Startseite Naturwissenschaften Anticancer and antimicrobial potential of zinc/sodium alginate/polyethylene glycol/d-pinitol nanocomposites against osteosarcoma MG-63 cells
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Anticancer and antimicrobial potential of zinc/sodium alginate/polyethylene glycol/d-pinitol nanocomposites against osteosarcoma MG-63 cells

  • Anandaraj Lakshmanan , Chandramohan Govindasamy , Allur Subramaniyan Sivakumar , Samer Hasan Hussein-Al-Ali , Monishsanthosh Ramesh und Hariprasath Lakshmanan EMAIL logo
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 29. Dezember 2023
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Green Processing and Synthesis
Aus der Zeitschrift Green Processing and Synthesis Band 12 Heft 1

Abstract

Background

The field of nanomedicine has attracted much interest and is now serving as the impetus for many revolutionary advances in the pharmaceutical industry.

Objectives

In the current exploration, we intended to fabricate the zinc/sodium alginate/polyethylene glycol/d-pinitol nanocomposites (ZSP/D-Pin/NCs) and evaluate their antimicrobial and anticancer properties against MG-63 cells.

Methods

ZSP/D-Pin/NCs were synthesized and characterized using several techniques and their cytotoxicity was examined against osteosarcoma MG-63 cells and normal 3T3 cells using the MTT assay. The levels of oxidative stress and apoptotic protein were examined using assay kits and fluorescence staining.

Results and Conclusion

The findings of several characterization studies revealed the development of agglomerated and crystalline ZSP/D-Pin/NCs. The antimicrobial assay demonstrated that ZSP/D-Pin/NCs substantially inhibited the growth of pathogens. Additionally, the MG-63 cell viability, which was exposed to several doses (1–20 µg) of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs, showed a remarkable decrease at various time periods, i.e., 24, 48, and 72 h without showing toxicity in 3T3 cells. The results of the fluorescence staining assay demonstrated that ZSP/D-Pin/NCs considerably increased apoptosis in the MG-63 cells by triggering oxidative stress. The antioxidants were reduced and upregulated the Bax and caspase expressions in ZSP/D-Pin/NC-treated MG-63 cells.

Keywords: nanomedicine; zinc nanoparticles; microbial infection; osteosarcoma; D-pinitol

1 Introduction

Nanotechnology is a popular study area in modern materials science [1]. Nanomaterials have recently been widely identified with distinctive characteristics and spectacular abilities, as they open the door for conducting transdisciplinary studies and resolving many practical issues [2,3]. The rapid increase of drug resistance in pathogens can be due to the overuse of antibiotics. Infections by bacteria are problems when it comes to therapy. The upsurge of antibiotic-resistant microbial infections has been one of the most significant public health complications in recent years [4,5,6]. The nanomedicine’s exceptional qualities, such as their small size, high surface area, and strong mechanical stability, make them ideal for use in medicine for features like antibacterial activity [7].

Cancer is a serious illness worldwide, as it is the second-leading cause of mortality [8]. In children and young adults, osteosarcoma is a widespread and aggressive tumor of the bone. Patients’ mobility is severely restricted by osteosarcoma, which frequently affects the distal femur, proximal tibia, and humerus [9]. Osteosarcoma has a high mortality rate and unfavorable prognosis, commonly due to metastasis to the lung and cancer recurrence. Patients with localized osteosarcoma tumors have a long-term survival rate at 5 years of about 60%, and lung metastasis at the time of diagnosis drastically lowers it to 20%. Additionally, during the past 30 years, the effectiveness of the treatment has remained constant due to chemotherapeutic drug resistance and low selectivity. Tumor recurrence and lung metastases are the primary causes of osteosarcoma therapy failure [10]. In order to combat osteosarcoma, innovative and effective treatments are urgently needed. Cancer treatment is made harder by the fact that conventional diagnostic procedures only discover cancers at advanced stages. Unlike other tumors, osteosarcoma has a complicated cytology that does not respond to traditional radiation and chemotherapy, and the adverse effects of several chemotherapeutic drugs are very dangerous [11,12].

Biomedical researchers are looking at ways to treat cancers despite several obstacles, such as poor oral bioavailability, insufficient water solubility, and non-specific biological transport and targeting [13]. Researchers have long been drawn to nanomedicine because of its practical uses for inexpensive drug delivery to specific organs, tissues, or cells for the treatment of cancer or for biocarriers that can traverse the blood–brain barrier. Nanoparticles (NPs) have a vast surface area and surface functionalization, which makes it easier to load drugs into them. Additionally, nanocomposites have recently developed rapidly for their exceptional properties and use in the medical field [14,15]. Zinc is one of the most important biometals in the human body [16]. Zinc and other biodegradable metals have lately received a lot of interest in tissue engineering [17]. Due to their distinctive optical and chemical characteristics, zinc NPs have received a lot of attention. Chemically, zinc has an abundance of −OH groups on its surface, which allows it to slowly dissolve in both acidic and strongly basic environments (such as those seen in tumor cells and their surrounding tissue) [18].

Alginate is a natural polysaccharide and is recognized as a potential biomaterial due to its superior biocompatibility, biodegradability, nontoxicity, and affordability in contrast to other materials [19]. In tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, alginates are frequently employed as cell scaffolding materials [20]. Polyethylene glycol (PEG) can be utilized to create a hydrated layer on the surface of NPs in order to decrease plasma clearance, enhance medication absorption, and avoid macrophage opsonization. PEG is also more beneficial in the NP drug delivery method due to its high biocompatibility and hydrophilicity [21]. D-Pinitol is an inositol that occurs naturally in a variety of plant species. It is particularly abundant in the pulp of the carob fruit (Ceratonia siliqua) that enables its separation and industrial production. D-Pinitol is well known to increase insulin sensitivity [22]. This natural inositol has been shown to have positive benefits on several disorders, including cancer, diabetes, osteoporosis, aging, hepatoprotection, and neurological diseases [23,24,25,26,27]. In the present exploration, we aimed to fabricate the zinc/sodium alginate/polyethylene glycol/d-pinitol nanocomposites (ZSP/D-Pin/NCs) and evaluate their antimicrobial and in vitro cytotoxicity activities against MG-63 cells.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Chemicals

The following chemicals were bought from Sigma-Aldrich, USA: D-pinitol, zinc nitrate, sodium alginate, and PEG. The ELISA test kits used to measure the biochemical parameters were supplied by Thermofisher Scientific and MyBioSource, USA.

2.2 Synthesis of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs

For the synthesis of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs, first D-pinitol was dissolved in 20 ml of DMSO, which was then suspended in a 0.1% (wt/vol) solution of zinc nitrate. The mixture was continuously agitated until the development of the reaction suspension. The suspension was ultrasonically sonicated to reduce NPs, and the reaction solution containing zinc and D-pinitol was then added to the polymer solution, which was created using PEG and sodium alginate to coat the generated NPs. The coating process was performed using the microvolume flow titration technique. The final reaction mixture was dried using a spray pyrolysis method following the coating process in order to gather the powdered nanocomposite. The formulated ZSP/D-Pin/NCs were used for various characterization studies.

2.3 Characterization of fabricated ZSP/D-Pin/NCs

The UV-visible study was employed to verify that ZSP/D-Pin/NCs had developed in suspension. With the use of a UV-vis spectrophotometer (Shimadzu-1700, Japan), the ZSP/D-Pin/NCs were observed, and absorbance of the reaction solution at wavelengths between 200 and 1,000 nm was calculated.

A spectrofluorimeter (F-2500 FL Spectrophotometer, Hitachi) was used to measure the photoluminescence spectra of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs.

The elemental components of the formulated ZSP/D-Pin/NCs were determined by EDX, and the appearance and dispersion of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs were determined by SEM. A Carl Zeiss Ultra 55 FESEM device with EDX was used to determine the produced ZSP/D-Pin/NCs.

The distribution patterns and average size of the formed ZSP/D-Pin/NCs were examined using a Zeta Sizer (Malvern, USA) DLS. The formulated ZSP/D-Pin/NCs were investigated using an XRD (X’pert Pro PANalytical System) with a scan range of 2θ = 10–80° and Cu-Kα radiation of wavelength λ = 0.1541 nm.

2.4 Antimicrobial assay

By using the well-diffusion technique, the formulated antibacterial effects of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs were evaluated. About 1 ml of 5% DMSO solution was used to dissolve the ZSP/D-Pin/NC sample and utilized as a stock for bacterial strains such as Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Streptococcus pneumoniae, and SDA media was utilized for the fungal strain Candida albicans. After each strain was smeared over the culture medium, 6 mm wells were made on the surface of the media, and the wells were loaded with different doses (40, 50, and 60 µg) of formulated ZSP/D-Pin/NCs. The common antibiotic amoxicillin (30 µg/well) was utilized as a positive control. After the incubation period, the results were assessed, and the data were tabulated.

2.5 In vitro assays

2.5.1 Cell collection and maintenance

MG-63 cells and non-malignant fibroblast 3T3 cells were acquired from ATCC, USA. Then, cells were grown in DMEM enriched with FBS (10%) at 37°C in a CO2 incubator. After the cells had reached 80% confluency, they were separated and used for the subsequent tests.

2.5.2 MTT assay

The viability of osteosarcoma MG-63 cells and normal 3T3 cells were exposed to ZSP/D-Pin/NCs and examined at three different time periods, i.e., 24, 48, and 72 h using the MTT assay. A 96-well plate containing MG-63 cells and 3T3 cells separately at a level of 5 × 103 cells were grown for 24 h before receiving different doses of the produced ZSP/D-Pin/NCs (1, 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, and 20 µg) for additional 24, 48, and 72 h. After the treatment, DMEM (100 µl) and MTT reagent (20 µl) were applied to each well for 4 h. After liquefying the formed formazan stones in each well with 100 µl of DMSO, the absorbance at 570 nm was determined.

2.5.3 Analysis of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP)

Rhodamine-123 (Rh-123) staining was used to examine the MMP levels in both control and ZSP/D-Pin/NC-treated MG-63 cells. The cells were loaded into a 24-well plate and treated with different doses (7.5 and 10 µg) of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs 24 h at 37°C. The cells were then stained for 30 min with Rh-123 at a concentration of 10 µg/ml. The MMP of both control and treated cells was examined using a fluorescence microscope.

2.5.4 Dual staining

The dual staining test was done in order to examine the apoptotic cell death in both control and treated cells. The MG-63 cells were loaded on DMEM medium in a 24-well plate and treated with 7.5 and 10 µg of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs for 24 h. Then, 100 µg/ml AO/EB (1:1) dye was added to each well to stain the cells for 5 min at 37°C. Finally, apoptotic cell death was confirmed by observing the cells under a fluorescence microscope.

2.5.5 DAPI staining

DAPI staining was performed to analyze the altered nuclear morphology and apoptosis in control and ZSP/D-Pin/NC-treated MG-63 cells. The cells were grown on a 24-well plate for 24 h and then exposed to 7.5 and 10 µg of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs for 24 h. After that, cells were fixed using paraformaldehyde (4%) for 30 min. After rinsing with saline, MG-63 cells were stained with DAPI (200 µg/ml) for 30 min. In the following step, a fluorescence microscope was utilized to observe chromatin condensation and remodeling in the treated cells.

2.6 Estimation of oxidative stress markers

The cell lysates were prepared using control and ZSP/D-Pin/NC-treated MG-63 cells by collecting and homogenizing the cells with saline solution. The levels of the lipid peroxidation marker TBARS and the antioxidants GSH and SOD in the control and ZSP/D-Pin/NC-exposed MG-63 cells were estimated using the corresponding assay kits as per the protocols described by the manufacturer (Thermofisher, USA).

2.7 Estimation of apoptotic protein levels

The Bax, Bcl-2, caspase-3, and -9 expressions in the control and ZSP/D-Pin/NC-exposed MG-63 cells were determined using the corresponding assay kits as per the protocols recommended by the manufacturer (Thermofisher, USA).

2.8 Statistical analysis

After the values were evaluated with GraphPad Prism software, the results are shown as mean ± SD of three separate assays. With a significance level of p < 0.05, one-way ANOVA and DMRT were employed to analyze the changes in the values of the treatment groups.

3 Results

3.1 Characterization of formulated ZSP/D-Pin/NCs

3.1.1 UV-visible spectral analysis

The UV-visible spectra of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs are shown in Figure 1(a). At various wavelengths (200–1,000 nm), the absorbance of the synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs was measured. The formation of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs was demonstrated by the maximum absorbance being observed at 369 nm (Figure 1a).

Figure 1 UV-visible spectrum and photoluminescence (PL) analysis of the synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs. (a) UV-visible spectrum analysis of synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs revealed the maximum absorbance peak at 369 nm. (b) The results of PL analysis of formulated ZSP/D-Pin/NCs showed several excitations at 470, 504, 578, and 532 nm, respectively.
Figure 1

UV-visible spectrum and photoluminescence (PL) analysis of the synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs. (a) UV-visible spectrum analysis of synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs revealed the maximum absorbance peak at 369 nm. (b) The results of PL analysis of formulated ZSP/D-Pin/NCs showed several excitations at 470, 504, 578, and 532 nm, respectively.

3.1.2 Photoluminescence (PL) analysis

The PL spectrum of synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs is depicted in Figure 1(b). The presence of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs was demonstrated by excitations at 470, 504, 518, and 532 nm caused by ZSP/D-Pin/NCs. The crystal mode of the synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs is revealed by the PL spectrum, together with structural and surface flaws. Exciton recombination may be seen in the peaks at 470 and 504 nm. Due to the interstitial oxygen vacancy, blue-green emissions were detected at 518 nm. In the synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs, the peak at 532 nm shows the vacancy of singly ionized oxygen (Figure 1b).

3.1.3 SEM and EDX analysis

To examine the morphological appearance and elemental compositions of the developed ZSP/D-Pin/NCs, SEM and EDX tests were performed, and the results are shown in Figure 2. The formulated ZSP/D-Pin/NCs exhibited agglomerated morphology, which is evidenced by SEM images (Figure 2a). The occurrence of numerous elements, including carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and zinc, was shown by the EDX analysis of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs (Figure 2b).

Figure 2 SEM and EDX analysis of the synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs. (a) SEM images of the synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs revealed the agglomerated morphological appearances. (b) EDX results showed the presence of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and zinc elements in the formulated ZSP/D-Pin/NCs.
Figure 2

SEM and EDX analysis of the synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs. (a) SEM images of the synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs revealed the agglomerated morphological appearances. (b) EDX results showed the presence of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and zinc elements in the formulated ZSP/D-Pin/NCs.

3.1.4 XRD analysis

The XRD analysis results of the synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs are shown in Figure 3, which support their purity and crystallinity. The characteristic peaks of the ZSP/D-Pin/NCs were observed at (100), (002), (101), (102), (110), (103), (200), (112), (201), and (202), demonstrating their crystalline nature.

Figure 3 XRD analysis of the synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs. The findings of XRD analysis revealed several peaks, which verify the crystalline nature of the synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs.
Figure 3

XRD analysis of the synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs. The findings of XRD analysis revealed several peaks, which verify the crystalline nature of the synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs.

3.1.5 DLS analysis

The DLS investigation results, which show the distribution of the fabricated ZSP/D-Pin/NCs, are shown in Figure 4. Discrete peaks with average sizes ranging from 100–160 nm that adhered to the narrower distribution were observed.

Figure 4 DLS analysis of the synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs. The results of the DLS analysis demonstrated the distinctive peak that verifies the narrow distribution of the synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs with sizes ranging from 100 to 160 nm.
Figure 4

DLS analysis of the synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs. The results of the DLS analysis demonstrated the distinctive peak that verifies the narrow distribution of the synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs with sizes ranging from 100 to 160 nm.

3.2 Antimicrobial activity of formulated ZSP/D-Pin/NCs

The antimicrobial properties of the formulated ZSP/D-Pin/NCs against pathogenic bacterial and fungal pathogens such as S. aureus, Escherichia coli, K. pneumoniae, S. pneumoniae, and C. albicans were investigated by the well diffusion method, and the results are shown in Table 1 and Figure 5. The findings demonstrated that the fabricated ZSP/D-Pin/NCs have substantial antimicrobial properties, as they potentially inhibited the growth of the tested pathogens. On the growth plates, higher inhibitory zones were observed around increased doses of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs (40, 50, and 60 µg) loaded wells. The increased zone of inhibition was observed against S. pneumoniae (14 mm), C. albicans (14 mm), and S. aureus (13 mm), which were treated with the formulated ZSP/D-Pin/NCs (Figure 5). Variable zones of inhibition are observed (Table 1) based on the nature of the strains and the concentration of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs.

Table 1

Antimicrobial activity of the synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs

Pathogen 40 μg (mm) 50 μg (mm) 60 μg (mm) A mx (mm)
K. pneumoniae 8.5 9.5 9 16
S. pneumoniae 9 13 11 14
E. coli 9 9 9.5 13
S. aureus 13 13.5 14 14
C. albicans 11 13.5 14 9

The inhibitory zones (mm) of the tested pathogens are revealed, which were treated with 40, 50, and 60 µg of synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs. The varied zone of inhibition was observed around the wells based on the pathogen characteristics and the concentration of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs.

Figure 5 Antimicrobial activity of the synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs. The antimicrobial properties of the synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs were assessed against several pathogens such as S. pneumoniae, K. pneumoniae, E. coli, S. aureus, and C. albicans. The results indicate that ZSP/D-Pin/NCs substantially inhibited the growth of the tested pathogens.
Figure 5

Antimicrobial activity of the synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs. The antimicrobial properties of the synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs were assessed against several pathogens such as S. pneumoniae, K. pneumoniae, E. coli, S. aureus, and C. albicans. The results indicate that ZSP/D-Pin/NCs substantially inhibited the growth of the tested pathogens.

3.3 Effect of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs on the viability of MG-63 cells

The viability of control and fabricated ZSP/D-Pin/NC-treated MG-63 cells and non-malignant 3T3 cells is shown in Figure 6. The treatment of 1, 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, and 20 µg of prepared ZSP/D-Pin/NCs remarkably decreased MG–63 cell viability at various time periods, i.e., 24, 48, and 72 h. The same doses of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs did not reduce the viability of 3T3 cells. When compared to 24 and 48 h of treatment, the 72 h treatment drastically reduced the MG-63 cell viability, and a mild reduction was noted in the viability of 3T3 cells over 48 and 72 h of treatment. The MG-63 cell growth was noticeably decreased by the higher dosages of the formulated ZSP/D-Pin/NCs, and the IC50 level of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs was found at 5–7.5 µg for 48–72 h (Figure 6).

Figure 6 Effect of synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs on the viability of MG-63 cells and normal 3T3 cells. (a) The MTT assay results revealed that the MG-63 cell viability was substantially decreased upon treatment with the synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs at several doses, i.e., 5–30 µg at different time periods (24, 48, and 72 h). (b) The same dose of synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs did not affect normal 3T3 cell viability; only a slight decrease in viability was observed after 48 and 72 h of treatment. Values are expressed as mean ± SD of triplicate measurements. Data are scrutinized statistically by one-way ANOVA and DMRT. *p < 0.05 when compared to the control.
Figure 6

Effect of synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs on the viability of MG-63 cells and normal 3T3 cells. (a) The MTT assay results revealed that the MG-63 cell viability was substantially decreased upon treatment with the synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs at several doses, i.e., 5–30 µg at different time periods (24, 48, and 72 h). (b) The same dose of synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs did not affect normal 3T3 cell viability; only a slight decrease in viability was observed after 48 and 72 h of treatment. Values are expressed as mean ± SD of triplicate measurements. Data are scrutinized statistically by one-way ANOVA and DMRT. *p < 0.05 when compared to the control.

3.4 Effect of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs on the MMP level in MG-63 cells

Figure 7 shows the changes in the MMP status in the control and ZSP/D-Pin/NC-exposed MG-63 cells. The exposure of MG-63 cells to 7.5 and 10 µg of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs resulted in significantly less green fluorescence and morphological changes compared to the control. These findings show that the MMP status in MG-63 cells treated with ZSP/D-Pin/NCs are reduced.

Figure 7 Effect of synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs on the MMP level in MG-63 cells. Rh-123 staining was performed to analyze the changes in the MMP level in the control and treated cells. The ZSP/D-Pin/NCs-treated MG-63 cells showed decreased green fluorescence with morphological changes (yellow arrows) compared to the control, which proves the reduction in MMP levels.
Figure 7

Effect of synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs on the MMP level in MG-63 cells. Rh-123 staining was performed to analyze the changes in the MMP level in the control and treated cells. The ZSP/D-Pin/NCs-treated MG-63 cells showed decreased green fluorescence with morphological changes (yellow arrows) compared to the control, which proves the reduction in MMP levels.

3.5 Effect of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs on the apoptosis in MG-63 cells

The results of AO/EB staining on apoptosis in control and treated MG-63 cells are shown in Figure 8. As shown in Figure 8, apoptotic cell death in MG-63 cells was significantly elevated after treatment with 7.5 and 10 µg of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs compared to control. The enhanced orange/yellow fluorescence, cell damage, and morphological changes in the ZSP/D-Pin/NC-treated cells reveal the increased number of cells with apoptosis.

Figure 8 Effect of synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs on the apoptosis in MG-63 cells. The dual staining assay was used to detect apoptosis in control and ZSP/D-Pin/NC-treated MG-63 cells. The images showed increased orange/red fluorescence in ZSP/D-Pin/NC-treated MG-63 cells (white arrows) compared to the control, which indicates the presence of an increased number of cells with apoptosis.
Figure 8

Effect of synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs on the apoptosis in MG-63 cells. The dual staining assay was used to detect apoptosis in control and ZSP/D-Pin/NC-treated MG-63 cells. The images showed increased orange/red fluorescence in ZSP/D-Pin/NC-treated MG-63 cells (white arrows) compared to the control, which indicates the presence of an increased number of cells with apoptosis.

3.6 Effect of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs on the apoptotic cell nuclear morphology of MG-63 cells

Figure 9 shows the results of ZSP/D-Pin/NC-induced apoptosis in MG-63 cells, which was detected by DAPI staining. When compared to the control, the MG-63 cells treated with 7.5 and 10 µg of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs showed an increased presence of apoptosis. The ZSP/D-Pin/NC treatment resulted in cell damage, alterations in the cell nucleus, and the development of apoptotic bodies, which verifies the occurrence of apoptosis.

Figure 9 Effect of synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs on the apoptotic cell nuclear changes in MG-63 cells. The changes in the apoptotic cell nuclear damages in the control and treated cells were assessed by DAPI staining. In comparison to the control, the ZSP/D-Pin/NC-treated MG-63 cells showed increased cell damage, altered nuclei, and the formation of apoptotic bodies (yellow arrows).
Figure 9

Effect of synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs on the apoptotic cell nuclear changes in MG-63 cells. The changes in the apoptotic cell nuclear damages in the control and treated cells were assessed by DAPI staining. In comparison to the control, the ZSP/D-Pin/NC-treated MG-63 cells showed increased cell damage, altered nuclei, and the formation of apoptotic bodies (yellow arrows).

3.7 Effect of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs on the oxidative stress marker level in MG-63 cells

Figure 10 shows the results of an investigation on the changes in oxidative stress markers in the control and ZSP/D-Pin/NC-treated MG-63 cells. The MG-63 cells that were exposed to 7.5 and 10 µg of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs showed a substantial increase in the BARS level compared to the control. Furthermore, SOD and GSH levels in the MG-63 cells were considerably downregulated by the ZSP/D-Pin/NC treatment when compared to control. These results showed that ZSP/D-Pin/NCs facilitate oxidative stress-mediated cell death in MG-63 cells.

Figure 10 Effect of synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs on the oxidative stress marker levels. Values are expressed as mean ± SD of triplicate measurements. Data are scrutinized statistically by one-way ANOVA and DMRT. * p < 0.05 compared with control.
Figure 10

Effect of synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs on the oxidative stress marker levels. Values are expressed as mean ± SD of triplicate measurements. Data are scrutinized statistically by one-way ANOVA and DMRT. * p < 0.05 compared with control.

3.8 Effect of ZSP/D-Pin/NCs on apoptotic protein levels in MG-63 cells

The levels of apoptotic protein levels in the control and treated MG-63 cells were analyzed using corresponding assay kits, and the results are shown in Figure 11. In the 7.5 and 10 µg of ZSP/D-Pin/NC-treated MG-63 cells, apoptotic proteins such as Bax, caspase-3, and -9 were significantly higher than in the control, while Bcl-2 was lower. These results demonstrated that in MG-63 cells, ZSP/D-Pin/NCs increased the expression of apoptotic proteins and facilitated apoptosis.

Figure 11 Effect of synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs on the apoptotic protein levels. Values are expressed as mean ± SD of triplicate measurements. Data are scrutinized statistically by one-way ANOVA and DMRT. * p < 0.05 compared with control.
Figure 11

Effect of synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs on the apoptotic protein levels. Values are expressed as mean ± SD of triplicate measurements. Data are scrutinized statistically by one-way ANOVA and DMRT. * p < 0.05 compared with control.

4 Discussion

In this work, we formulated ZSP/D-Pin/NCs and characterized them using several techniques. UV-visible spectroscopy was used to investigate the optical characteristics. The produced ZSP/D-Pin/NCs displayed a single absorption band that was caused by the coherent oscillation of the ZSP/D-Pin/NCs’ free electrons that were triggered by electromagnetic waves with energy in the visible spectrum [28]. The location of the wavelength at a maximum absorption (λ max) in each bimetallic nanosystem relies on the atomic makeup of the nanomaterials. Here, the maximum absorbance of the prepared ZSP/D-Pin/NCs was observed at 369 nm (Figure 1). ZSP/D-Pin/NCs were further characterized using XRD in order to investigate the samples’ structure and phase composition (Figure 3). Figure 2 displays the resulting images from the FESEM analysis of the prepared ZSP/D-Pin/NCs’ morphology and microstructure.

Currently, nanomedicines are employed extensively in several areas of medicine, and nearly all of them can be doped or decorated with substances that have potential medical applications [29]. It is also recommended to combine two or more components to enhance the therapeutic qualities of each material separately. NCs formed by conjugating NPs with antibacterial or anticancer moieties or natural compounds have been established as efficient materials for treating antibiotic resistance [30]. The field of nanomedicine has attracted a lot of interest and is now serving as an impetus for numerous evolutionary and revolutionary advances in the pharmaceutical industry. Because nanomedicine enhances the selective targeting of medication to cancer cells through the mechanisms of active internalization and passive permeation, it is utilized to treat cancer and bacterial infections. Additionally, nanomedicine improves cytotoxicity against cancer cells and reduces cell treatment resistance [31,32]. It is believed that the use of nanomaterials will revolutionize cancer treatment and diagnosis. In this sense, zinc NPs have proven to be one of the most promising choices in nanomedicine. The release of dissolved zinc ions and the stimulation of ROS, which causes the death of cancerous cells, are theorized to be the causes of zinc NPs’ enhanced cytotoxicity to tumor cells [33].

WHO highlights that antimicrobial resistance is a foremost health issue worldwide [34]. It currently poses a danger to the efficiency of standard infection treatment and prevention around the world and has grown to be a global concern. However, in addition to being a challenging procedure, creating new antibiotics, biological products, or adjuvant medicines cannot keep up with the increasing rate of drug resistance. It is essential to find new alternatives since bacteria can become resistant to both natural and man-made antibiotics through a variety of methods, rendering them ineffective. Consequently, there is a huge demand for new, clinically approved antibiotic medicines. Recently, the delivery of antibacterial drugs has faced difficulties due to limited bioavailability and drug-related toxicities. Nano-formulations have emerged as a solution to these issues [35]. Here, our results demonstrated that ZSP/D-Pin/NCs effectively inhibited the growth of the tested pathogens (Figure 5). Combinations of inorganic and organic NPs known as nanocomposites are already reported to have reliable antimicrobial activity [36,37]. The exact mechanisms of antibacterial activity of ZnO particles are not well understood yet, although some statements have been proposed, such as the production of hydrogen peroxide being the main factor of antibacterial activity [38] or the binding of ZnO particles on bacterial surfaces due to electrostatic forces being a mechanism [39].

Zinc is one of the micronutrients that the human body needs in order to function properly since it is necessary for the action of several enzymes, including alcohol dehydrogenase, carboxypeptidase, and carbonic anhydrase, which are crucial for eukaryotic metabolic processes [40]. Zinc-based nanocomposites have recently attracted interest in the biological and pharmaceutical sectors. Combining one material with another may improve its antibacterial, hydrophobic, tensile, and self-cleaning qualities. According to an earlier report, caprolactam–casein–ZnO–nanocomposite latexes have shown improved antibacterial activity, greater flexibility, and characteristics of hydrophobic casein films [41]. Similarly, we also discovered that the synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs have strong antimicrobial properties against clinical pathogens (Table 1).

Osteosarcoma is the most prevalent primary bone cancer worldwide. The primary clinical therapeutic modalities are surgical resection and preoperative and postoperative adjuvant chemotherapy [42]. However, conventional chemotherapeutic agents have a number of adverse effects and inadequate targeting, which dramatically lower patient’s quality of life. The development of targeted pharmaceuticals offers novel approaches to treat cancers. Nevertheless, some medications have poor absorption, low selectivity, and poor stability in tumor tissues [43]. Therefore, researchers have given special attention to novel therapies for cancer treatment. Recently, nanomedicines have demonstrated enormous potential in the detection, diagnosis, and cancer treatment [44]. Due to their great selectivity between tumor and healthy cells, the adverse effects are reduced, and the harm to healthy cells is avoided.

Nano-drug delivery systems for treating osteosarcoma are characterized by controllable drug release, biocompatibility, targeted changes in cancerous tissue, and better patient compliance. Insoluble drugs can be carried as nanomedicines to increase tissue permeability and passively target cancer locations [45]. The analysis of the cytotoxic profile of newly prepared sample drugs or nanomedicines is an essential step for successful drug development [46]. In this work, we analyzed the cytotoxicity of the formulated ZSP/D-Pin/NCs against both MG-63 and non-malignant 3T3 cells. The results showed a substantial diminution in the viability of osteosarcoma MG-63 cells but not affected the 3T3 cell growth (Figure 6). These findings revealed that ZSP/D-Pin/NCs inhibited the viability of osteosarcoma cells.

Oxidative stress is a major cause of cancer development. This phenomenon is characterized by excessive ROS production, altered cell metabolism and homeostasis, dysregulated gene expressions, and antioxidant instabilities [47]. Mild oxidative stress is constantly present in tumor cells, which appears to be beneficial to them and boosts their growth and metastasis, assisting tumor development [48]. In carcinogenesis, it is well established that alterations to antioxidant defense mechanisms facilitate tumor development. However, excessive oxidative stress is detrimental to cancer cells; the release of excessive ROS due to chemotherapy, irradiation, or the innate immune reaction is cytotoxic and results in cancer cell death [49].

The overproduction of ROS causes higher lipid peroxidation and TBARS formation, thereby damaging the cell structure and functions. The increase in TBARS is an indicator of excessive oxidative stress [50]. The primary defense of cells against oxidative stress is antioxidants, which maintain cellular homeostasis by removing excessive free radicals. GSH and SOD are well-known antioxidants that protect cells against oxidative damage [51]. Inducing high levels of ROS production to stimulate lipid peroxidation and apoptosis is a common strategy in current cancer treatment. Osteosarcoma cells are frequently resistant to oxidative damage caused by therapies [52]. In the current study, our outcomes proved that the ZSP/D-Pin/NC treatment increased the TBARS (51.91 ± 14) while decreasing the SOD (18.37 ± 2) and GSH (11.87 ± 3) in the MG-63 cells (Figure 10), thereby facilitating oxidative stress-mediated cell death.

Initiation and development of malignancies, including osteosarcoma, are profoundly influenced by apoptosis. Evasion of apoptosis is a common phenomenon in malignancies [53]. Accelerated tumor growth and metastasis are caused by the deregulation of apoptotic pathways. Apoptosis is an important mechanism for protecting tissues from abnormal proliferation by removing uncontrollably proliferating cells [54]. Apoptosis can be activated by several signaling pathways. Furthermore, mitochondria are crucial players in activating endogenous apoptotic pathways [55,56]. The major chemotherapeutic drugs usually work against cancer by activating apoptotic mechanisms in the tumor cells. In the current work, our results of DAPI and dual staining confirmed the onset of apoptosis in ZSP/D-Pin/NC-exposed MG-63 cells (Figures 8 and 9). Additionally, ZSP/D-Pin/NCs also diminished the MMP status in MG-63 cells (Figure 7). Hence, it was clear that ZSP/D-Pin/NCs could be used to treat osteosarcoma by promoting apoptosis.

It is well known that both intrinsic and extrinsic pathways play major roles in initiating apoptosis. There are key regulators in the Bcl-2 protein family that play main roles in mitochondria-mediated apoptosis. When cells undergo apoptosis, Bax is required for the permeabilization of the mitochondrial membrane [57]. It has already been reported that several anticancer drugs regulate the Bcl-2 family proteins to activate mitochondria-mediated apoptosis. Over the past decades, apoptosis induction has served a crucial role in osteosarcoma treatment, and its fundamental signaling axis has been extensively studied [58]. In the MG-63 cells, treatment with ZSP/D-Pin/NCs triggered Bax (41.61 ± 2) and caspase-3 (174.27 ± 15), and -9 (154.59 ± 12) expressions while inhibiting the expression of Bcl-2 (19.58 ± 4). Our findings revealed that apoptotic signaling in MG-63 cells was induced by the ZSP/D-Pin/NC treatment (Figure 11). Overall, ZSP/D-Pin/NCs were found to effectively inhibit viability and promote apoptosis in osteosarcoma MG-63 cells.

5 Conclusion

We synthesized ZSP/D-Pin/NCs and characterized them using several techniques. The findings of characterization studies revealed the formation of agglomerated and crystalline ZSP/D-Pin/NCs. The findings of antimicrobial activity revealed that the formulated ZSP/D-Pin/NCs efficiently inhibited the growth of various pathogens. Furthermore, ZSP/D-Pin/NCs substantially inhibited viability, decreased MMP levels, and promoted apoptosis in MG-63 cells. Overall, these findings revealed that SP/D-Pin/NCs have strong antimicrobial and anticancer properties. In addition, the lack of in vivo studies is one of the major limitations of this work, and further experiments still need to be performed in the future in order to develop ZSP/D-Pin/NCs as talented antimicrobial and anticancer agents.

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to thank the Head, School of Life Sciences (Ooty Campus) and the management of JSS AHER, Mysuru for providing the facilities and support.

  1. Funding information: This project was supported by Researchers Supporting Project number (RSPD2023R712), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  2. Author contributions: Anandaraj Lakshmanan contributed in the conception, investigation, interpretation of data, supervision, work drafting, and submission; Hariprasath Lakshmanan contributed in the conception, design of the work, investigation, analysis, and work drafting; Monishsanthosh Ramesh contributed in design of the work, investigation and analysis, work drafting, and supervision; Chandramohan Govindasamy contributed in the formal analysis, interpretation of data, resources, and work drafting; Allur Subramaniyan Sivakumar contributed in interpretation of data, resources, administration, and work drafting; and Samer Hasan Hussein-Al-Ali contributed in interpretation of data, resources, and work drafting, conception, revising, and supervision. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2023-07-13
Accepted: 2023-09-04
Published Online: 2023-12-29

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  65. Synthesis and characterization of Pluronic F-127-coated titanium dioxide nanoparticles synthesized from extracts of Atractylodes macrocephala leaf for antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties
  66. Effect of pretreatment with alkali on the anaerobic digestion characteristics of kitchen waste and analysis of microbial diversity
  67. Ameliorated antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer properties by Plectranthus vettiveroides root extract-mediated green synthesis of chitosan nanoparticles
  68. Microwave-accelerated pretreatment technique in green extraction of oil and bioactive compounds from camelina seeds: Effectiveness and characterization
  69. Studies on the extraction performance of phorate by aptamer-functionalized magnetic nanoparticles in plasma samples
  70. Investigation of structural properties and antibacterial activity of AgO nanoparticle extract from Solanum nigrum/Mentha leaf extracts by green synthesis method
  71. Green fabrication of chitosan from marine crustaceans and mushroom waste: Toward sustainable resource utilization
  72. Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
  73. The enhanced adsorption properties of phosphorus from aqueous solutions using lanthanum modified synthetic zeolites
  74. Separation of graphene oxides of different sizes by multi-layer dialysis and anti-friction and lubrication performance
  75. Visible-light-assisted base-catalyzed, one-pot synthesis of highly functionalized cinnolines
  76. The experimental study on the air oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid with Co–Mn–Br system
  77. Highly efficient removal of tetracycline and methyl violet 2B from aqueous solution using the bimetallic FeZn-ZIFs catalyst
  78. A thermo-tolerant cellulase enzyme produced by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens M7, an insight into synthesis, optimization, characterization, and bio-polishing activity
  79. Exploration of ketone derivatives of succinimide for their antidiabetic potential: In vitro and in vivo approaches
  80. Ultrasound-assisted green synthesis and in silico study of 6-(4-(butylamino)-6-(diethylamino)-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)oxypyridazine derivatives
  81. A study of the anticancer potential of Pluronic F-127 encapsulated Fe2O3 nanoparticles derived from Berberis vulgaris extract
  82. Biogenic synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Consolida orientalis flowers: Identification, catalytic degradation, and biological effect
  83. Initial assessment of the presence of plastic waste in some coastal mangrove forests in Vietnam
  84. Adsorption synergy electrocatalytic degradation of phenol by active oxygen-containing species generated in Co-coal based cathode and graphite anode
  85. Antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, and cytotoxicity activities of the aqueous extract of Syzygium aromaticum-mediated synthesized novel silver nanoparticles
  86. Synthesis of a silica matrix with ZnO nanoparticles for the fabrication of a recyclable photodegradation system to eliminate methylene blue dye
  87. Natural polymer fillers instead of dye and pigments: Pumice and scoria in PDMS fluid and elastomer composites
  88. Study on the preparation of glycerylphosphorylcholine by transesterification under supported sodium methoxide
  89. Wireless network handheld terminal-based green ecological sustainable design evaluation system: Improved data communication and reduced packet loss rate
  90. The optimization of hydrogel strength from cassava starch using oxidized sucrose as a crosslinking agent
  91. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Saccharum officinarum leaf extract for antiviral paint
  92. Study on the reliability of nano-silver-coated tin solder joints for flip chips
  93. Environmentally sustainable analytical quality by design aided RP-HPLC method for the estimation of brilliant blue in commercial food samples employing a green-ultrasound-assisted extraction technique
  94. Anticancer and antimicrobial potential of zinc/sodium alginate/polyethylene glycol/d-pinitol nanocomposites against osteosarcoma MG-63 cells
  95. Nanoporous carbon@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite as a green absorbent for the adsorptive removal of Hg(ii) from aqueous solutions
  96. Characterization of silver sulfide nanoparticles from actinobacterial strain (M10A62) and its toxicity against lepidopteran and dipterans insect species
  97. Phyto-fabrication and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Withania somnifera: Investigating antioxidant potential
  98. Effect of e-waste nanofillers on the mechanical, thermal, and wear properties of epoxy-blend sisal woven fiber-reinforced composites
  99. Magnesium nanohydroxide (2D brucite) as a host matrix for thymol and carvacrol: Synthesis, characterization, and inhibition of foodborne pathogens
  100. Synergistic inhibitive effect of a hybrid zinc oxide-benzalkonium chloride composite on the corrosion of carbon steel in a sulfuric acidic solution
  101. Review Articles
  102. Role and the importance of green approach in biosynthesis of nanopropolis and effectiveness of propolis in the treatment of COVID-19 pandemic
  103. Gum tragacanth-mediated synthesis of metal nanoparticles, characterization, and their applications as a bactericide, catalyst, antioxidant, and peroxidase mimic
  104. Green-processed nano-biocomposite (ZnO–TiO2): Potential candidates for biomedical applications
  105. Reaction mechanisms in microwave-assisted lignin depolymerisation in hydrogen-donating solvents
  106. Recent progress on non-noble metal catalysts for the deoxydehydration of biomass-derived oxygenates
  107. Rapid Communication
  108. Phosphorus removal by iron–carbon microelectrolysis: A new way to achieve phosphorus recovery
  109. Special Issue: Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications (Guest Editors: Arpita Roy and Fernanda Maria Policarpo Tonelli)
  110. Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications
  111. Nano-encapsulated tanshinone IIA in PLGA-PEG-COOH inhibits apoptosis and inflammation in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury
  112. Green fabrication of silver nanoparticles using Melia azedarach ripened fruit extract, their characterization, and biological properties
  113. Green-synthesized nanoparticles and their therapeutic applications: A review
  114. Antioxidant, antibacterial, and cytotoxicity potential of synthesized silver nanoparticles from the Cassia alata leaf aqueous extract
  115. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Callisia fragrans leaf extract and its anticancer activity against MCF-7, HepG2, KB, LU-1, and MKN-7 cell lines
  116. Algae-based green AgNPs, AuNPs, and FeNPs as potential nanoremediators
  117. Green synthesis of Kickxia elatine-induced silver nanoparticles and their role as anti-acetylcholinesterase in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease
  118. Phytocrystallization of silver nanoparticles using Cassia alata flower extract for effective control of fungal skin pathogens
  119. Antibacterial wound dressing with hydrogel from chitosan and polyvinyl alcohol from the red cabbage extract loaded with silver nanoparticles
  120. Leveraging of mycogenic copper oxide nanostructures for disease management of Alternaria blight of Brassica juncea
  121. Nanoscale molecular reactions in microbiological medicines in modern medical applications
  122. Synthesis and characterization of ZnO/β-cyclodextrin/nicotinic acid nanocomposite and its biological and environmental application
  123. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles via Taxus wallichiana Zucc. plant-derived Taxol: Novel utilization as anticancer, antioxidation, anti-inflammation, and antiurolithic potential
  124. Recyclability and catalytic characteristics of copper oxide nanoparticles derived from bougainvillea plant flower extract for biomedical application
  125. Phytofabrication, characterization, and evaluation of novel bioinspired selenium–iron (Se–Fe) nanocomposites using Allium sativum extract for bio-potential applications
  126. Erratum
  127. Erratum to “Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)”
https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2023-0124
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
nanomedicine; zinc nanoparticles; microbial infection; osteosarcoma; D-pinitol
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Research Articles
  2. Value-added utilization of coal fly ash and recycled polyvinyl chloride in door or window sub-frame composites
  3. High removal efficiency of volatile phenol from coking wastewater using coal gasification slag via optimized adsorption and multi-grade batch process
  4. Evolution of surface morphology and properties of diamond films by hydrogen plasma etching
  5. Removal efficiency of dibenzofuran using CuZn-zeolitic imidazole frameworks as a catalyst and adsorbent
  6. Rapid and efficient microwave-assisted extraction of Caesalpinia sappan Linn. heartwood and subsequent synthesis of gold nanoparticles
  7. The catalytic characteristics of 2-methylnaphthalene acylation with AlCl3 immobilized on Hβ as Lewis acid catalyst
  8. Biodegradation of synthetic PVP biofilms using natural materials and nanoparticles
  9. Rutin-loaded selenium nanoparticles modulated the redox status, inflammatory, and apoptotic pathways associated with pentylenetetrazole-induced epilepsy in mice
  10. Optimization of apigenin nanoparticles prepared by planetary ball milling: In vitro and in vivo studies
  11. Synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Origanum onites leaves: Cytotoxic, apoptotic, and necrotic effects on Capan-1, L929, and Caco-2 cell lines
  12. Exergy analysis of a conceptual CO2 capture process with an amine-based DES
  13. Construction of fluorescence system of felodipine–tetracyanovinyl–2,2′-bipyridine complex
  14. Excellent photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B over Bi2O3 supported on Zn-MOF nanocomposites under visible light
  15. Optimization-based control strategy for a large-scale polyhydroxyalkanoates production in a fed-batch bioreactor using a coupled PDE–ODE system
  16. Effectiveness of pH and amount of Artemia urumiana extract on physical, chemical, and biological attributes of UV-fabricated biogold nanoparticles
  17. Geranium leaf-mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their transcriptomic effects on Candida albicans
  18. Synthesis, characterization, anticancer, anti-inflammatory activities, and docking studies of 3,5-disubstituted thiadiazine-2-thiones
  19. Synthesis and stability of phospholipid-encapsulated nano-selenium
  20. Putative anti-proliferative effect of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) seed and its nano-formulation
  21. Enrichment of low-grade phosphorites by the selective leaching method
  22. Electrochemical analysis of the dissolution of gold in a copper–ethylenediamine–thiosulfate system
  23. Characterisation of carbonate lake sediments as a potential filler for polymer composites
  24. Evaluation of nano-selenium biofortification characteristics of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.)
  25. Quality of oil extracted by cold press from Nigella sativa seeds incorporated with rosemary extracts and pretreated by microwaves
  26. Heteropolyacid-loaded MOF-derived mesoporous zirconia catalyst for chemical degradation of rhodamine B
  27. Recovery of critical metals from carbonatite-type mineral wastes: Geochemical modeling investigation of (bio)hydrometallurgical leaching of REEs
  28. Photocatalytic properties of ZnFe-mixed oxides synthesized via a simple route for water remediation
  29. Attenuation of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate-induced hepatic and renal toxicity by naringin nanoparticles in a rat model
  30. Novel in situ synthesis of quaternary core–shell metallic sulfide nanocomposites for degradation of organic dyes and hydrogen production
  31. Microfluidic steam-based synthesis of luminescent carbon quantum dots as sensing probes for nitrite detection
  32. Transformation of eggshell waste to egg white protein solution, calcium chloride dihydrate, and eggshell membrane powder
  33. Preparation of Zr-MOFs for the adsorption of doxycycline hydrochloride from wastewater
  34. Green nanoarchitectonics of the silver nanocrystal potential for treating malaria and their cytotoxic effects on the kidney Vero cell line
  35. Carbon emissions analysis of producing modified asphalt with natural asphalt
  36. An efficient and green synthesis of 2-phenylquinazolin-4(3H)-ones via t-BuONa-mediated oxidative condensation of 2-aminobenzamides and benzyl alcohols under solvent- and transition metal-free conditions
  37. Chitosan nanoparticles loaded with mesosulfuron methyl and mesosulfuron methyl + florasulam + MCPA isooctyl to manage weeds of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
  38. Synergism between lignite and high-sulfur petroleum coke in CO2 gasification
  39. Facile aqueous synthesis of ZnCuInS/ZnS–ZnS QDs with enhanced photoluminescence lifetime for selective detection of Cu(ii) ions
  40. Rapid synthesis of copper nanoparticles using Nepeta cataria leaves: An eco-friendly management of disease-causing vectors and bacterial pathogens
  41. Study on the photoelectrocatalytic activity of reduced TiO2 nanotube films for removal of methyl orange
  42. Development of a fuzzy logic model for the prediction of spark-ignition engine performance and emission for gasoline–ethanol blends
  43. Micro-impact-induced mechano-chemical synthesis of organic precursors from FeC/FeN and carbonates/nitrates in water and its extension to nucleobases
  44. Green synthesis of strontium-doped tin dioxide (SrSnO2) nanoparticles using the Mahonia bealei leaf extract and evaluation of their anticancer and antimicrobial activities
  45. A study on the larvicidal and adulticidal potential of Cladostepus spongiosus macroalgae and green-fabricated silver nanoparticles against mosquito vectors
  46. Catalysts based on nickel salt heteropolytungstates for selective oxidation of diphenyl sulfide
  47. Powerful antibacterial nanocomposites from Corallina officinalis-mediated nanometals and chitosan nanoparticles against fish-borne pathogens
  48. Removal behavior of Zn and alkalis from blast furnace dust in pre-reduction sinter process
  49. Environmentally friendly synthesis and computational studies of novel class of acridinedione integrated spirothiopyrrolizidines/indolizidines
  50. The mechanisms of inhibition and lubrication of clean fracturing flowback fluids in water-based drilling fluids
  51. Adsorption/desorption performance of cellulose membrane for Pb(ii)
  52. A one-pot, multicomponent tandem synthesis of fused polycyclic pyrrolo[3,2-c]quinolinone/pyrrolizino[2,3-c]quinolinone hybrid heterocycles via environmentally benign solid state melt reaction
  53. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using durian rind extract and optical characteristics of surface plasmon resonance-based optical sensor for the detection of hydrogen peroxide
  54. Electrochemical analysis of copper-EDTA-ammonia-gold thiosulfate dissolution system
  55. Characterization of bio-oil production by microwave pyrolysis from cashew nut shells and Cassia fistula pods
  56. Green synthesis methods and characterization of bacterial cellulose/silver nanoparticle composites
  57. Photocatalytic research performance of zinc oxide/graphite phase carbon nitride catalyst and its application in environment
  58. Effect of phytogenic iron nanoparticles on the bio-fortification of wheat varieties
  59. In vitro anti-cancer and antimicrobial effects of manganese oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the Glycyrrhiza uralensis leaf extract on breast cancer cell lines
  60. Preparation of Pd/Ce(F)-MCM-48 catalysts and their catalytic performance of n-heptane isomerization
  61. Green “one-pot” fluorescent bis-indolizine synthesis with whole-cell plant biocatalysis
  62. Silica-titania mesoporous silicas of MCM-41 type as effective catalysts and photocatalysts for selective oxidation of diphenyl sulfide by H2O2
  63. Biosynthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles from molted feathers of Pavo cristatus and their antibiofilm and anticancer activities
  64. Clean preparation of rutile from Ti-containing mixed molten slag by CO2 oxidation
  65. Synthesis and characterization of Pluronic F-127-coated titanium dioxide nanoparticles synthesized from extracts of Atractylodes macrocephala leaf for antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties
  66. Effect of pretreatment with alkali on the anaerobic digestion characteristics of kitchen waste and analysis of microbial diversity
  67. Ameliorated antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer properties by Plectranthus vettiveroides root extract-mediated green synthesis of chitosan nanoparticles
  68. Microwave-accelerated pretreatment technique in green extraction of oil and bioactive compounds from camelina seeds: Effectiveness and characterization
  69. Studies on the extraction performance of phorate by aptamer-functionalized magnetic nanoparticles in plasma samples
  70. Investigation of structural properties and antibacterial activity of AgO nanoparticle extract from Solanum nigrum/Mentha leaf extracts by green synthesis method
  71. Green fabrication of chitosan from marine crustaceans and mushroom waste: Toward sustainable resource utilization
  72. Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
  73. The enhanced adsorption properties of phosphorus from aqueous solutions using lanthanum modified synthetic zeolites
  74. Separation of graphene oxides of different sizes by multi-layer dialysis and anti-friction and lubrication performance
  75. Visible-light-assisted base-catalyzed, one-pot synthesis of highly functionalized cinnolines
  76. The experimental study on the air oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid with Co–Mn–Br system
  77. Highly efficient removal of tetracycline and methyl violet 2B from aqueous solution using the bimetallic FeZn-ZIFs catalyst
  78. A thermo-tolerant cellulase enzyme produced by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens M7, an insight into synthesis, optimization, characterization, and bio-polishing activity
  79. Exploration of ketone derivatives of succinimide for their antidiabetic potential: In vitro and in vivo approaches
  80. Ultrasound-assisted green synthesis and in silico study of 6-(4-(butylamino)-6-(diethylamino)-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)oxypyridazine derivatives
  81. A study of the anticancer potential of Pluronic F-127 encapsulated Fe2O3 nanoparticles derived from Berberis vulgaris extract
  82. Biogenic synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Consolida orientalis flowers: Identification, catalytic degradation, and biological effect
  83. Initial assessment of the presence of plastic waste in some coastal mangrove forests in Vietnam
  84. Adsorption synergy electrocatalytic degradation of phenol by active oxygen-containing species generated in Co-coal based cathode and graphite anode
  85. Antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, and cytotoxicity activities of the aqueous extract of Syzygium aromaticum-mediated synthesized novel silver nanoparticles
  86. Synthesis of a silica matrix with ZnO nanoparticles for the fabrication of a recyclable photodegradation system to eliminate methylene blue dye
  87. Natural polymer fillers instead of dye and pigments: Pumice and scoria in PDMS fluid and elastomer composites
  88. Study on the preparation of glycerylphosphorylcholine by transesterification under supported sodium methoxide
  89. Wireless network handheld terminal-based green ecological sustainable design evaluation system: Improved data communication and reduced packet loss rate
  90. The optimization of hydrogel strength from cassava starch using oxidized sucrose as a crosslinking agent
  91. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Saccharum officinarum leaf extract for antiviral paint
  92. Study on the reliability of nano-silver-coated tin solder joints for flip chips
  93. Environmentally sustainable analytical quality by design aided RP-HPLC method for the estimation of brilliant blue in commercial food samples employing a green-ultrasound-assisted extraction technique
  94. Anticancer and antimicrobial potential of zinc/sodium alginate/polyethylene glycol/d-pinitol nanocomposites against osteosarcoma MG-63 cells
  95. Nanoporous carbon@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite as a green absorbent for the adsorptive removal of Hg(ii) from aqueous solutions
  96. Characterization of silver sulfide nanoparticles from actinobacterial strain (M10A62) and its toxicity against lepidopteran and dipterans insect species
  97. Phyto-fabrication and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Withania somnifera: Investigating antioxidant potential
  98. Effect of e-waste nanofillers on the mechanical, thermal, and wear properties of epoxy-blend sisal woven fiber-reinforced composites
  99. Magnesium nanohydroxide (2D brucite) as a host matrix for thymol and carvacrol: Synthesis, characterization, and inhibition of foodborne pathogens
  100. Synergistic inhibitive effect of a hybrid zinc oxide-benzalkonium chloride composite on the corrosion of carbon steel in a sulfuric acidic solution
  101. Review Articles
  102. Role and the importance of green approach in biosynthesis of nanopropolis and effectiveness of propolis in the treatment of COVID-19 pandemic
  103. Gum tragacanth-mediated synthesis of metal nanoparticles, characterization, and their applications as a bactericide, catalyst, antioxidant, and peroxidase mimic
  104. Green-processed nano-biocomposite (ZnO–TiO2): Potential candidates for biomedical applications
  105. Reaction mechanisms in microwave-assisted lignin depolymerisation in hydrogen-donating solvents
  106. Recent progress on non-noble metal catalysts for the deoxydehydration of biomass-derived oxygenates
  107. Rapid Communication
  108. Phosphorus removal by iron–carbon microelectrolysis: A new way to achieve phosphorus recovery
  109. Special Issue: Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications (Guest Editors: Arpita Roy and Fernanda Maria Policarpo Tonelli)
  110. Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications
  111. Nano-encapsulated tanshinone IIA in PLGA-PEG-COOH inhibits apoptosis and inflammation in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury
  112. Green fabrication of silver nanoparticles using Melia azedarach ripened fruit extract, their characterization, and biological properties
  113. Green-synthesized nanoparticles and their therapeutic applications: A review
  114. Antioxidant, antibacterial, and cytotoxicity potential of synthesized silver nanoparticles from the Cassia alata leaf aqueous extract
  115. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Callisia fragrans leaf extract and its anticancer activity against MCF-7, HepG2, KB, LU-1, and MKN-7 cell lines
  116. Algae-based green AgNPs, AuNPs, and FeNPs as potential nanoremediators
  117. Green synthesis of Kickxia elatine-induced silver nanoparticles and their role as anti-acetylcholinesterase in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease
  118. Phytocrystallization of silver nanoparticles using Cassia alata flower extract for effective control of fungal skin pathogens
  119. Antibacterial wound dressing with hydrogel from chitosan and polyvinyl alcohol from the red cabbage extract loaded with silver nanoparticles
  120. Leveraging of mycogenic copper oxide nanostructures for disease management of Alternaria blight of Brassica juncea
  121. Nanoscale molecular reactions in microbiological medicines in modern medical applications
  122. Synthesis and characterization of ZnO/β-cyclodextrin/nicotinic acid nanocomposite and its biological and environmental application
  123. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles via Taxus wallichiana Zucc. plant-derived Taxol: Novel utilization as anticancer, antioxidation, anti-inflammation, and antiurolithic potential
  124. Recyclability and catalytic characteristics of copper oxide nanoparticles derived from bougainvillea plant flower extract for biomedical application
  125. Phytofabrication, characterization, and evaluation of novel bioinspired selenium–iron (Se–Fe) nanocomposites using Allium sativum extract for bio-potential applications
  126. Erratum
  127. Erratum to “Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)”
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