in Xinjiang Morus nigra leaves using different extraction methods with UPLC-Q/TOF-MS/MS technology
  86. Nanoarchitectonics and performance evaluation of a Fe3O4-stabilized Pickering emulsion-type differential pressure plugging agent
  87. Investigating pyrolysis characteristics of Shengdong coal through Py-GC/MS
  88. Extraction, phytochemical characterization, and antifungal activity of Salvia rosmarinus extract
  89. Introducing a novel and natural antibiotic for the treatment of oral pathogens: Abelmoschus esculentus green-formulated silver nanoparticles
  90. Optimization of gallic acid-enriched ultrasonic-assisted extraction from mango peels
  91. Effect of gamma rays irradiation in the structure, optical, and electrical properties of samarium doped bismuth titanate ceramics
  92. Combinatory in silico investigation for potential inhibitors from Curcuma sahuynhensis Škorničk. & N.S. Lý volatile phytoconstituents against influenza A hemagglutinin, SARS-CoV-2 main protease, and Omicron-variant spike protein
  93. Physical, mechanical, and gamma ray shielding properties of the Bi2O3–BaO–B2O3–ZnO–As2O3–MgO–Na2O glass system
  94. Twofold interpenetrated 3D Cd(ii) complex: Crystal structure and luminescent property
  95. Study on the microstructure and soil quality variation of composite soil with soft rock and sand
  96. Ancient spring waters still emerging and accessible in the Roman Forum area: Chemical–physical and microbiological characterization
  97. Extraction and characterization of type I collagen from scales of Mexican Biajaiba fish
  98. Finding small molecular compounds to decrease trimethylamine oxide levels in atherosclerosis by virtual screening
  99. Prefatory in silico studies and in vitro insecticidal effect of Nigella sativa (L.) essential oil and its active compound (carvacrol) against the Callosobruchus maculatus adults (Fab), a major pest of chickpea
  100. Polymerized methyl imidazole silver bromide (CH3C6H5AgBr)6: Synthesis, crystal structures, and catalytic activity
  101. Using calcined waste fish bones as a green solid catalyst for biodiesel production from date seed oil
  102. Influence of the addition of WO3 on TeO2–Na2O glass systems in view of the feature of mechanical, optical, and photon attenuation
  103. Naringin ameliorates 5-fluorouracil elicited neurotoxicity by curtailing oxidative stress and iNOS/NF-ĸB/caspase-3 pathway
  104. GC-MS profile of extracts of an endophytic fungus Alternaria and evaluation of its anticancer and antibacterial potentialities
  105. Green synthesis, chemical characterization, and antioxidant and anti-colorectal cancer effects of vanadium nanoparticles
  106. Determination of caffeine content in coffee drinks prepared in some coffee shops in the local market in Jeddah City, Saudi Arabia
  107. A new 3D supramolecular Cu(ii) framework: Crystal structure and photocatalytic characteristics
  108. Bordeaux mixture accelerates ripening, delays senescence, and promotes metabolite accumulation in jujube fruit
  109. Important application value of injectable hydrogels loaded with omeprazole Schiff base complex in the treatment of pancreatitis
  110. Color tunable benzothiadiazole-based small molecules for lightening applications
  111. Investigation of structural, dielectric, impedance, and mechanical properties of hydroxyapatite-modified barium titanate composites for biomedical applications
  112. Metal gel particles loaded with epidermal cell growth factor promote skin wound repair mechanism by regulating miRNA
  113. In vitro exploration of Hypsizygus ulmarius (Bull.) mushroom fruiting bodies: Potential antidiabetic and anti-inflammatory agent
  114. Alteration in the molecular structure of the adenine base exposed to gamma irradiation: An ESR study
  115. Comprehensive study of optical, thermal, and gamma-ray shielding properties of Bi2O3–ZnO–PbO–B2O3 glasses
  116. Lewis acids as co-catalysts in Pd-based catalyzed systems of the octene-1 hydroethoxycarbonylation reaction
  117. Synthesis, Hirshfeld surface analysis, thermal, and selective α-glucosidase inhibitory studies of Schiff base transition metal complexes
  118. Protective properties of AgNPs green-synthesized by Abelmoschus esculentus on retinal damage on the virtue of its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects in diabetic rat
  119. Effects of green decorated AgNPs on lignin-modified magnetic nanoparticles mediated by Cydonia on cecal ligation and puncture-induced sepsis
  120. Treatment of gastric cancer by green mediated silver nanoparticles using Pistacia atlantica bark aqueous extract
  121. Preparation of newly developed porcelain ceramics containing WO3 nanoparticles for radiation shielding applications
  122. Utilization of computational methods for the identification of new natural inhibitors of human neutrophil elastase in inflammation therapy
  123. Some anticancer agents as effective glutathione S-transferase (GST) inhibitors
  124. Clay-based bricks’ rich illite mineral for gamma-ray shielding applications: An experimental evaluation of the effect of pressure rates on gamma-ray attenuation parameters
  125. Stability kinetics of orevactaene pigments produced by Epicoccum nigrum in solid-state fermentation
  126. Treatment of denture stomatitis using iron nanoparticles green-synthesized by Silybum marianum extract
  127. Characterization and antioxidant potential of white mustard (Brassica hirta) leaf extract and stabilization of sunflower oil
  128. Characteristics of Langmuir monomolecular monolayers formed by the novel oil blends
  129. Strategies for optimizing the single GdSrFeO4 phase synthesis
  130. Oleic acid and linoleic acid nanosomes boost immunity and provoke cell death via the upregulation of beta-defensin-4 at genetic and epigenetic levels
  131. Unraveling the therapeutic potential of Bombax ceiba roots: A comprehensive study of chemical composition, heavy metal content, antibacterial activity, and in silico analysis
  132. Green synthesis of AgNPs using plant extract and investigation of its anti-human colorectal cancer application
  133. The adsorption of naproxen on adsorbents obtained from pepper stalk extract by green synthesis
  134. Treatment of gastric cancer by silver nanoparticles encapsulated by chitosan polymers mediated by Pistacia atlantica extract under ultrasound condition
  135. In vitro protective and anti-inflammatory effects of Capparis spinosa and its flavonoids profile
  136. Wear and corrosion behavior of TiC and WC coatings deposited on high-speed steels by electro-spark deposition
  137. Therapeutic effects of green-formulated gold nanoparticles by Origanum majorana on spinal cord injury in rats
  138. Melanin antibacterial activity of two new strains, SN1 and SN2, of Exophiala phaeomuriformis against five human pathogens
  139. Evaluation of the analgesic and anesthetic properties of silver nanoparticles supported over biodegradable acacia gum-modified magnetic nanoparticles
  140. Review Articles
  141. Role and mechanism of fruit waste polyphenols in diabetes management
  142. A comprehensive review of non-alkaloidal metabolites from the subfamily Amaryllidoideae (Amaryllidaceae)
  143. Discovery of the chemical constituents, structural characteristics, and pharmacological functions of Chinese caterpillar fungus
  144. Eco-friendly green approach of nickel oxide nanoparticles for biomedical applications
  145. Advances in the pharmaceutical research of curcumin for oral administration
  146. Rapid Communication
  147. Determination of the contents of bioactive compounds in St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum): Comparison of commercial and wild samples
  148. Retraction
  149. Retraction of “Two mixed-ligand coordination polymers based on 2,5-thiophenedicarboxylic acid and flexible N-donor ligands: The protective effect on periodontitis via reducing the release of IL-1β and TNF-α”
  150. Topical Issue on Phytochemicals, biological and toxicological analysis of aromatic medicinal plants
  151. Anti-plasmodial potential of selected medicinal plants and a compound Atropine isolated from Eucalyptus obliqua
  152. Anthocyanin extract from black rice attenuates chronic inflammation in DSS-induced colitis mouse model by modulating the gut microbiota
  153. Evaluation of antibiofilm and cytotoxicity effect of Rumex vesicarius methanol extract
  154. Chemical compositions of Litsea umbellata and inhibition activities
  155. Green synthesis, characterization of silver nanoparticles using Rhynchosia capitata leaf extract and their biological activities
  156. GC-MS analysis and antibacterial activities of some plants belonging to the genus Euphorbia on selected bacterial isolates
  157. The abrogative effect of propolis on acrylamide-induced toxicity in male albino rats: Histological study
  158. A phytoconstituent 6-aminoflavone ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced oxidative stress mediated synapse and memory dysfunction via p-Akt/NF-kB pathway in albino mice
  159. Anti-diabetic potentials of Sorbaria tomentosa Lindl. Rehder: Phytochemistry (GC-MS analysis), α-amylase, α-glucosidase inhibitory, in vivo hypoglycemic, and biochemical analysis
  160. Assessment of cytotoxic and apoptotic activities of the Cassia angustifolia aqueous extract against SW480 colon cancer
  161. Biochemical analysis, antioxidant, and antibacterial efficacy of the bee propolis extract (Hymenoptera: Apis mellifera) against Staphylococcus aureus-induced infection in BALB/c mice: In vitro and in vivo study
  162. Assessment of essential elements and heavy metals in Saudi Arabian rice samples underwent various processing methods
  163. Two new compounds from leaves of Capparis dongvanensis (Sy, B. H. Quang & D. V. Hai) and inhibition activities
  164. Hydroxyquinoline sulfanilamide ameliorates STZ-induced hyperglycemia-mediated amyleoid beta burden and memory impairment in adult mice
  165. An automated reading of semi-quantitative hemagglutination results in microplates: Micro-assay for plant lectins
  166. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry assessment of essential and toxic trace elements in traditional spices consumed by the population of the Middle Eastern region in their recipes
  167. Phytochemical analysis and anticancer activity of the Pithecellobium dulce seed extract in colorectal cancer cells
  168. Impact of climatic disturbances on the chemical compositions and metabolites of Salvia officinalis
  169. Physicochemical characterization, antioxidant and antifungal activities of essential oils of Urginea maritima and Allium sativum
  170. Phytochemical analysis and antifungal efficiency of Origanum majorana extracts against some phytopathogenic fungi causing tomato damping-off diseases
  171. Special Issue on 4th IC3PE
  172. Graphene quantum dots: A comprehensive overview
  173. Studies on the intercalation of calcium–aluminium layered double hydroxide-MCPA and its controlled release mechanism as a potential green herbicide
  174. Synergetic effect of adsorption and photocatalysis by zinc ferrite-anchored graphitic carbon nitride nanosheet for the removal of ciprofloxacin under visible light irradiation
  175. Exploring anticancer activity of the Indonesian guava leaf (Psidium guajava L.) fraction on various human cancer cell lines in an in vitro cell-based approach
  176. The comparison of gold extraction methods from the rock using thiourea and thiosulfate
  177. Special Issue on Marine environmental sciences and significance of the multidisciplinary approaches
  178. Sorption of alkylphenols and estrogens on microplastics in marine conditions
  179. Cytotoxic ketosteroids from the Red Sea soft coral Dendronephthya sp.
  180. Antibacterial and biofilm prevention metabolites from Acanthophora spicifera
  181. Characteristics, source, and health risk assessment of aerosol polyaromatic hydrocarbons in the rural and urban regions of western Saudi Arabia
  182. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Energy, Environmental and Biological Applications - Part II
  183. Green synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of antibacterial activities of cobalt nanoparticles produced by marine fungal species Periconia prolifica
  184. Combustion-mediated sol–gel preparation of cobalt-doped ZnO nanohybrids for the degradation of acid red and antibacterial performance
  185. Perinatal supplementation with selenium nanoparticles modified with ascorbic acid improves hepatotoxicity in rat gestational diabetes
  186. Evaluation and chemical characterization of bioactive secondary metabolites from endophytic fungi associated with the ethnomedicinal plant Bergenia ciliata
  187. Enhancing photovoltaic efficiency with SQI-Br and SQI-I sensitizers: A comparative analysis
  188. Nanostructured p-PbS/p-CuO sulfide/oxide bilayer heterojunction as a promising photoelectrode for hydrogen gas generation
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