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The comparison of gold extraction methods from the rock using thiourea and thiosulfate

  • Ika Yanti EMAIL logo , Thia Marliana , Mai Anugrahwati , Wiyogo Prio Wicaksono and Wahyu Fajar Winata
Published/Copyright: August 10, 2023
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Open Chemistry
From the journal Open Chemistry Volume 21 Issue 1

Abstract

Gold extraction from the rock is generally carried out using mercury. However, the high toxicity of mercury has a very dangerous impact on the environment and health. Various efforts have been made to reduce the use of mercury in gold extraction, one of which is the leaching method using thiosulphate and thiourea solution because they have low toxicity and are environmentally friendly. This study aimed to determine the results of gold extraction with thiosulphate and thiourea solution and determined the optimum concentration and time of extraction. The yield of the gold extract with thiosulphate solution was greater than that of thiourea solution. The thiosulphate solution had an optimum concentration of 0.3 M and an optimum time of 2 h. While the thiourea solution had an optimum concentration of 0.2 M and an optimum time of 3 h. The results of the Friedman test on the leaching time and concentration parameters show that leaching time has a significant effect on the Au leaching process, and the concentration parameter does not affect the Au leaching process from solid samples.

Keywords: extraction; leaching; gold; rock

1 Introduction

Gold processing carried out by various industrial sectors including small-scale gold mining generally uses mercury with amalgamation techniques. The use of mercury in the process of separating gold ore is because mercury has properties and characteristics that can be used to bind gold by forming amalgam compounds (Au2Hg3) [1,2]. The properties and characteristics of mercury include having a very high attractiveness to the element gold [3]. The advantages of this amalgamation technique are that it is easy to perform and fast [4]. However, mercury has the highest level of toxicity compared to other metals such as silver, arsenic, lead, nickel, and zinc [3,5,6].

Another method that is also used to separate gold from ore in industry and small-scale gold mining is the cyanide leaching method [7,8]. Leaching is the process of separating a solid that is dissolved with certain reagents [9,10,11]. The cyanide leaching process generally uses reagents such as NaCN and KCN to bind gold ions to form gold complex ions or aurocyanide (AuCN−) [12]. The cyanide method has low operating costs and high extraction yields [13,14]. However, this process also has a high level of toxicity and can pollute the environment [15].

The high impact and danger posed by the amalgamation method and the cyanide method commonly used by gold miners attract attention to be able to seek the development of alternative methods that are safe for the environment and health. Moreover, many gold mining activities are carried out because they can significantly increase people’s income [11]. The government has made various efforts to reduce the impact of the dangers, one of which is by issuing Presidential Regulation No. 21/2019 concerning the National Action Plan for Mercury Reduction and Elimination. Based on the regulation, by 2025, it is targeted to eliminate 100% of mercury, or in other words, mercury is no longer used in gold ore processing activities [16,17,18]. One more environmental friendly method in the recovery of gold from soil and rocks is phytomining. Phytomining is the use of plants to absorb metals in soil and rocks [19,20,21]. However, this method has drawbacks even though it is considered the most environmentally friendly. The disadvantage of phytomining is that the time or the process of taking metals, especially gold takes a relatively long process. This method is usually used to recover metals with relatively low grades to reduce the cost of mining these metals, which are deemed unprofitable due to low rates. The phytomining method uses a leaching process to extract the accumulated metals in the plant, so a reasonably efficient and effective method is to use environmentally friendly reagents. Another alternative method for processing gold ore is using more environmentally friendly reagents. Thiosulphate and thiourea are currently an alternative to cyanide reagents because they show the ability to extract gold and have a smaller negative impact on the environment and health [22,23,24,25,26]. The thiosulphate solution can form an anionic complex [Au(S2O3)2]3− with gold under alkaline conditions, while thiourea solution can form cationic complex Au[CS(NH2)]2 + in acidic conditions [27]. The advantages of these two solutions are the high dissolution rate of gold compared to cyanide solutions and fewer environmental problems [23,28,29]. In this study, the leaching process using thiosulphate and thiourea solutions is expected to increase the recovery of gold from ore by varying the contact time, varying the concentration, and determining the effect of using variations of reagent for leaching.

2 Method

2.1 Materials

The materials used include rock samples from the area mining West Sumbawa-Nusa Tenggara Barat, Indonesia. Chemicals consist of nitric acid (HNO3), hydrochloric acid (HCl), sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3), thiourea (CS(NH2)2), sulfuric acid (H2SO4), ferrous(iii)chloride (FeCl3·6H2O), copper(ii)pentahydrous sulfate (CuSO4·5H2O), and ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH), which were purchased from Merck-Millipore. The instruments used were scanning electron microscopy–energy-dispersive X-ray (SEM–EDX) and atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) (Perkin Elmer PinAAcle 900T).

2.2 Preparation and pre-treatment

The gold rocks obtained from West Sumbawa Regency were crushed until it becomes powder. After that, it was sifted with a 100 mesh sieve (150 µm). The sampled in sieve were weighed as much as 100 g. Samples of sifted rocks were roasted for 45 min at a temperature of 500°C [30]. Rock samples were analysed using SEM–EDX to determine the morphology and the elemental content.

2.3 Analysis of gold (Au) content in rocks

A total of 2.5 g of rock samples (after pre-treatment) was placed into a beaker glass, followed by the addition of 25 mL of aqua regia solution. Aqua regia was made by mixing HCl and HNO3 (3:1) v/v [31]. The mixture was stirred and let stand for a while until all the metal dissolves. Then the solution was separated using the filter paper. The obtained filtrate was analysed using AAS to determine the Au content.

2.4 Preparation of leachate solution

2.4.1 Preparation of thiosulphate leachate solution

About 100 mL of sodium thiosulphate solution (Na2S2O3) for each concentration was placed into a 250 mL beaker glass, and then, 0.5 M NH4OH was added until the pH of the solution reached 10. Then, 20 mL of 0.03 M CuSO4·5H2O was added and stirred until a homogeneous solution was produced.

2.4.2 Preparation of thiourea leachate solution

About 100 mL of CS(NH2)2 solution was put into a 250 mL beaker. Then the pH was adjusted to 2 by adding 1 M H2SO4. After that, 30 mL of 0.025 M FeCl3 solution was added and stirred until homogeneous.

2.5 Leaching of Au with thiosulphate solution

2.5.1 Leaching process with contact time variations

A total of 2.5 g of samples were weighed and placed into a 100 mL beaker glass. Then, 25 mL of 0.2 M thiosulphate leachate solution was added. The mixture was sorted with variations in leaching time for 1, 2, 3, and 4 h. The leaching results were separated using filter paper, and the filtrate obtained was analysed using an AAS.

2.5.2 Leaching process with concentration variations

A total of 2.5 g of pre-treatment rock samples were weighed and placed into a 100 mL beaker glass. Then, a 25 mL of thiosulphate leachate solution with a concentration variation of 0.1 M, 0.2 M, and 0.3 M. The mixture was stirred for 3 h. The leaching results were filtered, and the filtrate obtained was analysed using an AAS.

2.6 Leaching of Au with thiourea solution

The same method presented earlier for leaching of Au with thiosulphate solution was followed for leaching of Au with thiourea solution.

3 Results and discussion

The rock samples used in this study were brownish-yellow obtained from the West Sumbawa mining area, West Nusa Tenggara. Rock samples are first carried out by crushing, smoothing, and sifting (Figure 1). The sample was crushed using a stone crusher, then smoothed using a set mortar and pestle, and then sifted. This process aims to obtain a smaller particle size. The small particle size will enlarge the surface area to improve the contact between solids and solution during the extraction process.

Figure 1 Gold extraction scheme.
Figure 1

Gold extraction scheme.

Preliminary analysis of rock samples using the SEM–EDX instrument was aimed to determine the morphology of the surface as well as the composition contained in the rock. The results are shown in Figure 2, and the composition of the rocks is presented in Table 1. Based on these results, the surface of the rock appears relatively rough as well as large particles. The rock is dominantly made up of oxygen, silica, and carbon by 62.55, 15.12, and 10.91%, respectively. From these results, the composition of the rocks does not indicate the presence of the mineral gold (Au). In this case, gold particles are likely to be excluded from the dominant minerals [32]. The mineral can be pyrite (FeS2). This is in line with Munganyika’s research (2022), which stated that a significant iron content indicates a source of gold in pyrite [29].

Figure 2 The gold rocks after roasting at 500°C.
Figure 2

The gold rocks after roasting at 500°C.

Table 1

Chemical composition of rocks

Element %
O 62.55
Si 15.12
C 10.91
Al 4.78
Fe 4.19
Mg 1.80
K 0.26
Zn 0.24
Ca 0.15

To determine the gold content contained in the rock sample, a preliminary analysis was carried out using an aqua regia solvent. The use of this solvent is based on the national gold testing standard contained in SNI 8880:2020. This is also in line with several previous studies such as those conducted by Piotr et al. [33] and Mooki et al. [34], which use aqua regia solvents to determine the initial content of gold and silver metal in rock samples [33,34]. Aqua regia solvents are made by mixing 37% HCl and 65% HNO3 in a ratio of 3:1. The mixture has obtained a solution of yellow colour. Furthermore, the gold leaching process is carried out for 10 min. The reaction that occurs in the process of leaching gold with the solvent of aqua regia is shown in equation (1) [23].

(1) Au ( s ) + 4 HCl ( aq ) + HNO 3 ( aq ) → HAuCl 4 ( aq ) + NO ( g ) + 2 H 2 O ( l ) .

The dissolution result is in the form of a filtrate that has been separated from its residue and analysed using the AAS instrument. Thus, the gold content contained in the rock sample is known to be 0.0015%.

Thiosulphate is known to have the ability to dissolve gold by forming a complex [Au(S2O3)2]3−. Thiosulphate leachate solution is prepared by mixing the Na2S2O3 solution as the main solvent, CuSO4 solution as a catalyst, and ammonia solution, which is used to regulate the pH of the solution to pH 9–11 as well as acts a stabilizer of copper ions. The golden leaching system with thiosulphate occurs under alkaline conditions aimed at preventing the decomposition of thiosulphate and copper ions becomes ineffective when it is below pH 9. This mixture has obtained a solution of blue colour. Furthermore, the leaching process is carried out by adding a leachate solution to the pre-treatment rock sample. The leaching process is carried out based on a pre-determined time. Then the mixture is filtered using filter paper. The filtrate obtained from the filtering results is in the form of a colourless, and clear solution, which is then analysed using AAS to determine the concentration of gold, that has been obtained. The reaction of the formation of a gold-stable complex with thiosulphate occurs through two stages, which is indicated in equations (2) and (3).

(2) Au ( s ) 0 + [ Cu ( NH 3 ) 4 ] ( aq ) 2 + + 3 S 2 O 3 ( aq ) 2 − → [ Au ( NH 3 ) 2 ] ( aq ) + + [ Cu ( S 2 O 3 ) 2 ] ( aq ) 5 − + 2 NH 3 ( aq ) ,

(3) [ Au ( NH 3 ) 2 ] ( aq ) + + 2 S 2 O 3 ( aq ) 2 − → [ Au ( S 2 O 3 ) 2 ] ( aq ) 3 − + 2 NH 3 ( aq ) .

The addition of ammonia and copper ions serves as a catalyst that accelerates the rate of leaching. Ammonia and copper ions in the solution form a complex [Cu(NH3)4]2+. This complex plays a role in oxidizing Au to Au+. Then there was a substitution of NH3 with S2O3 2−, so that a more stable [Au(S2O3)2]3− complex was formed. However, in the cathode region, the resulting [Cu(NH3)4]2+ is reduced to [Cu(S2O3)3]5− and [Cu(S2O3)3]5−, which is oxidized again rapidly by dissolved oxygen forming [Cu(NH3)4]2+ [35].

So that the total reaction of dissolution of gold in thiosulphate solution is as follows:

(4) Au ( s ) + [ Cu ( NH 3 ) 4 ] ( aq ) 2 + + 5 S 2 O 3 ( aq ) 2 − → [ Au ( S 2 O 3 ) 2 ] ( aq ) 3 − + 4 NH 3 ( aq ) + [ Cu ( S 2 O 3 ) 3 ] ( aq ) 5 − .

Thiourea is also known to have the ability to dissolve gold by forming the cationic complex [Au(CS(NH2)2)]2+. The thiourea leach solution is made by mixing thiourea solution, FeCl3 solution as an oxidizing agent, and H2SO4 solution as a pH regulator, so that the pH becomes 1–2 because in that pH range, the gold leaching process with thiourea solution is more efficient. If the solution does not have an acidic pH, thiourea becomes unstable and decomposes easily. The results of the mixture obtained a slightly yellowish and clear solution. After that, the leaching process was carried out by adding a leach solution to the pre-treatment rock samples. The leaching process is carried out based on predetermined time. The products obtained after leaching were filtered using filter paper to separate the filtrate and residue. The filtrate obtained was a colourless and clear solution which was then analysed using AAS to determine the concentration of gold that was successfully extracted with thiourea solution.

The reaction for the formation of the gold-thiourea cationic complex consists of two steps. The first step is that thiourea is converted to formamidine disulphide (FDS) by an oxidizing agent, namely Fe3+. Then FDS will react with gold in excess thiourea to form a gold-thiourea complex. The reactions that occur are presented as equations (5) and (6):

(5) 2 CS ( NH 2 ) 2 ( aq ) + 2 Fe ( aq ) 3 + → FDS ( aq ) + 2 Fe ( aq ) 2 + + 2 H ( aq ) + ,

(6) FDS ( aq ) + 2 CS ( NH 2 ) 2 ( aq ) + 2 Au ( s ) + 2 H ( aq ) + → 2 Au [ SC ( NH 2 ) 2 ] 2 ( aq ) + .

The total reaction is shown in equation (7).

(7) Au ( s ) + 2 CS ( NH 2 ) 2 ( aq ) + 2 Fe ( aq ) 3 + → 2 Au [ SC ( NH 2 ) 2 ] 2 ( aq ) + + 2 Fe ( aq ) 2 + .

Fe(iii) present in the solution from the addition of FeCl3 solution plays an important role in oxidizing thiourea to FDS (NH(NH2)CSSC(NH2)NH). Without the addition of an oxidizing agent, the leaching rate will be slower. Fe(iii) was chosen to be an effective oxidizing agent [36,37,38]. This is also supported by the value of the high standard reduction potential of Fe(iii), which is 0.77 V. FDS from thiourea oxidation can oxidize gold in solution, so that it can help increase the leaching speed.

Research on the effect of thiosulphate and thiourea concentrations on gold extraction was also carried out with a concentration variation of 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 M using a solid sample of 2.5 g, 25 mL of leachate solution, and a leaching time of 3 h. The results of the leaching in the form of filtrate and residue were separated by filtration, and the filtrate was analysed using an AAS to determine the percentage of gold solubility obtained. The obtained gold extraction is due to leaching with varying concentrations of thiosulphate and thiourea, as shown in Figure 3 and Table 2.

Figure 3 Effect of thiosulphate and thiourea concentration on Au extraction from 2.5 g sample in 25 mL of leachate solution.
Figure 3

Effect of thiosulphate and thiourea concentration on Au extraction from 2.5 g sample in 25 mL of leachate solution.

Table 2

Au fraction dissolved in thiosulphate and thiourea leachate solutions

The concentration of leaching agent (M) Fraction dissolved
Thiosulphate Thiourea
0.1 0.574 0.670
0.2 0.584 0.979
0.3 0.436 1.000

Figure 3 and Table 2 show the results of gold extraction against variations in thiosulphate concentrations. An increase in gold extraction was linearly observed with thiosulphate concentrations of 0.1–0.3 M. Gold extraction at a thiosulphate concentration of 0.3 M reached 100%. From these results, it is known that at the high concentration of thiosulphate, the gold extraction will also increase. The optimum concentration of thiosulphate can accelerate the rate of leaching. However, if the thiosulfate concentration is too low, it can lead to gold deposition [39].

Maximum gold extraction was achieved at 0.2 M thiourea concentration with a yield of 58.4% and decreased at 0.3 M concentration with an extraction percentage of 43.6%. Higher concentrations result in lower gold extraction. This occurs due to the increased decomposition of thiourea into FDS ((CS(NH2)NH)2), which then decomposes irreversibly into cyanamide (NH2CN) and elemental sulphur [38]. The sulphur then forms a passivation layer on the surface of the gold, so that it inhibits the extraction process [40,41,42]. The decomposition of thiourea into formamidine disulphide is shown in equation (8), and the reaction for the formation of cyanamide and elemental sulphur is shown in equation (9).

(8) 2 CS ( NH 2 ) 2 ( aq ) + 2 Fe ( aq ) 3 + → ( CS ( NH 2 ) NH ) 2 ( aq ) + 2 Fe ( aq ) 2 + + 2 H ( aq ) + ,

(9) ( CS ( NH 2 ) NH ) 2 ( aq ) → CS ( NH 2 ) 2 ( aq ) + NH 2 CN ( aq ) + S ( s ) 0 .

Thiosulphate solutions are better at extracting Au from solids than thiourea solutions (Table 3). This is due to Fe(iii) in the thiourea solution as an oxidizing agent. Fe(iii) will reduce to Fe(ii). As the leaching time increases in the extraction at pH 2, there is a continuous oxidation of Fe(ii) to Fe(iii), while thiosulfate remains consistently flow throughout the process (Figure 4). This triggers the reduction of Au(i) to Au(0), which is not identified during analysis with AAS. This is relevant to the previous research, which stated that Fe(ii) will undergo an oxidation reaction with O2 to become Fe(iii) through the formation of ferric superoxide (Fe(iii)–(O2˙−)) [43,44].

(10) Fe ( aq ) 2 + + O 2 ( g ) → [ Fe − O 2 ] ( aq ) 3 + , pH = 2 ( acid ) ,

(11) Au [ SC ( NH 2 ) 2 ] 2 ( aq ) + → Au ( s ) 0 + 2 SC ( NH 2 ) 2 ( aq ) ,

(12) Fe ( aq ) 2 + + O 2 ( g ) + Au [ SC ( NH 2 ) 2 ] 2 ( aq ) + → Au ( s ) 0 + 2 SC ( NH 2 ) 2 ( aq ) + [ Fe − O 2 ] ( aq ) 3 + , pH = 2 ( acid ) .

Figure 4 Effect of leaching time on Au extraction from 2.5 g sample in 25 mL of leachate solution (thiosulphate 0.3 M and thiourea 0.2 M).
Figure 4

Effect of leaching time on Au extraction from 2.5 g sample in 25 mL of leachate solution (thiosulphate 0.3 M and thiourea 0.2 M).

Table 3

Au fraction dissolved in thiosulphate and thiourea leachate solution at leaching time

Time (h) Fraction dissolved
Thiosulphate Thiourea
1 0.958 0.462
2 1.000 0.462
3 0.979 0.584
4 0.962 0.381

Based on Table 4, the results of the data normality test use the Kolmogorov–Smirnov and Shapiro–Wilk approach models. The Kolmogorov–Smirnov approach model is usually used for small sample data (<50 samples), and the Shapiro–Wilk approach model is usually used for more sample data (>50 samples) [45]. In Table 4, the Kolmogorov–Smirnov approach method does not show a significant value. It can be said that the Kolmogorov–Smirnov approach model can provide an overview for testing the normal distribution of data properly compared to the Shapiro–Wilk approach model. This is relevant to the previous research, which stated that the Kolmogorov–Smirnov approach model is less good at determining the normal distribution of data than the Shapiro–Wilk approach model [46]. Table 4 reveals that data obtained from different parameters, including leaching time and concentration, exhibit a normal distribution. However, there is one data point for the leachate solution with thiosulfate on the time parameter that is not normally distributed, as indicated by a p-value of 0.044.

Table 4

Normality test results

Variable Kolmogorov–Smirnov Shapiro–Wilk
Statistic df Sig. Statistic df Sig.
Thiosulphate Time 0.358 4 0.000 0.756 4 0.044
Concentration 0.268 3 0.000 0.950 3 0.571
Thiourea Time 0.299 4 0.000 0.926 4 0.569
Concentration 0.364 3 0.000 0.799 3 0.113

The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Because there are data that are not normally distributed, the Friedman test was carried out to determine the parameters that affect the Au leaching process. Friedman’s test is a nonparametric test for data that are not normally distributed. The results of the Friedman test on the leaching time and concentration parameters presented in Table 5 show that leaching time has a significant effect on the Au leaching process. This is evidenced by the results of calculating the p ≤ 0.050, which means that H0 is accepted (the parameter of leaching time) and has a significant effect. It could be that the concentration parameter does not affect the Au leaching process from solid samples because the p > 0.050 value means that H0 is rejected. This research is relevant to the study by Rui et al. [47], which state that the time parameter is significant in the gold recovery process in a leaching agent [47]. The longer the leaching time, the greater the gold collected. The leaching time parameter plays a more critical role than concentration because there are conditions where less gold will be recovered at a specific concentration. As in the thiosulphate solution, the greater the thiosulphate concentration, the higher the gold recovery results. However, in the thiourea solution, the greater the thiourea concentration, the lower the gold recovery.

Table 5

Friedman test results

Friedman test p Value Conc.
Leaching time 0.046 Significant
Concentration 0.083 Not significant

The mean difference is significant at the 0.050 level.

Using a thiosulphate solution has advantages over using a thiourea solution in extracting gold from the solid. In addition to the effectiveness of thiosulphate in extracting gold, it is also influenced by operational costs and the resulting impact (Table 6). The effectiveness of thiosulphate in extracting gold from solids is due to the strong interaction between thiosulphate and Au by producing a stable [Au(S2O3)2]3− complex. The strong S–Au–S bond results in a stable [Au(S2O3)2]3− complex [39].

Table 6

Comparison of leaching with thiosulphate and thiourea

No. Solution Ref.
Thiosulphate Thiourea
1. [Au(S2O3)2]3− complex is more stable Au[SC(NH2)2]2 + complex is less stable [39,48]
2. More selective for Au Less selective for Au [48]
3. Base system Acid system [48]
4. Non-corrosive to equipment Corrosive to equipment [49,50]
5. Inexpensive Expensive (more reagents) [51,52,53]

4 Conclusions

The gold content contained in the rock sample is 0.0015%. The yield of the gold extract with thiosulphate solution was greater than that with the thiourea solution. Gold extraction at 0.3 M thiosulphate reached 100% and at 0.2 M thiourea reached 58%. The thiosulphate solution had an optimum concentration of 0.3 M and an optimum time of 2 h, while the thiourea solution had an optimum concentration of 0.2 M and an optimum time of 3 h. The results of the Friedman test on the leaching time and concentration parameters show that leaching time has a significant effect on the Au leaching process, and the concentration parameter does not affect the Au leaching process from solid samples. Thiosulphate solution is more effective and environmentally friendly than thiourea solution for the recovery of Au in solids.

  1. Funding information: This work was not supported by any funding.

  2. Author contributions: All authors contributed equally.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

  4. Ethical approval: The conducted research is not related to either human or animal use.

  5. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Received: 2023-03-20
Revised: 2023-07-13
Accepted: 2023-07-13
Published Online: 2023-08-10

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2023-0102
Keywords for this article
extraction; leaching; gold; rock
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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  4. Pomegranate attenuates kidney injury in cyclosporine-induced nephrotoxicity in rats by suppressing oxidative stress
  5. Ab initio study of fundamental properties of XInO3 (X = K, Rb, Cs) perovskites
  6. Responses of feldspathic sandstone and sand-reconstituted soil C and N to freeze–thaw cycles
  7. Robust fractional control based on high gain observers design (RNFC) for a Spirulina maxima culture interfaced with an advanced oxidation process
  8. Study on arsenic speciation and redistribution mechanism in Lonicera japonica plants via synchrotron techniques
  9. Optimization of machining Nilo 36 superalloy parameters in turning operation
  10. Vacuum impregnation pre-treatment: A novel method for incorporating mono- and divalent cations into potato strips to reduce the acrylamide formation in French fries
  11. Characterization of effective constituents in Acanthopanax senticosus fruit for blood deficiency syndrome based on the chinmedomics strategy
  12. Comparative analysis of the metabolites in Pinellia ternata from two producing regions using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization–tandem mass spectrometry
  13. The assessment of environmental parameter along the desalination plants in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
  14. Effects of harpin and carbendazim on antioxidant accumulation in young jujube leaves
  15. The effects of in ovo injected with sodium borate on hatching performance and small intestine morphology in broiler chicks
  16. Optimization of cutting forces and surface roughness via ANOVA and grey relational analysis in machining of In718
  17. Essential oils of Origanum compactum Benth: Chemical characterization, in vitro, in silico, antioxidant, and antibacterial activities
  18. Translocation of tungsten(vi) oxide/gadolinium(iii) fluoride in tellurite glasses towards improvement of gamma-ray attenuation features in high-density glass shields
  19. Mechanical properties, elastic moduli, and gamma ray attenuation competencies of some TeO2–WO3–GdF3 glasses: Tailoring WO3–GdF3 substitution toward optimum behavioral state range
  20. Comparison between the CIDR or sponge with hormone injection to induce estrus synchronization for twining and sex preselection in Naimi sheep
  21. Exergetic performance analyses of three different cogeneration plants
  22. Psoralea corylifolia (babchi) seeds enhance proliferation of normal human cultured melanocytes: GC–MS profiling and biological investigation
  23. A novel electrochemical micro-titration method for quantitative evaluation of the DPPH free radical scavenging capacity of caffeic acid
  24. Comparative study between supported bimetallic catalysts for nitrate remediation in water
  25. Persicaline, an alkaloid from Salvadora persica, inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis and cell-cycle arrest in MCF-7 cells
  26. Determination of nicotine content in locally produced smokeless tobacco (Shammah) samples from Jazan region of Saudi Arabia using a convenient HPLC-MS/MS method
  27. Changes in oxidative stress markers in pediatric burn injury over a 1-week period
  28. Integrated geophysical techniques applied for petroleum basins structural characterization in the central part of the Western Desert, Egypt
  29. The impact of chemical modifications on gamma-ray attenuation properties of some WO3-reinforced tellurite glasses
  30. Microwave and Cs+-assisted chemo selective reaction protocol for synthesizing 2-styryl quinoline biorelevant molecules
  31. Structural, physical, and radiation absorption properties of a significant nuclear power plant component: A comparison between REX-734 and 316L SS austenitic stainless steels
  32. Effect of Moringa oleifera on serum YKL-40 level: In vivo rat periodontitis model
  33. Investigating the impact of CO2 emissions on the COVID-19 pandemic by generalized linear mixed model approach with inverse Gaussian and gamma distributions
  34. Influence of WO3 content on gamma rays attenuation characteristics of phosphate glasses at low energy range
  35. Study on CO2 absorption performance of ternary DES formed based on DEA as promoting factor
  36. Performance analyses of detonation engine cogeneration cycles
  37. Sterols from Centaurea pumilio L. with cell proliferative activity: In vitro and in silico studies
  38. Untargeted metabolomics revealing changes in aroma substances in flue-cured tobacco
  39. Effect of pumpkin enriched with calcium lactate on iron status in an animal model of postmenopausal osteoporosis
  40. Energy consumption, mechanical and metallographic properties of cryogenically treated tool steels
  41. Optimization of ultra-high pressure-assisted extraction of total phenols from Eucommia ulmoides leaves by response surface methodology
  42. Harpin enhances antioxidant nutrient accumulation and decreases enzymatic browning in stored soybean sprouts
  43. Physicochemical and biological properties of carvacrol
  44. Radix puerariae in the treatment of diabetic nephropathy: A network pharmacology analysis and experimental validation
  45. Anti-Alzheimer, antioxidants, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase effects of Taverniera glabra mediated ZnO and Fe2O3 nanoparticles in alloxan-induced diabetic rats
  46. Experimental study on photocatalytic CO2 reduction performance of ZnS/CdS-TiO2 nanotube array thin films
  47. Epoxy-reinforced heavy metal oxides for gamma ray shielding purposes
  48. Black mulberry (Morus nigra L.) fruits: As a medicinal plant rich in human health-promoting compounds
  49. Promising antioxidant and antimicrobial effects of essential oils extracted from fruits of Juniperus thurifera: In vitro and in silico investigations
  50. Chloramine-T-induced oxidation of Rizatriptan Benzoate: An integral chemical and spectroscopic study of products, mechanisms and kinetics
  51. Study on antioxidant and antimicrobial potential of chemically profiled essential oils extracted from Juniperus phoenicea (L.) by use of in vitro and in silico approaches
  52. Screening and characterization of fungal taxol-producing endophytic fungi for evaluation of antimicrobial and anticancer activities
  53. Mineral composition, principal polyphenolic components, and evaluation of the anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antioxidant properties of Cytisus villosus Pourr leaf extracts
  54. In vitro antiproliferative efficacy of Annona muricata seed and fruit extracts on several cancer cell lines
  55. An experimental study for chemical characterization of artificial anterior cruciate ligament with coated chitosan as biomaterial
  56. Prevalence of residual risks of the transfusion-transmitted infections in Riyadh hospitals: A two-year retrospective study
  57. Computational and experimental investigation of antibacterial and antifungal properties of Nicotiana tabacum extracts
  58. Reinforcement of cementitious mortars with hemp fibers and shives
  59. X-ray shielding properties of bismuth-borate glass doped with rare earth ions
  60. Green supported silver nanoparticles over modified reduced graphene oxide: Investigation of its antioxidant and anti-ovarian cancer effects
  61. Orthogonal synthesis of a versatile building block for dual functionalization of targeting vectors
  62. Thymbra spicata leaf extract driven biogenic synthesis of Au/Fe3O4 nanocomposite and its bio-application in the treatment of different types of leukemia
  63. The role of Ag2O incorporation in nuclear radiation shielding behaviors of the Li2O–Pb3O4–SiO2 glass system: A multi-step characterization study
  64. A stimuli-responsive in situ spray hydrogel co-loaded with naringenin and gentamicin for chronic wounds
  65. Assessment of the impact of γ-irradiation on the piperine content and microbial quality of black pepper
  66. Antioxidant, sensory, and functional properties of low-alcoholic IPA beer with Pinus sylvestris L. shoots addition fermented using unconventional yeast
  67. Screening and optimization of extracellular pectinase produced by Bacillus thuringiensis SH7
  68. Determination of polyphenols in Chinese jujube using ultra-performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry
  69. Synergistic effects of harpin and NaCl in determining soybean sprout quality under non-sterile conditions
  70. Field evaluation of different eco-friendly alternative control methods against Panonychus citri [Acari: Tetranychidae] spider mite and its predators in citrus orchards
  71. Exploring the antimicrobial potential of biologically synthesized zero valent iron nanoparticles
  72. NaCl regulates goldfish growth and survival at three food supply levels under hypoxia
  73. An exploration of the physical, optical, mechanical, and radiation shielding properties of PbO–MgO–ZnO–B2O3 glasses
  74. A novel statistical modeling of air pollution and the COVID-19 pandemic mortality data by Poisson, geometric, and negative binomial regression models with fixed and random effects
  75. Treatment activity of the injectable hydrogels loaded with dexamethasone In(iii) complex on glioma by inhibiting the VEGF signaling pathway
  76. An alternative approach for the excess lifetime cancer risk and prediction of radiological parameters
  77. Panax ginseng leaf aqueous extract mediated green synthesis of AgNPs under ultrasound condition and investigation of its anti-lung adenocarcinoma effects
  78. Study of hydrolysis and production of instant ginger (Zingiber officinale) tea
  79. Novel green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Salvia rosmarinus extract for treatment of human lung cancer
  80. Evaluation of second trimester plasma lipoxin A4, VEGFR-1, IL-6, and TNF-α levels in pregnant women with gestational diabetes mellitus
  81. Antidiabetic, antioxidant and cytotoxicity activities of ortho- and para-substituted Schiff bases derived from metformin hydrochloride: Validation by molecular docking and in silico ADME studies
  82. Antioxidant, antidiabetic, antiglaucoma, and anticholinergic effects of Tayfi grape (Vitis vinifera): A phytochemical screening by LC-MS/MS analysis
  83. Identification of genetic polymorphisms in the stearoyl CoA desaturase gene and its association with milk quality traits in Najdi sheep
  84. Cold-acclimation effect on cadmium absorption and biosynthesis of polyphenolics, and free proline and photosynthetic pigments in Spirogyra aequinoctialis
  85. Analysis of secondary metabolites in Xinjiang Morus nigra leaves using different extraction methods with UPLC-Q/TOF-MS/MS technology
  86. Nanoarchitectonics and performance evaluation of a Fe3O4-stabilized Pickering emulsion-type differential pressure plugging agent
  87. Investigating pyrolysis characteristics of Shengdong coal through Py-GC/MS
  88. Extraction, phytochemical characterization, and antifungal activity of Salvia rosmarinus extract
  89. Introducing a novel and natural antibiotic for the treatment of oral pathogens: Abelmoschus esculentus green-formulated silver nanoparticles
  90. Optimization of gallic acid-enriched ultrasonic-assisted extraction from mango peels
  91. Effect of gamma rays irradiation in the structure, optical, and electrical properties of samarium doped bismuth titanate ceramics
  92. Combinatory in silico investigation for potential inhibitors from Curcuma sahuynhensis Škorničk. & N.S. Lý volatile phytoconstituents against influenza A hemagglutinin, SARS-CoV-2 main protease, and Omicron-variant spike protein
  93. Physical, mechanical, and gamma ray shielding properties of the Bi2O3–BaO–B2O3–ZnO–As2O3–MgO–Na2O glass system
  94. Twofold interpenetrated 3D Cd(ii) complex: Crystal structure and luminescent property
  95. Study on the microstructure and soil quality variation of composite soil with soft rock and sand
  96. Ancient spring waters still emerging and accessible in the Roman Forum area: Chemical–physical and microbiological characterization
  97. Extraction and characterization of type I collagen from scales of Mexican Biajaiba fish
  98. Finding small molecular compounds to decrease trimethylamine oxide levels in atherosclerosis by virtual screening
  99. Prefatory in silico studies and in vitro insecticidal effect of Nigella sativa (L.) essential oil and its active compound (carvacrol) against the Callosobruchus maculatus adults (Fab), a major pest of chickpea
  100. Polymerized methyl imidazole silver bromide (CH3C6H5AgBr)6: Synthesis, crystal structures, and catalytic activity
  101. Using calcined waste fish bones as a green solid catalyst for biodiesel production from date seed oil
  102. Influence of the addition of WO3 on TeO2–Na2O glass systems in view of the feature of mechanical, optical, and photon attenuation
  103. Naringin ameliorates 5-fluorouracil elicited neurotoxicity by curtailing oxidative stress and iNOS/NF-ĸB/caspase-3 pathway
  104. GC-MS profile of extracts of an endophytic fungus Alternaria and evaluation of its anticancer and antibacterial potentialities
  105. Green synthesis, chemical characterization, and antioxidant and anti-colorectal cancer effects of vanadium nanoparticles
  106. Determination of caffeine content in coffee drinks prepared in some coffee shops in the local market in Jeddah City, Saudi Arabia
  107. A new 3D supramolecular Cu(ii) framework: Crystal structure and photocatalytic characteristics
  108. Bordeaux mixture accelerates ripening, delays senescence, and promotes metabolite accumulation in jujube fruit
  109. Important application value of injectable hydrogels loaded with omeprazole Schiff base complex in the treatment of pancreatitis
  110. Color tunable benzothiadiazole-based small molecules for lightening applications
  111. Investigation of structural, dielectric, impedance, and mechanical properties of hydroxyapatite-modified barium titanate composites for biomedical applications
  112. Metal gel particles loaded with epidermal cell growth factor promote skin wound repair mechanism by regulating miRNA
  113. In vitro exploration of Hypsizygus ulmarius (Bull.) mushroom fruiting bodies: Potential antidiabetic and anti-inflammatory agent
  114. Alteration in the molecular structure of the adenine base exposed to gamma irradiation: An ESR study
  115. Comprehensive study of optical, thermal, and gamma-ray shielding properties of Bi2O3–ZnO–PbO–B2O3 glasses
  116. Lewis acids as co-catalysts in Pd-based catalyzed systems of the octene-1 hydroethoxycarbonylation reaction
  117. Synthesis, Hirshfeld surface analysis, thermal, and selective α-glucosidase inhibitory studies of Schiff base transition metal complexes
  118. Protective properties of AgNPs green-synthesized by Abelmoschus esculentus on retinal damage on the virtue of its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects in diabetic rat
  119. Effects of green decorated AgNPs on lignin-modified magnetic nanoparticles mediated by Cydonia on cecal ligation and puncture-induced sepsis
  120. Treatment of gastric cancer by green mediated silver nanoparticles using Pistacia atlantica bark aqueous extract
  121. Preparation of newly developed porcelain ceramics containing WO3 nanoparticles for radiation shielding applications
  122. Utilization of computational methods for the identification of new natural inhibitors of human neutrophil elastase in inflammation therapy
  123. Some anticancer agents as effective glutathione S-transferase (GST) inhibitors
  124. Clay-based bricks’ rich illite mineral for gamma-ray shielding applications: An experimental evaluation of the effect of pressure rates on gamma-ray attenuation parameters
  125. Stability kinetics of orevactaene pigments produced by Epicoccum nigrum in solid-state fermentation
  126. Treatment of denture stomatitis using iron nanoparticles green-synthesized by Silybum marianum extract
  127. Characterization and antioxidant potential of white mustard (Brassica hirta) leaf extract and stabilization of sunflower oil
  128. Characteristics of Langmuir monomolecular monolayers formed by the novel oil blends
  129. Strategies for optimizing the single GdSrFeO4 phase synthesis
  130. Oleic acid and linoleic acid nanosomes boost immunity and provoke cell death via the upregulation of beta-defensin-4 at genetic and epigenetic levels
  131. Unraveling the therapeutic potential of Bombax ceiba roots: A comprehensive study of chemical composition, heavy metal content, antibacterial activity, and in silico analysis
  132. Green synthesis of AgNPs using plant extract and investigation of its anti-human colorectal cancer application
  133. The adsorption of naproxen on adsorbents obtained from pepper stalk extract by green synthesis
  134. Treatment of gastric cancer by silver nanoparticles encapsulated by chitosan polymers mediated by Pistacia atlantica extract under ultrasound condition
  135. In vitro protective and anti-inflammatory effects of Capparis spinosa and its flavonoids profile
  136. Wear and corrosion behavior of TiC and WC coatings deposited on high-speed steels by electro-spark deposition
  137. Therapeutic effects of green-formulated gold nanoparticles by Origanum majorana on spinal cord injury in rats
  138. Melanin antibacterial activity of two new strains, SN1 and SN2, of Exophiala phaeomuriformis against five human pathogens
  139. Evaluation of the analgesic and anesthetic properties of silver nanoparticles supported over biodegradable acacia gum-modified magnetic nanoparticles
  140. Review Articles
  141. Role and mechanism of fruit waste polyphenols in diabetes management
  142. A comprehensive review of non-alkaloidal metabolites from the subfamily Amaryllidoideae (Amaryllidaceae)
  143. Discovery of the chemical constituents, structural characteristics, and pharmacological functions of Chinese caterpillar fungus
  144. Eco-friendly green approach of nickel oxide nanoparticles for biomedical applications
  145. Advances in the pharmaceutical research of curcumin for oral administration
  146. Rapid Communication
  147. Determination of the contents of bioactive compounds in St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum): Comparison of commercial and wild samples
  148. Retraction
  149. Retraction of “Two mixed-ligand coordination polymers based on 2,5-thiophenedicarboxylic acid and flexible N-donor ligands: The protective effect on periodontitis via reducing the release of IL-1β and TNF-α”
  150. Topical Issue on Phytochemicals, biological and toxicological analysis of aromatic medicinal plants
  151. Anti-plasmodial potential of selected medicinal plants and a compound Atropine isolated from Eucalyptus obliqua
  152. Anthocyanin extract from black rice attenuates chronic inflammation in DSS-induced colitis mouse model by modulating the gut microbiota
  153. Evaluation of antibiofilm and cytotoxicity effect of Rumex vesicarius methanol extract
  154. Chemical compositions of Litsea umbellata and inhibition activities
  155. Green synthesis, characterization of silver nanoparticles using Rhynchosia capitata leaf extract and their biological activities
  156. GC-MS analysis and antibacterial activities of some plants belonging to the genus Euphorbia on selected bacterial isolates
  157. The abrogative effect of propolis on acrylamide-induced toxicity in male albino rats: Histological study
  158. A phytoconstituent 6-aminoflavone ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced oxidative stress mediated synapse and memory dysfunction via p-Akt/NF-kB pathway in albino mice
  159. Anti-diabetic potentials of Sorbaria tomentosa Lindl. Rehder: Phytochemistry (GC-MS analysis), α-amylase, α-glucosidase inhibitory, in vivo hypoglycemic, and biochemical analysis
  160. Assessment of cytotoxic and apoptotic activities of the Cassia angustifolia aqueous extract against SW480 colon cancer
  161. Biochemical analysis, antioxidant, and antibacterial efficacy of the bee propolis extract (Hymenoptera: Apis mellifera) against Staphylococcus aureus-induced infection in BALB/c mice: In vitro and in vivo study
  162. Assessment of essential elements and heavy metals in Saudi Arabian rice samples underwent various processing methods
  163. Two new compounds from leaves of Capparis dongvanensis (Sy, B. H. Quang & D. V. Hai) and inhibition activities
  164. Hydroxyquinoline sulfanilamide ameliorates STZ-induced hyperglycemia-mediated amyleoid beta burden and memory impairment in adult mice
  165. An automated reading of semi-quantitative hemagglutination results in microplates: Micro-assay for plant lectins
  166. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry assessment of essential and toxic trace elements in traditional spices consumed by the population of the Middle Eastern region in their recipes
  167. Phytochemical analysis and anticancer activity of the Pithecellobium dulce seed extract in colorectal cancer cells
  168. Impact of climatic disturbances on the chemical compositions and metabolites of Salvia officinalis
  169. Physicochemical characterization, antioxidant and antifungal activities of essential oils of Urginea maritima and Allium sativum
  170. Phytochemical analysis and antifungal efficiency of Origanum majorana extracts against some phytopathogenic fungi causing tomato damping-off diseases
  171. Special Issue on 4th IC3PE
  172. Graphene quantum dots: A comprehensive overview
  173. Studies on the intercalation of calcium–aluminium layered double hydroxide-MCPA and its controlled release mechanism as a potential green herbicide
  174. Synergetic effect of adsorption and photocatalysis by zinc ferrite-anchored graphitic carbon nitride nanosheet for the removal of ciprofloxacin under visible light irradiation
  175. Exploring anticancer activity of the Indonesian guava leaf (Psidium guajava L.) fraction on various human cancer cell lines in an in vitro cell-based approach
  176. The comparison of gold extraction methods from the rock using thiourea and thiosulfate
  177. Special Issue on Marine environmental sciences and significance of the multidisciplinary approaches
  178. Sorption of alkylphenols and estrogens on microplastics in marine conditions
  179. Cytotoxic ketosteroids from the Red Sea soft coral Dendronephthya sp.
  180. Antibacterial and biofilm prevention metabolites from Acanthophora spicifera
  181. Characteristics, source, and health risk assessment of aerosol polyaromatic hydrocarbons in the rural and urban regions of western Saudi Arabia
  182. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Energy, Environmental and Biological Applications - Part II
  183. Green synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of antibacterial activities of cobalt nanoparticles produced by marine fungal species Periconia prolifica
  184. Combustion-mediated sol–gel preparation of cobalt-doped ZnO nanohybrids for the degradation of acid red and antibacterial performance
  185. Perinatal supplementation with selenium nanoparticles modified with ascorbic acid improves hepatotoxicity in rat gestational diabetes
  186. Evaluation and chemical characterization of bioactive secondary metabolites from endophytic fungi associated with the ethnomedicinal plant Bergenia ciliata
  187. Enhancing photovoltaic efficiency with SQI-Br and SQI-I sensitizers: A comparative analysis
  188. Nanostructured p-PbS/p-CuO sulfide/oxide bilayer heterojunction as a promising photoelectrode for hydrogen gas generation
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