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Leveraging of mycogenic copper oxide nanostructures for disease management of Alternaria blight of Brassica juncea

  • Swati Gaba , Lakshman Prasad , Ajit Varma , Ashutosh Kumar Rai , Ram Prasad EMAIL logo and Arti Goel EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: June 28, 2023
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Green Processing and Synthesis
From the journal Green Processing and Synthesis Volume 12 Issue 1

Abstract

Brassica is one of the crops sensitive to low copper supply, leading to Alternaria blight. The present study reflects the synthesis of myco-derived copper oxide (M-CuO) nanoparticles (NPs) from Trichoderma asperellum and investigates their effect against Alternaria blight of Brassica in two soil types, alluvial and calcareous. Foliar applications of different treatments were used to treat plants: T1 (mancozeb@0.2%), T2 (propiconazole@0.05%), T3 (T. asperellum filtrate), T4 (M-CuO NPs), T5 chemically synthesized (C-CuO NPs), and T6 bulk phase (BP-CuO @25, 50, 100, 150, and 200 ppm) of each in twice such as protectant and curative method under pot experiments. M-CuO NPs in two protective sprays exhibit up to 75% disease suppression in alluvial soil, compared to 68.9% suppression in curative spray at 200 ppm. Maximum seed yield and seed number were obtained, 1.95 g/plant and 850 seeds/plant in alluvial soil, but in calcareous soil, seed yield (1.14 g/plant) and seed number 414 seeds/plant were recorded in plants supplemented with M-CuO NPs as a protectant. In both soils, maximum plant height was increased by protective applications of M-CuO NPs at 200 ppm. Thus, the present study suggested that among foliar sprays of copper nanocompounds, protective activity shows better results as compared to curative activity. Among all the treatments, M-CuO NPs were found to be most effective in suppressing disease and improving productivity and growth-promoting effects of Brassica.

Keywords: foliar spray; protective; curative; defense enzyme; plant growth promoter

1 Introduction

Crops require a sufficient, but not excessive supply of essential micronutrients for disease suppression and optimal productivity. An insufficient supply of mineral elements may lead to a limit in plant growth. Deficiency of insufficient micronutrients, such as copper (Cu), is more common in agricultural soils, particularly in calcareous soil. As a result, these elements can be used in both intensive and extensive agricultural systems supplied as fungicides and fertilizers. Copper nanoparticle (NP), for example, has an interesting and complex biological profile in multiple oxidation states (Cu, Cu2O, CuO) as antimicrobials, agrochemicals, etc. [1,2]. Brassica is one of the sensitive crops to inadequate copper supply, which results in Alternaria symptoms on leaves, stem, and pod blight [3,4]. Furthermore, Cu works as an essential inducer, activating the plant defense system and enzymes, such as peroxidases, plastocyanins, and multi-Cu oxidases, which boost the crop resistance against plant diseases [5,6]. Plant–pathogen interactions activate the plant defense system by producing reactive oxygen species (ROS), antioxidants, and stress enzymes [7]. Several inducers and strategies have been employed to improve plant resistance toward pathogens [7,8,9]. To increase plant resistance to infections, a variety of inducers and techniques have been used [7,8,9]. Because disease-resistant inducers can activate the plant’s defense system against fungus. Compounds that induce plant resistance include salicylic acid and benzothiadiazole. Proteins involved in pathogenesis, such as peroxidase, 1,4 glucanase, and chitinase, have been found to be active in resistant plants [10]. To overcome the stress, defense activities, such as deposition of the phenolics, ascorbic acid, and the stimulation of antioxidant enzymes, are evoked following an attempted microbial invasion [11].

Copper is a major element in the activation of plant defense system when they are subjected to biotic stress. However, NPs’ phytotoxicity results in lower biomass, limited seed germination, reduced root length, and stunted growth [11,12,13]. The majority of prior studies were conducted in lab-scale trials to evaluate the effect of CuO NPs in soil settings, while its favorable benefits through foliar exposure have not yet been investigated. It has been found that the application route of NPs considerably effect ion dissolution, aggregation, and bioavailability. Furthermore, NPs’ foliar spray minimizes agglomeration and increases NP solubility [14,15,16,17]. Moreover, the foliar spray of NPs lowers aggregation and increases NP solubility, resulting in less diverse phytotoxic effects. These NPs release Cu2+ ions on the surface of leaves, acting as a protective shield that prevents the pathogenic attack while simultaneously increasing the nutritional content of seeds and fruits. As a result, the objective of this study was to examine the biocontrol efficacy of copper-based compounds against Alternaria blight, growth dynamics of Brassica juncea, and plants’ stress response.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Synthesis of M-CuO NPs

Mycogenic copper oxide NPs were synthesized from the cell-free extract of Trichoderma asperellum at specific conditions, which has been reported in our previous paper [4].

2.2 Characterization of M-CuO NPs

Characterization of CuO NPs was done by ultraviolet–visible (UV-Vis) spectrophotomter, scanning electron microscope (SEM), and dynamic light scattering (DLS). The UV-Vis characterization revealed surface plasmon resonance and optical properties, as 10 mg·mL−1 of M-CuO NPs were suspended in water. An instrument Malvern zeta sizer (Nano ZS90, Noida, India) was used to measure mean particle size and zeta potential was recorded to determine the surface charge on the surface of NPs. Measurements were carried out in triplicate with a temperature equilibration of 1 min at 25°C with an angle of 90°C [18].

2.3 Preparation of NP suspension, stock solution of CuO NPs, and standard check fungicides

Sequential concentrations of both types of CuO NPs from a 1,000 ppm working solution were prepared to 25, 50, 100, 150, and 200 ppm doses before use. Suspension of C-CuO NPs <50 nm particle size, SRL chemicals, and BP-CuO <10 μm of different concentrations was also prepared. The solution of NPs was filtered through 0.22 μm syringe Millipore filters and sonicated for 2 min before use for getting monodispersed population. The commercially available fungicides (1) mancozeb (0.2%) and (2) propiconazole (0.05%) at their standard concentrations were prepared in distilled water and 50% filtrate of T. asperellum was also prepared.

2.4 Nutrient analysis of soil

Clay pots of size (12 cm × 12 cm) were purchased from a local store. Five to six kilograms of soil per pot were filled. Two soil samples, i.e., alluvial and calcareous soil, were submitted to the Division of Agronomy, ICAR-IARI, New Delhi, for macro- and micro-nutrient analyses. Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), and micro-nutrients, such as iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), and manganese (Mn), were also quantified.

2.5 Sample collection of leaves

Samples were collected on the 30th day of sowing before infection and after infection on the 60th day. Plants’ stress level was estimated by checking the antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase and catalase).

2.6 Superoxide dismutase and catalase assay

Total superoxide dismutase activity was determined by nitroblue tetrazolium photochemical assay according to Misra and Fridovich [19]. The Aebi method was used for determining catalase activity in leaves challenged with A. brassicae and CuO NP treatment [20].

2.7 Plants in vivo experiment

Seeds of PM-25 variety of B. juncea (germination efficiency >98%) were provided by ICAR-IARI, Division of Plant Pathology, New Delhi, India. Pots were divided into six treatments with three replicates each. Seeds were surface sterilized with 0.4% sodium hypochlorite solution followed by repeated washing with distilled water. Surface-sterilized seeds were sown (10 seeds) in sterile soil and pots. Seeds were allowed to germinate for 1 month. After 1 month, pots were divided into six treatments with three replicates each: (1) negative control (healthy plants without infection), (2) positive control (plants infected with A. brassicae), (3) plants infected with A. brassicae and sprayed with double and single application of mancozeb, (4) plants infected with A. brassicae and sprayed with double and single application of propiconazole, (5) plants infected with A. brassicae and treated with two and one foliar sprays of M-CuO NPs (dose of 25, 50, 100, 150, and 200 ppm) in volume 2 mL/plant in protective and curative set, (6) plants treated with two and one foliar sprays of C-CuO NPs (25, 50, 100, 150, and 200 ppm) and infected with A. brassicae in protective and curative set, and (7) plants treated with two and one foliar sprays of BP-CuO NPs (25, 50, 100, 150, and 200 ppm).

Some of the brassica plants were sprayed before one week with two consecutive foliar applications of CuO NPs in the protective method, while in curative set, after the first symptom of disease, the NPs were sprayed on the rest of the plants. Plants were bagged with a transparent plastic bag and kept for 10 days. Randomly five plants were selected and tagged for taking observations. Five leaves were taken from plants for scoring the disease intensity. Observations for disease severity were taken 75 days after sowing. The overall disease scoring was done at 0–6 rating scale on the basis of the disease assessment key for Alternaria blight in rapeseed-mustard [21].

2.8 Statistical analysis

Data were processed using the statistical package WASP 2.0 (Web Agri Stat Package, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, India). One-way analysis of variance and critical differences at a probability level of 0.01 and 0.05 were obtained with mean values of treatment. Treatments were compared using Duncan’s multiple-range test.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Characterization of M-CuO NPs

UV-Vis results provide information regarding the particle size and excitation of electron from the valance band to the conduction band by absorption of light and also calculated the band gap [22,23,24]. A broad-centered peak revealed at 363 nm indicates the excitation of electrons from the valence band to the conduction band (Figure 1a). Similar peaks in the range of 300–350 nm were recorded for CuO NPs synthesized from cell-free supernatants of Pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus cereus, respectively, by Hesham et al. and Tiwari et al. [25,26].

Figure 1 Spectroscopic- and microscopic-based characterization: (a) UV-Vis spectra of M-CuO NPs, (b) particle size of M-CuO NPs, and (c) SEM image of M-CuO NPs.
Figure 1

Spectroscopic- and microscopic-based characterization: (a) UV-Vis spectra of M-CuO NPs, (b) particle size of M-CuO NPs, and (c) SEM image of M-CuO NPs.

DLS measurements have confirmed the hydrodynamic diameter of CuO NPs as 134.8 nm as shown in Figure 1b. SEM micrographs indicated the spherical shape and particle size of CuO NPs <50 nm size range (Figure 1c). Image J has been used to estimate the particle size of CuO NPs.

3.2 Disease severity index in Brassica plants

In this study, the application of copper nano-forms and bulk CuO was assessed and compared with the efficacy of fungicides mancozeb (2,000 ppm) and propiconazole (500 ppm), and with the biological extract T. asperellum (50%) to check its effects on the growth of B. juncea and in the suppression of Alternaria blight of Brassica.

The positive control plants infected with A. brassicae have the highest disease severity index to 65%; in conjunction with that, the highest biocontrol efficacy was observed for the plants exposed with M-CuO NPs recorded with very less percentage of blight disease, i.e., 13.8% and 14.8% at 200 ppm concentration in mustard plants grown in alluvial soil, respectively, through protective and curative methods as shown in Figure 2a and Table 1. On the other hand, with C-CuO NPs, the disease recorded was 24.8% and 24.1% through protective and curative methods, respectively. Similarly, with BP-CuO, 23.4% and 20.6%, the disease index was recorded.

Figure 2 Disease severity index in Brassica plants. Protective and curative activities of CuO NPs in alluvial soil (a) and in calcareous soil (b).
Figure 2

Disease severity index in Brassica plants. Protective and curative activities of CuO NPs in alluvial soil (a) and in calcareous soil (b).

Table 1

Disease severity index of Alternaria blight on Brassica plants infected by A. brassicae

Disease severity index at day 75 after sowing on Brassica juncea plants grown in alluvial and calcareous soil
Alluvial soil calcareous soil
S. no. Treatments Protective Curative Protective Curative
1. Negative control 0.523 ± 0.103a 4.33 ± 0.471a 0.30 ± 0.471a 4.66 ± 0.471a
2. Positive control 42 ± 1.414b 46.3 ± 0.471b 53.2 ± 0.471b 65.7 ± 0.081b
3. Fungicide 1 (Mancozeb) 20.7 ± 0.45c 32.6 ± 0.169c 23.6 ± 0.169c 37.3 ± 0.974c
4. Fungicide 2 (Propiconazole) 33.6 ± 1.02d 29.6 ± 0.124d 28.1 ± 0.124d 34.7 ± 0.081d
5. Trichoderma asperellum 27.5 ± 0.21e 27.5 ± 0.047e 26.8 ± 0.041e 27.4 ± 0.329e
6. M-CuO NPs (25 ppm) 25.5 ± 0.77f 26.5 ± 0.141f 29.0 ± 0.141f 43.9 ± 1.837f
7. M-CuO NPs (50 ppm) 21.1 ± 0.43g 25.7 ± 0.047g 26.5 ± 0.124e 34.5 ± 0.216g
8. M-CuO NPs (100 ppm) 17.4 ± 0.44h 19.5 ± 0.169h 26.7 ± 0.169e 28.5 ± 0.169h
9. M-CuO NPs (150 ppm) 16.2 ± 0.43i 17.7 ± 0.124i 24.3 ± 0.124g 27.4 ± 0.047h
10. M-CuO NPs (200 ppm) 13.8 ± 0.49j 14.8 ± 0.57j 23.6 ± 0.571c 25.4 ± 0.262i
11. C-CuO NPs (25 ppm) 35.1 ± 0.45k 32.0 ± 0.89c 29.1 ± 0.899f 46.0 ± 1.268j
12. C-CuO NPs (50 ppm) 33.0 ± 1.02d 31.6 ± 0.124c 21.6 ± 0.204h 37.3 ± 0.124c
13. C-CuO NPs (100 ppm) 31.6 ± 0.54d 27.6 ± 0.204e 21.5 ± 0.205h 35.9 ± 0.571d
14. C-CuO NPs (150 ppm) 25.5 ± 1.43f 26.6 ± 0.124e 20.4 ± 0.124i 34.6 ± 0.124d
15. C-CuO NPs (200 ppm) 24.8 ± 0.46f 24.5 ± 0.205g 26.7 ± 0.205e 35.0 ± 1.84d
16. BP-CuO (25 ppm) 27.6 ± 0.82e 27.5 ± 0.047e 31.4 ± 0.047j 40.7 ± 0.081k
17. BP-CuO (50 ppm) 28.4 ± 0.26e 24.6 ± 0.216g 31.0 ± 0.216j 41.4 ± 0.169l
18. BP-CuO (100 ppm) 27.3 ± 0.68e 21.5 ± 0.169k 30.5 ± 0.169k 39.2 ± 0.355m
19. BP-CuO (150 ppm) 24.8 ± 0.88f 20.7 ± 0.163k 30.4 ± 0.163k 38.5 ± 0.249n
20. BP-CuO (200 ppm) 23.4 ± 0.04f 20.6 ± 0.047l 29.5 ± 0.047l 37.8 ± 0.188o

  1. Different superscript letters indicate statistically significant results among control and experimental groups.

Moreover, plants sprayed with mancozeb at 2,000 ppm dose as a protectant and curative agent resulted in 33.6% and 32.6% severity index, respectively. Also, when propiconazole was applied at 500 ppm, 33.6% and 29.6% severity index was observed. The findings of our study revealed a significant decrease in disease severity index when plants were exposed to M-CuO NPs when applied in protective and curative modes.

Abdelkhalek and Al-Askar [27] revealed that biologically synthesized ZnO NPs were assessed against tobacco mosaic virus, which showed both protective and curative activities with better protective activity. Attia et al. [28] have reported a similar influence in the biocontrol efficacy of CuO-streptomycin drug, which was found against potato brown rot disease with 55.8% protection efficiency. Thus, these studies have supported the better protective activity of M-CuO NPs. However, as compared to separately ameliorative effects of M-CuO NPs and C-CuO NPs, BP-CuO occupied the lowest rank in biocontrol efficacy.

On the contrary, for control plants grown in calcareous soil, a 53.2% disease severity was recorded. However, at 200 ppm, with M-CuO NPs, 24.8% and 25.8%, the disease index was recorded with protective and curative methods (Figure 2b). Likewise, with C-CuO NPs at 200 ppm, 26.7% and 34.6% index was recorded. Similarly, with BP-CuO, 29.5% and 37.8% severity index was observed. Some of brassica plants were sprayed with mancozeb has been recorded with disease severity index 23.6 % in protective method and 37.3 %, in curative method, respectively. Also, the propiconazole at 500 ppm dose resulted in a severity index, i.e., 28.1% and 34.7% through protective and curative methods. Thus, these experiments at pot levels suggested that the optimized dose for the suppression of disease was 100–200 ppm (Figure 3).

Figure 3 A photograph showing the disease symptoms of Alternaria blight on mustard leaves at 75th day post inoculation: (a) plants inoculated with A. brassicae, (b) plants treated with two protective foliar sprays of C-CuO NPs (100 ppm), (c) plants treated with two foliar sprays of M-CuO NPs (100 ppm), (d) plants inoculated with A. brassicae, (e) plants treated after the first symptom of disease with one foliar spray of C-CuO NPs (100 ppm), and (f) plants treated after the first symptom of disease with one foliar spray of M-CuO NPs (100 ppm).
Figure 3

A photograph showing the disease symptoms of Alternaria blight on mustard leaves at 75th day post inoculation: (a) plants inoculated with A. brassicae, (b) plants treated with two protective foliar sprays of C-CuO NPs (100 ppm), (c) plants treated with two foliar sprays of M-CuO NPs (100 ppm), (d) plants inoculated with A. brassicae, (e) plants treated after the first symptom of disease with one foliar spray of C-CuO NPs (100 ppm), and (f) plants treated after the first symptom of disease with one foliar spray of M-CuO NPs (100 ppm).

In a nutshell, the comparison of treatments showed that M-CuO NPs at higher doses (100–200 ppm) efficiently provide resistance to plants before infection, while in a curative way, single spray was less effective. Thus, our study has proved that the application of M-CuO NPs compared with other treatments acts as a better protectant, which significantly increases the disease resistance and efficiently control the blight disease by 73.25% and control equally as a curative method, which reduced the disease by 68%. However, the protectant mode was considered the best treatment for mustard plants grown under normal and stress conditions (nutrient deficiency of Cu) in both soils. It was found that the applications of M-CuO NPs were also effective in stress conditions and were able to provide the optimum Cu2+ ions.

3.3 Plant growth-promoting potential of CuO NPs

Plant growth studies revealed a steady increase in plant height between the 30th and 40th days up to 200 ppm dose in the protective method, with more pronounced effects in nutrient-deficient soil. In alluvial soil, as compared to untreated plants where height was 57 cm, the maximum height recorded was 61 cm in plants treated with M-CuO NPs (Figures 4a and 5a and Table 2). However, at higher doses of C-CuO NPs (200 ppm), a negative impact was observed in plant height as 54 and 50 cm height recorded as compared to 57 cm height recorded in untreated plants. Similarly, a minimum plant height of around 48.6 and 54.6 cm in protective and curative modes was observed with BP-exposed plants at 200 ppm. Thus, the trend evident was retarded plant growth with higher doses of C-CuO NPs and BP-CuO as compared to the positive effects of M-CuO NPs. The application of NPs through both the methods suggested no significant effects on plant height in alluvial soil, while significant effect was observed in calcareous soil.

Figure 4 Plant growth-promoting effects of CuO NPs: (a) plant height in alluvial soil and (b) plant height in calcareous soil.
Figure 4

Plant growth-promoting effects of CuO NPs: (a) plant height in alluvial soil and (b) plant height in calcareous soil.

Figure 5 Effect of CuO NPs on seed yield/plant: (a) alluvial soil and (b) calcareous soil.
Figure 5

Effect of CuO NPs on seed yield/plant: (a) alluvial soil and (b) calcareous soil.

Table 2

Shoot length of Brassica plants treated with CuO NPs

Shoot length of mustard plants grown in alluvial and calcareous soil
Alluvial soil calcareous soil
S. no. Treatments Protective Curative Protective Curative
1. Negative control 57.3 ± 1.77a 53.0 ± 2.16a 35.3 ± 1.24a 33.0 ± 1.63a
2. Positive control 53.6 ± 2.27b 53.3 ± 2.27a 33.0 ± 4.32b 37.3 ± 1.41b
3. Fungicide 1 (mancozeb) 58.0 ± 0.00c 48.6 ± 4.61b 36.3 ± 0.94c 33 ± 2.49c
4. Fungicide 2 (propiconazole) 52.6 ± 0.40d 53.3 ± 0.33a 36.6 ± 0.47d 33.3 ± 0.47c
5. Trichoderma asperellum 60.3 ± 2.8e 57.0 ± 1.06c 41.3 ± 1.24e 36 ± 2.82d
6. M-CuO NPs (25 ppm) 48.3 ± 1.08f 48.6 ± 1.08b 35.6 ± 0.94f 35 ± 2.16e
7. M-CuO NPs (50 ppm) 50.6 ± 0.40g 53.0 ± 3.24a 46 ± 0.81g 37.6 ± 0.47f
8. M-CuO NPs (100 ppm) 55 ± 1.41h 55.0 ± 1.87h 56 ± 2.16h 37.3 ± 0.47g
9. M-CuO NPs (150 ppm) 60.6 ± 1.47e 53.6 ± 0.81a 61 ± 0.18i 37.0 ± 0.81h
10. M-CuO NPs (200 ppm) 61.3 ± 0.43e 54.0 ± 1.41g 61.5 ± 0.44i 47.0 ± 0.23i
11. C-CuO NPs (25 ppm) 55.3 ± 0.47h 49.3 ± 3.09c 56 ± 2.16j 33.6 ± 1.24j
12. C-CuO NPs (50 ppm) 58.0 ± 0.81c 52.3 ± 1.69d 56 ± 0.81j 35.3 ± 0.81k
13. C-CuO NPs (100 ppm) 61.0 ± 0.81e 53.6 ± 1.69d 61 ± 0.81k 37.0 ± 3.09l
14. C-CuO NPs (150 ppm) 58.6 ± 1.24c 53.3 ± 1.69d 60.6 ± 0.47l 38 ± 1.24m
15. C-CuO NPs (200 ppm) 54 ± 0.816b 50.6 ± 4.49c 61.6 ± 0.47l 38.6 ± 0.92n
16. BP-CuO (25 ppm) 57.3 ± 2.05c 51.0 ± 0.471d 36.6 ± 0.47c 36.6 ± 0.47o
17. BP-CuO (50 ppm) 57 ± 0.816c 54.3 ± 0.471a 38.6 ± 0.47c 36.6 ± 1.24o
18. BP-CuO (100 ppm) 57.3 ± 0.471c 60.3 ± 1.69i 42.3 ± 1.69e 36.3 ± 0.94o
19. BP-CuO (150 ppm) 53 ± 2.16b 57.6 ± 0.816c 40.0 ± 0.81 36.6 ± 0.47o
20. BP-CuO (200 ppm) 48.6 ± 1.24f 54.6 ± 0.816h 38.0 ± 0.81 37.0 ± 0.81p

  1. Different superscript letters indicate statistically significant results among control and experimental groups.

Interestingly, the plant groups grown in calcareous soil have attained maximum plant height of up to 61 and 47 cm, respectively, at 200 ppm dose with M-CuO NPs as compared to untreated plants (33 and 35 cm) in protective and curative treatments. The positive effect in the plant height was due to the uptake of NPs by the plant and significant effects in both modes were observed with M-CuO NPs. Similarly, with C-CuO NPs, maximum plant height of 61.6 and 38.6 cm was recorded, respectively, as compared to untreated plants (33 and 35 cm) (Figures 4b and 5b). However, the plant groups exposed to bulk copper have no significant effects on plant height through both modes. Thus, the analysis indicated that in calcareous soil, the protectant mode worked better with superior performance of M-CuO NPs; moreover, no phytotoxicity effects were observed with M-CuO NPs and C-CuO NPs, up to 200 ppm dose.

Despite the fact, the toxicity issue was observed with C-CuO NPs and BP-CuO at higher doses (150 and 200 ppm) in alluvial soil. Among five treatments conducted in a study, it has been found that both of the fungicides mancozeb and propiconazole has no significant effects on plant height in alluvial soil. Thus, the overall analysis has suggested that among all the treatments, M-CuO NPs have a positive effect on plant height even up to higher dose of 200 ppm, while C-CuO NPs have also given promising results up to lower doses at 100 ppm. The experiments revealed the minimum concentration of copper also leads to stimulate plant growth. Their mode of supply, dose and nature varies. It has been supported by several studies that minimum dose of 50-100 ppm promoting the growth in several crops such as wheat, maize, and Brassica [29,30,31]. Thus, a positive effect in the plant groups supplied with a 200 ppm dose of M-CuO NPs supported by previous findings was evident in both soils, with more pronounced effects in calcareous soil, where nutrient deficiency of Cu was fulfilled by two sprays of CuO NPs.

3.4 Productivity of Brassica plants

Pods perform a developmental role in seed encapsulation and protection against biotic and abiotic stress. Their count is a crucial parameter for yield quantification [32,33]. It was observed that plants exposed to M-CuO NPs increased yield by 1.95 and 1.24 g/plant at 200 ppm through protective and curative modes as compared to untreated (control) plants where 0.72 g/plant yield was recorded. However, in calcareous soil with mycogenic nanoparticles, the seed yield was 0.92 and 0.77 g/plant in protective and curative treatments as compared to control (0.67–0.633 g/plant). Thus, the seed yield analysis revealed that mycogenic NP treatment resulted in the maximum yield in alluvial soil with the protectant mode. Similarly, the exposed plants at 200 ppm with C-CuO NPs increase the seed yield by 1.84 and 0.86 g/plant through protective and curative methods as compared to the control (0.72 g/plant). Moreover, with BP-CuO, the seed yield was 1.66 and 1.55 g/plant, respectively in protective and curative treatments as compared to control (0.72 g/plant).

However, the results in calcareous soil were less significant near around 0.83 and 0.76 g/plant, in protective and curative methods as compared to control (0.67 g/plant) with mycogenic NP treatment. Also, C-CuO NPs increase the yield around 0.93 and 0.806 g/plant in protective and curative treatments as compared to control (0.67 g/plant). Thus, the overall analysis has also suggested that the BP-CuO, somehow, worked well for the increment of seed yield in calcareous soil (Table 3). However, the maximum yield was 1.95 g/plant with mycogenic NPs, which outcompeted the rest of the treatments.

Table 3

Seed weight of Brassica plants exposed with CuO NPs

Seed weight (1,000 seeds) of mustard plants grown in alluvial and calcareous soil
Alluvial soil calcareous soil
S. no. Treatments Protective Curative Protective Curative
1. Negative control 0.726 ± 0.012a 0.67 ± 0.089a 0.65 ± 0.056a 0.60 ± 0.047a
2. Positive control 0.473 ± 0.05b 0.493 ± 0.047b 0.37 ± 0.014b 0.37 ± 0.012b
3. Fungicide 1 (mancozeb) 0.863 ± 0.012c 0.439 ± 0.019b 0.54 ± 0.04c 0.45 ± 0.169c
4. Fungicide 2 (propiconazole) 0.773 ± 0.08d 0.478 ± 0.029b 0.38 ± 0.06b 0.56 ± 0.07d
5. Trichoderma asperellum 0.676 ± 0.136e 0.633 ± 0.03c 1.46 ± 0.13d 0.60 ± 0.04e
6. M-CuO NPs (25 ppm) 1.01 ± 0.03f 0.71 ± 0.035d 0.49 ± 0.047e 0.72 ± 0.04f
7. M-CuO NPs (50 ppm) 1.37 ± 0.08f 0.71 ± 0.166d 0.88 ± 0.081f 0.72 ± 0.03f
8. M-CuO NPs (100 ppm) 1.40 ± 0.175g 0.76 ± 0.069e 1.53 ± 0.024d 0.74 ± 0.02f
9. M-CuO NPs (150 ppm) 1.88 ± 0.014h 0.92 ± 0.044f 1.54 ± 0.07d 0.77 ± 0.07f
10. M-CuO NPs (200 ppm) 1.95 ± 0.038i 1.14 ± 0.026g 1.58 ± 0.102d 0.78 ± 0.14f
11. C-CuO NPs (25 ppm) 1.15 ± 0.338f 0.67 ± 0.009c 0.526 ± 0.054c 0.68 ± 0.004g
12. C-CuO NPs (50 ppm) 1.38 ± 0.286f 0.68 ± 0.004c 0.633 ± 0.08a 0.77 ± 0.012h
13. C-CuO NPs (100 ppm) 1.59 ± 0.08g 0.76 ± 0.012e 1.61 ± 0.05d 0.92 ± 0.04i
14. C-CuO NPs (150 ppm) 1.72 ± 0.054h 0.76 ± 0.008e 1.65 ± 0.007d 0.88 ± 0.09j
15. C-CuO NPs (200 ppm) 1.84 ± 0.047h 0.83 ± 0.024f 1.71 ± 0.004e 0.76 ± 0.16f
16. BP-CuO (25 ppm) 0.653 ± 0.038e 0.65 ± 0.042c 0.70 ± 0.040f 0.65 ± 0.03g
17. BP-CuO (50 ppm) 0.67 ± 0.081e 0.68 ± 0.054c 0.51 ± 0.049c 0.73 ± 0.03h
18. BP-CuO (100 ppm) 0.74 ± 0.352d 0.74 ± 0.021e 0.54 ± 0.098c 0.71 ± 0.08h
19. BP-CuO (150 ppm) 1.52 ± 0.122f 0.93 ± 0.422f 1.39 ± 0.04d 0.85 ± 0.05j
20. BP-CuO (200 ppm) 1.60 ± 0.116f 0.55 ± 0.159c 1.50 ± 0.04d 0.80 ± 0.05j

  1. Different superscript letters indicate statistically significant results among control and experimental groups.

Furthermore, the fungicides mancozeb and propiconazole in protective and curative modes have no significant effect on the seed yield as compared to control plants (0.72 g/plant). However, the mancozeb at 500 ppm resulted in a seed yield of around 0.86 and 0.77 g/plant for plants grown in alluvial soil. Likewise, in calcareous soil, a significant reduction in seed yield was observed, which was around 0.439 and 0.53 g/plant in mancozeb-exposed plants through both modes, respectively. Thus, it could be concluded that in calcareous soil, the mancozeb treatment leads to stress through both modes.

Moreover, the plants treated with propiconazole have no significant increase in seed yield as compared to control plants. Likewise, in calcareous soil, a decline in seed yield with 0.478 and 0.563 g/plant through both modes was obtained as compared to control plants (0.67 g/plant). On the contrary, with the filtrate of T. asperellum, in calcareous soil, nearly equal results were 0.63 and 0.60 g/plants obtained as compared to the control (0.63 g/plant). While in alluvial soil, a one-fold decrease (0.67 and 0.61 g/plant) as compared to control plants (0.72 g/plant) was obtained. Thus, the analysis of all treatments suggested that mycogenic NPs doubled the seed yield, which outcompeted the rest of the treatments.

3.5 Defense enzyme estimation in Brassica plants

ROS are the major factors responsible for tissue deterioration during abiotic stress and biotic stress. These are known to disintegrate nucleic acids and alter protein structures, which ultimately cause mutation in gene and delay the process of cell division, thereby affecting the plant growth. Tian et al. [34] reported that higher accumulation of ROS can lead to cell death, which can be either necrotic or programmed. In the present study, the production and accumulation of O2− in control and treated mustard plants were recorded by spectrophotometry (Figure 6 and Table 4). The probable reasons for O2− accumulations are the oxidative burst and reduced efficiency of antioxidant enzymes occurred during NP exposure. In our study, it has been found that M-CuO NP exposure and C-CuO NPs at higher doses (150 and 200 ppm) lead to the accumulation of O2 radicals; results are comparable with the study of Roy et al. [35] who have reported the comparative impact of bulk phase CuO and nanoforms of CuO in maize seedlings, separately which showed more pronounced and higher SOD and CAT activities in BP-CuO-exposed maize seedlings [35]. The mustard leaves challenged with BP-CuO has shown poor performance of bulk particles which could be explained by high tissue Cu accumulation, comparatively higher membrane injury, marked decline in carotenoids level and higher Cu ions dissolution.

Figure 6 Superoxide dismutase enzyme estimation in Brassica plants.
Figure 6

Superoxide dismutase enzyme estimation in Brassica plants.

Table 4

Antioxidant enzyme analysis (superoxide dismutase) in Brassica plants

Superoxide dismutase activity of mustard plants treated with CuO NPs (mol·min−1)
Alluvial soil calcareous soil
S. no. Treatments Protective Curative Protective Curative
1. Negative control 21.1 ± 0.47a 20.7 ± 0.12a 22.9 ± 0.46a 24.7 ± 0.52a
2. Positive control 30.3 ± 0.12b 31.7 ± 0.33b 33.2 ± 0.12b 35.5 ± 0.81b
3. Fungicide 1 (mancozeb) 31.3 ± 0.12b 21.6 ± 0.12c 34.3 ± 0.14c 24.7 ± 0.43c
4. Fungicide 2 (propiconazole) 29.3 ± 0.36c 22.6 ± 0.57d 26.1 ± 0.40d 26.2 ± 1.13d
5. Trichoderma asperellum 18.7 ± 0.16d 18.5 ± 0.12e 21.4 ± 0.08e 23.9 ± 1.43e
6. M-CuO NPs (25 ppm) 31.3 ± 0.09b 30.5 ± 0.08f 37.1 ± 0.49f 36.9 ± 1.73f
7. M-CuO NPs (50 ppm) 35.0 ± 0.44e 30.2 ± 0.16f 37.4 ± 1.29f 37.3 ± 0.97g
8. M-CuO NPs (100 ppm) 32.9 ± 0.601b 31.4 ± 0.14g 39.3 ± 0.46g 35.3 ± 0.49f
9. M-CuO NPs (150 ppm) 37.5 ± 0.244f 32.2 ± 0.14h 45.5 ± 0.21h 35.3 ± 2.19f
10. M-CuO NPs (200 ppm) 38.4 ± 1.06g 33.2 ± 0.12i 49.1 ± 0.43i 37.0 ± 0.33g
11. C-CuO NPs (25 ppm) 28.9 ± 0.124c 22.2 ± 0.71j 32.4 ± 0.09b 29.8 ± 0.08d
12. C-CuO NPs (50 ppm) 29.2 ± 0.44c 23.8 ± 1.13k 34.5 ± 0.12c 33.6 ± 0.75f
13. C-CuO NPs (100 ppm) 30.7 ± 0.08c 23.9 ± 0.40l 35.4 ± 0.16c 34.1 ± 2.46f
14. C-CuO NPs (150 ppm) 33.2 ± 0.89b 24.8 ± 0.32m 37.8 ± 0.04f 34.7 ± 1.72f
15. C-CuO NPs (200 ppm) 32.5 ± 0.41b 25.4 ± 0.47n 42.6 ± 0.98h 35.7 ± 1.35f
16. BP-CuO (25 ppm) 27.9 ± 0.08c 20.2 ± 2.02o 20.7 ± 0.04a 20.8 ± 0.40h
17. BP-CuO (50 ppm) 28.2 ± 0.12c 21.9 ± 0.46p 22.3 ± 0.20a 23.7 ± 0.99c
18. BP-CuO (100 ppm) 29.4 ± 0.41c 23.0 ± 2.1q 24.4 ± 0.12b 25.9 ± 0.57d
19. BP-CuO (150 ppm) 29.8 ± 0.08c 24.0 ± 1.00r 28.5 ± 0.08d 26.5 ± 0.08d
20. BP-CuO (200 ppm) 29.6 ± 0.08c 26.2 ± 1.72s 30.2 ± 0.12d 27.4 ± 1.00d

  1. Different superscript letters indicate statistically significant results among control and experimental groups.

Interestingly, in our study, we found that, in protective and curative treatments, plants exposed to M-CuO NPs leads to a lower level of O2 accumulation, as compared to control plants, which ultimately results in antioxidant enzymes’ downregulation, and proved to be an efficient non-toxic molecule for plant system (Figure 6 and Table 5). Also, C-CuO NPs’ exposure and BP-CuO at higher doses (150 and 200 ppm) lead to the accumulation of O2 radicals. It has been suggested that O2− gets converted into H2O2 and O2 by the enzyme SOD. Moreover, it has been found that a significantly higher percentage of SOD activity was recorded in protective treatment for mustard plants grown in calcareous soil, which could be due to the synergistic effect of biotic stress and abiotic stress; the plants grown in calcareous soil and exposed to two foliar applications of CuO resulted in more O2− accumulation. Similarly, CAT activity was increased in BP-CuO plants and C-CuO, and the traditional fungicides when acted as a protectant also lead to the accumulation of H2O2, which may be the result of enhanced SOD activity in the same plant groups with protective treatment and plants grown in calcareous soil (Figure 7). Thus, the alterations found in both treatments in both soils concluded that M-CuO NPs worked more proficiently in both soils with both treatments. However, the study needs to be explored more for mustard plants grown in calcareous soil.

Table 5

Stress enzyme analysis (catalase) in mustard plants treated with CuO NPs

Catalase activity of mustard plants treated with CuO NPs (mol·min−1)
Alluvial soil calcareous soil
S. no. Treatments Protective Curative Protective Curative
1. Negative control 23.6 ± 0.08a 25.6 ± 0.81a 23.3 ± 0.169a 26.0 ± 0.53a
2. Positive control 34.3 ± 0.16b 35.2 ± 1.66b 32.5 ± 0.08b 37 ± 0.99b
3. Fungicide 1 (mancozeb) 34.4 ± 0.12b 24.7 ± 1.86c 34.6 ± 0.09c 27.3 ± 1.16c
4. Fungicide 2 (propiconazole) 38.3 ± 1.10c 24.2 ± 0.98d 36.5 ± 0.16d 27.7 ± 0.78c
5. Trichoderma asperellum 17.9 ± 0.08d 23.8 ± 0.47e 21.7 ± 0.49a 24.5 ± 1.51d
6. M-CuO NPs (25 ppm) 25.3 ± 0.47e 31.8 ± 0.80f 37 ± 0.35d 35.6 ± 1.51e
7. M-CuO NPs (50 ppm) 25.7 ± 0.21e 32.1 ± 0.42f 38.4 ± 0.24d 36.4 ± 0.56f
8. M-CuO NPs (100 ppm) 31.6 ± 0.16f 33.8 ± 1.01f 39.5 ± 0.43d 37.7 ± 0.12f
9. M-CuO NPs (150 ppm) 31.5 ± 0.20f 33.7 ± 0.08f 40.8 ± 0.08d 39.7 ± 0.124f
10. M-CuO NPs (200 ppm) 36.6 ± 0.08g 33.7 ± 0.04f 48.5 ± 0.98e 39.8 ± 0.08f
11. C-CuO NPs (25 ppm) 21.8 ± 0.88h 27.7 ± 0.78g 32.6 ± 0.12b 25.7 ± 0.29a
12. C-CuO NPs (50 ppm) 24.8 ± 0.57e 26.7 ± 0.04g 34.6 ± 0.09b 27.6 ± 0.09c
13. C-CuO NPs (100 ppm) 25.8 ± 1.23e 27.0 ± 0.57g 35.4 ± 0.12c 24.0 ± 0.38a
14. C-CuO NPs (150 ppm) 29.7 ± 0.21f 27.7 ± 0.81g 37.7 ± 0.21d 27.0 ± 1.37c
15. C-CuO NPs (200 ppm) 38.2 ± 1.62g 28.0 ± 0.91g 41.7 ± 0.33d 28.4 ± 0.47c
16. BP-CuO (25 ppm) 21.3 ± 2.1a 23.6 ± 0.08c 20.7 ± 0.12a 24.6 ± 0.82d
17. BP-CuO (50 ppm) 19.7 ± 0.12i 23.6 ± 0.01c 22.6 ± 0.24a 25.9 ± 1.21a
18. BP-CuO (100 ppm) 19.6 ± 0.12i 24.2 ± 0.94c 24.7 ± 0.08a 26.6 ± 0.69a
19. BP-CuO (150 ppm) 19.4 ± 0.35i 25.5 ± 0.81d 28.3 ± 0.37a 27.3 ± 0.46a
20. BP-CuO (200 ppm) 19.5 ± 0.12i 27.5 ± 0.08d 30.3 ± 0.12b 27.3 ± 0.87a

  1. Different superscript letters indicate statistically significant results among control and experimental groups.

Figure 7 CAT activity in Brassica plants exposed to CuO NPs.
Figure 7

CAT activity in Brassica plants exposed to CuO NPs.

Our finding with M-CuO NPs shows a positive response at higher concentrations, when applied on foliage, enhanced almost all the growth, biochemical, and physiological parameters. A simplified view of the foliar application of CuO NPs in B. juncea has been shown in Figure 8, where we can see how NPs enter into plant cells and affect different growth and physiological parameters in plants. Based on all the effects observed in the study, NPs promotes disease suppression at higher concentration. Therefore, the release of antifungal compounds is responsible for the inhibition of Alternaria blight pathogens.

Figure 8 Impact of CuO NPs on disease suppression and biochemical parameters.
Figure 8

Impact of CuO NPs on disease suppression and biochemical parameters.

Plants adapted to two defense systems, one is enzymatic that involves the activation of superoxide dismutase and catalase. This result can be applied in the field to see their further outcome on a large scale before making any recommendation to farmers. CuO NPs then can be utilized as micronutrients to enhance the production of mustard and their growth, which ultimately results in higher yields. Also, biochemical parameters like an increase in photosynthetic pigment and antioxidant enzyme activity upregulation were found in Brassica plants.

4 Conclusion and future perspectives

The current investigation reveals that the phytopathogenic fungi Alternaria brassicae negatively affected the plant growth, biomass, and productivity of mustard plants. The maximum disease severity index was 42–65% in positive control plants, whereas plants supplied with mycogenic copper compounds scored with disease suppression by more than 50%. Also, the plant growth characteristics, with enhanced productivity, were obtained having more than 30% increase. The study also revealed that among six treatments tested in a field, M-CuO NPs performed significantly better even from 50 ppm concentration in nutrient-rich and nutrient-deficient soil. As compared with standard chemical fungicides, M-CuO NPs because of their lower particle size and prolonged release of Cu ions resulted in better fertilizing and fungicidal activity.

Also, exogenous supplementation of M-CuO NPs on mustard plants mitigated the detrimental effects by improving the growth characteristics and total chlorophyll content. However, if the plants were exposed with protective applications of C-CuO NPs and BP-CuO leads to the activation of antioxidant enzymes like SOD and CAT, thus indicating the comparatively higher accumulation of ROS but low levels of antioxidant enzymes in M-CuO NPs exposed plants. Therefore, a lesser accumulation of ROS leads to the selection of M-CuO NPs in the field.

The experimental outcomes are based on the controlled condition established through field and pot experiments. Therefore, the Brassica plant life cycle monitored with nano-formulations accurately mimics the impacts of CuO NPs as fungicides and fertilizers on plants and their parts to generate environmentally relevant applications. Nanofungicides denote the next generation of traditional fungicides, as well as they will offer more advances such as high efficacy, durability, and less doses of effective ingredients. Preparation of nanofungicides can be done in a simple cost-effective manner, which is found to be appropriate for formulating recent types of biohybrid nanocide constituents and, hence, would be proved as novel environment responsive antimicrobial against diverse fungal pathogens of plants.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Dr. Lakshman Prasad and Dr. Ajit Varma who have provided all lab and field experiments facilities.

  1. Funding information: The authors state that no funding is involved.

  2. Author contributions: Swati Gaba: writing – original draft, methodology, data analysis; Ashutosh Kumar Rai, and Ajit Varma: review and editing, data analysis, visualization; Lakshman Prasad, Arti Goel, and Ram Prasad: writing – review and editing, project administration, resources. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

  3. Conflict of interest: The first corresponding author (Ram Prasad) is a member of the Editorial Board of Green Processing and Synthesis.

  4. Data availability statement: All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files.

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Received: 2023-01-28
Revised: 2023-05-01
Accepted: 2023-05-08
Published Online: 2023-06-28

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  46. Catalysts based on nickel salt heteropolytungstates for selective oxidation of diphenyl sulfide
  47. Powerful antibacterial nanocomposites from Corallina officinalis-mediated nanometals and chitosan nanoparticles against fish-borne pathogens
  48. Removal behavior of Zn and alkalis from blast furnace dust in pre-reduction sinter process
  49. Environmentally friendly synthesis and computational studies of novel class of acridinedione integrated spirothiopyrrolizidines/indolizidines
  50. The mechanisms of inhibition and lubrication of clean fracturing flowback fluids in water-based drilling fluids
  51. Adsorption/desorption performance of cellulose membrane for Pb(ii)
  52. A one-pot, multicomponent tandem synthesis of fused polycyclic pyrrolo[3,2-c]quinolinone/pyrrolizino[2,3-c]quinolinone hybrid heterocycles via environmentally benign solid state melt reaction
  53. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using durian rind extract and optical characteristics of surface plasmon resonance-based optical sensor for the detection of hydrogen peroxide
  54. Electrochemical analysis of copper-EDTA-ammonia-gold thiosulfate dissolution system
  55. Characterization of bio-oil production by microwave pyrolysis from cashew nut shells and Cassia fistula pods
  56. Green synthesis methods and characterization of bacterial cellulose/silver nanoparticle composites
  57. Photocatalytic research performance of zinc oxide/graphite phase carbon nitride catalyst and its application in environment
  58. Effect of phytogenic iron nanoparticles on the bio-fortification of wheat varieties
  59. In vitro anti-cancer and antimicrobial effects of manganese oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the Glycyrrhiza uralensis leaf extract on breast cancer cell lines
  60. Preparation of Pd/Ce(F)-MCM-48 catalysts and their catalytic performance of n-heptane isomerization
  61. Green “one-pot” fluorescent bis-indolizine synthesis with whole-cell plant biocatalysis
  62. Silica-titania mesoporous silicas of MCM-41 type as effective catalysts and photocatalysts for selective oxidation of diphenyl sulfide by H2O2
  63. Biosynthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles from molted feathers of Pavo cristatus and their antibiofilm and anticancer activities
  64. Clean preparation of rutile from Ti-containing mixed molten slag by CO2 oxidation
  65. Synthesis and characterization of Pluronic F-127-coated titanium dioxide nanoparticles synthesized from extracts of Atractylodes macrocephala leaf for antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties
  66. Effect of pretreatment with alkali on the anaerobic digestion characteristics of kitchen waste and analysis of microbial diversity
  67. Ameliorated antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer properties by Plectranthus vettiveroides root extract-mediated green synthesis of chitosan nanoparticles
  68. Microwave-accelerated pretreatment technique in green extraction of oil and bioactive compounds from camelina seeds: Effectiveness and characterization
  69. Studies on the extraction performance of phorate by aptamer-functionalized magnetic nanoparticles in plasma samples
  70. Investigation of structural properties and antibacterial activity of AgO nanoparticle extract from Solanum nigrum/Mentha leaf extracts by green synthesis method
  71. Green fabrication of chitosan from marine crustaceans and mushroom waste: Toward sustainable resource utilization
  72. Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
  73. The enhanced adsorption properties of phosphorus from aqueous solutions using lanthanum modified synthetic zeolites
  74. Separation of graphene oxides of different sizes by multi-layer dialysis and anti-friction and lubrication performance
  75. Visible-light-assisted base-catalyzed, one-pot synthesis of highly functionalized cinnolines
  76. The experimental study on the air oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid with Co–Mn–Br system
  77. Highly efficient removal of tetracycline and methyl violet 2B from aqueous solution using the bimetallic FeZn-ZIFs catalyst
  78. A thermo-tolerant cellulase enzyme produced by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens M7, an insight into synthesis, optimization, characterization, and bio-polishing activity
  79. Exploration of ketone derivatives of succinimide for their antidiabetic potential: In vitro and in vivo approaches
  80. Ultrasound-assisted green synthesis and in silico study of 6-(4-(butylamino)-6-(diethylamino)-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)oxypyridazine derivatives
  81. A study of the anticancer potential of Pluronic F-127 encapsulated Fe2O3 nanoparticles derived from Berberis vulgaris extract
  82. Biogenic synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Consolida orientalis flowers: Identification, catalytic degradation, and biological effect
  83. Initial assessment of the presence of plastic waste in some coastal mangrove forests in Vietnam
  84. Adsorption synergy electrocatalytic degradation of phenol by active oxygen-containing species generated in Co-coal based cathode and graphite anode
  85. Antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, and cytotoxicity activities of the aqueous extract of Syzygium aromaticum-mediated synthesized novel silver nanoparticles
  86. Synthesis of a silica matrix with ZnO nanoparticles for the fabrication of a recyclable photodegradation system to eliminate methylene blue dye
  87. Natural polymer fillers instead of dye and pigments: Pumice and scoria in PDMS fluid and elastomer composites
  88. Study on the preparation of glycerylphosphorylcholine by transesterification under supported sodium methoxide
  89. Wireless network handheld terminal-based green ecological sustainable design evaluation system: Improved data communication and reduced packet loss rate
  90. The optimization of hydrogel strength from cassava starch using oxidized sucrose as a crosslinking agent
  91. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Saccharum officinarum leaf extract for antiviral paint
  92. Study on the reliability of nano-silver-coated tin solder joints for flip chips
  93. Environmentally sustainable analytical quality by design aided RP-HPLC method for the estimation of brilliant blue in commercial food samples employing a green-ultrasound-assisted extraction technique
  94. Anticancer and antimicrobial potential of zinc/sodium alginate/polyethylene glycol/d-pinitol nanocomposites against osteosarcoma MG-63 cells
  95. Nanoporous carbon@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite as a green absorbent for the adsorptive removal of Hg(ii) from aqueous solutions
  96. Characterization of silver sulfide nanoparticles from actinobacterial strain (M10A62) and its toxicity against lepidopteran and dipterans insect species
  97. Phyto-fabrication and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Withania somnifera: Investigating antioxidant potential
  98. Effect of e-waste nanofillers on the mechanical, thermal, and wear properties of epoxy-blend sisal woven fiber-reinforced composites
  99. Magnesium nanohydroxide (2D brucite) as a host matrix for thymol and carvacrol: Synthesis, characterization, and inhibition of foodborne pathogens
  100. Synergistic inhibitive effect of a hybrid zinc oxide-benzalkonium chloride composite on the corrosion of carbon steel in a sulfuric acidic solution
  101. Review Articles
  102. Role and the importance of green approach in biosynthesis of nanopropolis and effectiveness of propolis in the treatment of COVID-19 pandemic
  103. Gum tragacanth-mediated synthesis of metal nanoparticles, characterization, and their applications as a bactericide, catalyst, antioxidant, and peroxidase mimic
  104. Green-processed nano-biocomposite (ZnO–TiO2): Potential candidates for biomedical applications
  105. Reaction mechanisms in microwave-assisted lignin depolymerisation in hydrogen-donating solvents
  106. Recent progress on non-noble metal catalysts for the deoxydehydration of biomass-derived oxygenates
  107. Rapid Communication
  108. Phosphorus removal by iron–carbon microelectrolysis: A new way to achieve phosphorus recovery
  109. Special Issue: Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications (Guest Editors: Arpita Roy and Fernanda Maria Policarpo Tonelli)
  110. Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications
  111. Nano-encapsulated tanshinone IIA in PLGA-PEG-COOH inhibits apoptosis and inflammation in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury
  112. Green fabrication of silver nanoparticles using Melia azedarach ripened fruit extract, their characterization, and biological properties
  113. Green-synthesized nanoparticles and their therapeutic applications: A review
  114. Antioxidant, antibacterial, and cytotoxicity potential of synthesized silver nanoparticles from the Cassia alata leaf aqueous extract
  115. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Callisia fragrans leaf extract and its anticancer activity against MCF-7, HepG2, KB, LU-1, and MKN-7 cell lines
  116. Algae-based green AgNPs, AuNPs, and FeNPs as potential nanoremediators
  117. Green synthesis of Kickxia elatine-induced silver nanoparticles and their role as anti-acetylcholinesterase in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease
  118. Phytocrystallization of silver nanoparticles using Cassia alata flower extract for effective control of fungal skin pathogens
  119. Antibacterial wound dressing with hydrogel from chitosan and polyvinyl alcohol from the red cabbage extract loaded with silver nanoparticles
  120. Leveraging of mycogenic copper oxide nanostructures for disease management of Alternaria blight of Brassica juncea
  121. Nanoscale molecular reactions in microbiological medicines in modern medical applications
  122. Synthesis and characterization of ZnO/β-cyclodextrin/nicotinic acid nanocomposite and its biological and environmental application
  123. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles via Taxus wallichiana Zucc. plant-derived Taxol: Novel utilization as anticancer, antioxidation, anti-inflammation, and antiurolithic potential
  124. Recyclability and catalytic characteristics of copper oxide nanoparticles derived from bougainvillea plant flower extract for biomedical application
  125. Phytofabrication, characterization, and evaluation of novel bioinspired selenium–iron (Se–Fe) nanocomposites using Allium sativum extract for bio-potential applications
  126. Erratum
  127. Erratum to “Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)”
https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2023-0015
Keywords for this article
foliar spray; protective; curative; defense enzyme; plant growth promoter
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Value-added utilization of coal fly ash and recycled polyvinyl chloride in door or window sub-frame composites
  3. High removal efficiency of volatile phenol from coking wastewater using coal gasification slag via optimized adsorption and multi-grade batch process
  4. Evolution of surface morphology and properties of diamond films by hydrogen plasma etching
  5. Removal efficiency of dibenzofuran using CuZn-zeolitic imidazole frameworks as a catalyst and adsorbent
  6. Rapid and efficient microwave-assisted extraction of Caesalpinia sappan Linn. heartwood and subsequent synthesis of gold nanoparticles
  7. The catalytic characteristics of 2-methylnaphthalene acylation with AlCl3 immobilized on Hβ as Lewis acid catalyst
  8. Biodegradation of synthetic PVP biofilms using natural materials and nanoparticles
  9. Rutin-loaded selenium nanoparticles modulated the redox status, inflammatory, and apoptotic pathways associated with pentylenetetrazole-induced epilepsy in mice
  10. Optimization of apigenin nanoparticles prepared by planetary ball milling: In vitro and in vivo studies
  11. Synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Origanum onites leaves: Cytotoxic, apoptotic, and necrotic effects on Capan-1, L929, and Caco-2 cell lines
  12. Exergy analysis of a conceptual CO2 capture process with an amine-based DES
  13. Construction of fluorescence system of felodipine–tetracyanovinyl–2,2′-bipyridine complex
  14. Excellent photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B over Bi2O3 supported on Zn-MOF nanocomposites under visible light
  15. Optimization-based control strategy for a large-scale polyhydroxyalkanoates production in a fed-batch bioreactor using a coupled PDE–ODE system
  16. Effectiveness of pH and amount of Artemia urumiana extract on physical, chemical, and biological attributes of UV-fabricated biogold nanoparticles
  17. Geranium leaf-mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their transcriptomic effects on Candida albicans
  18. Synthesis, characterization, anticancer, anti-inflammatory activities, and docking studies of 3,5-disubstituted thiadiazine-2-thiones
  19. Synthesis and stability of phospholipid-encapsulated nano-selenium
  20. Putative anti-proliferative effect of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) seed and its nano-formulation
  21. Enrichment of low-grade phosphorites by the selective leaching method
  22. Electrochemical analysis of the dissolution of gold in a copper–ethylenediamine–thiosulfate system
  23. Characterisation of carbonate lake sediments as a potential filler for polymer composites
  24. Evaluation of nano-selenium biofortification characteristics of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.)
  25. Quality of oil extracted by cold press from Nigella sativa seeds incorporated with rosemary extracts and pretreated by microwaves
  26. Heteropolyacid-loaded MOF-derived mesoporous zirconia catalyst for chemical degradation of rhodamine B
  27. Recovery of critical metals from carbonatite-type mineral wastes: Geochemical modeling investigation of (bio)hydrometallurgical leaching of REEs
  28. Photocatalytic properties of ZnFe-mixed oxides synthesized via a simple route for water remediation
  29. Attenuation of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate-induced hepatic and renal toxicity by naringin nanoparticles in a rat model
  30. Novel in situ synthesis of quaternary core–shell metallic sulfide nanocomposites for degradation of organic dyes and hydrogen production
  31. Microfluidic steam-based synthesis of luminescent carbon quantum dots as sensing probes for nitrite detection
  32. Transformation of eggshell waste to egg white protein solution, calcium chloride dihydrate, and eggshell membrane powder
  33. Preparation of Zr-MOFs for the adsorption of doxycycline hydrochloride from wastewater
  34. Green nanoarchitectonics of the silver nanocrystal potential for treating malaria and their cytotoxic effects on the kidney Vero cell line
  35. Carbon emissions analysis of producing modified asphalt with natural asphalt
  36. An efficient and green synthesis of 2-phenylquinazolin-4(3H)-ones via t-BuONa-mediated oxidative condensation of 2-aminobenzamides and benzyl alcohols under solvent- and transition metal-free conditions
  37. Chitosan nanoparticles loaded with mesosulfuron methyl and mesosulfuron methyl + florasulam + MCPA isooctyl to manage weeds of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
  38. Synergism between lignite and high-sulfur petroleum coke in CO2 gasification
  39. Facile aqueous synthesis of ZnCuInS/ZnS–ZnS QDs with enhanced photoluminescence lifetime for selective detection of Cu(ii) ions
  40. Rapid synthesis of copper nanoparticles using Nepeta cataria leaves: An eco-friendly management of disease-causing vectors and bacterial pathogens
  41. Study on the photoelectrocatalytic activity of reduced TiO2 nanotube films for removal of methyl orange
  42. Development of a fuzzy logic model for the prediction of spark-ignition engine performance and emission for gasoline–ethanol blends
  43. Micro-impact-induced mechano-chemical synthesis of organic precursors from FeC/FeN and carbonates/nitrates in water and its extension to nucleobases
  44. Green synthesis of strontium-doped tin dioxide (SrSnO2) nanoparticles using the Mahonia bealei leaf extract and evaluation of their anticancer and antimicrobial activities
  45. A study on the larvicidal and adulticidal potential of Cladostepus spongiosus macroalgae and green-fabricated silver nanoparticles against mosquito vectors
  46. Catalysts based on nickel salt heteropolytungstates for selective oxidation of diphenyl sulfide
  47. Powerful antibacterial nanocomposites from Corallina officinalis-mediated nanometals and chitosan nanoparticles against fish-borne pathogens
  48. Removal behavior of Zn and alkalis from blast furnace dust in pre-reduction sinter process
  49. Environmentally friendly synthesis and computational studies of novel class of acridinedione integrated spirothiopyrrolizidines/indolizidines
  50. The mechanisms of inhibition and lubrication of clean fracturing flowback fluids in water-based drilling fluids
  51. Adsorption/desorption performance of cellulose membrane for Pb(ii)
  52. A one-pot, multicomponent tandem synthesis of fused polycyclic pyrrolo[3,2-c]quinolinone/pyrrolizino[2,3-c]quinolinone hybrid heterocycles via environmentally benign solid state melt reaction
  53. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using durian rind extract and optical characteristics of surface plasmon resonance-based optical sensor for the detection of hydrogen peroxide
  54. Electrochemical analysis of copper-EDTA-ammonia-gold thiosulfate dissolution system
  55. Characterization of bio-oil production by microwave pyrolysis from cashew nut shells and Cassia fistula pods
  56. Green synthesis methods and characterization of bacterial cellulose/silver nanoparticle composites
  57. Photocatalytic research performance of zinc oxide/graphite phase carbon nitride catalyst and its application in environment
  58. Effect of phytogenic iron nanoparticles on the bio-fortification of wheat varieties
  59. In vitro anti-cancer and antimicrobial effects of manganese oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the Glycyrrhiza uralensis leaf extract on breast cancer cell lines
  60. Preparation of Pd/Ce(F)-MCM-48 catalysts and their catalytic performance of n-heptane isomerization
  61. Green “one-pot” fluorescent bis-indolizine synthesis with whole-cell plant biocatalysis
  62. Silica-titania mesoporous silicas of MCM-41 type as effective catalysts and photocatalysts for selective oxidation of diphenyl sulfide by H2O2
  63. Biosynthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles from molted feathers of Pavo cristatus and their antibiofilm and anticancer activities
  64. Clean preparation of rutile from Ti-containing mixed molten slag by CO2 oxidation
  65. Synthesis and characterization of Pluronic F-127-coated titanium dioxide nanoparticles synthesized from extracts of Atractylodes macrocephala leaf for antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties
  66. Effect of pretreatment with alkali on the anaerobic digestion characteristics of kitchen waste and analysis of microbial diversity
  67. Ameliorated antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer properties by Plectranthus vettiveroides root extract-mediated green synthesis of chitosan nanoparticles
  68. Microwave-accelerated pretreatment technique in green extraction of oil and bioactive compounds from camelina seeds: Effectiveness and characterization
  69. Studies on the extraction performance of phorate by aptamer-functionalized magnetic nanoparticles in plasma samples
  70. Investigation of structural properties and antibacterial activity of AgO nanoparticle extract from Solanum nigrum/Mentha leaf extracts by green synthesis method
  71. Green fabrication of chitosan from marine crustaceans and mushroom waste: Toward sustainable resource utilization
  72. Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
  73. The enhanced adsorption properties of phosphorus from aqueous solutions using lanthanum modified synthetic zeolites
  74. Separation of graphene oxides of different sizes by multi-layer dialysis and anti-friction and lubrication performance
  75. Visible-light-assisted base-catalyzed, one-pot synthesis of highly functionalized cinnolines
  76. The experimental study on the air oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid with Co–Mn–Br system
  77. Highly efficient removal of tetracycline and methyl violet 2B from aqueous solution using the bimetallic FeZn-ZIFs catalyst
  78. A thermo-tolerant cellulase enzyme produced by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens M7, an insight into synthesis, optimization, characterization, and bio-polishing activity
  79. Exploration of ketone derivatives of succinimide for their antidiabetic potential: In vitro and in vivo approaches
  80. Ultrasound-assisted green synthesis and in silico study of 6-(4-(butylamino)-6-(diethylamino)-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)oxypyridazine derivatives
  81. A study of the anticancer potential of Pluronic F-127 encapsulated Fe2O3 nanoparticles derived from Berberis vulgaris extract
  82. Biogenic synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Consolida orientalis flowers: Identification, catalytic degradation, and biological effect
  83. Initial assessment of the presence of plastic waste in some coastal mangrove forests in Vietnam
  84. Adsorption synergy electrocatalytic degradation of phenol by active oxygen-containing species generated in Co-coal based cathode and graphite anode
  85. Antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, and cytotoxicity activities of the aqueous extract of Syzygium aromaticum-mediated synthesized novel silver nanoparticles
  86. Synthesis of a silica matrix with ZnO nanoparticles for the fabrication of a recyclable photodegradation system to eliminate methylene blue dye
  87. Natural polymer fillers instead of dye and pigments: Pumice and scoria in PDMS fluid and elastomer composites
  88. Study on the preparation of glycerylphosphorylcholine by transesterification under supported sodium methoxide
  89. Wireless network handheld terminal-based green ecological sustainable design evaluation system: Improved data communication and reduced packet loss rate
  90. The optimization of hydrogel strength from cassava starch using oxidized sucrose as a crosslinking agent
  91. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Saccharum officinarum leaf extract for antiviral paint
  92. Study on the reliability of nano-silver-coated tin solder joints for flip chips
  93. Environmentally sustainable analytical quality by design aided RP-HPLC method for the estimation of brilliant blue in commercial food samples employing a green-ultrasound-assisted extraction technique
  94. Anticancer and antimicrobial potential of zinc/sodium alginate/polyethylene glycol/d-pinitol nanocomposites against osteosarcoma MG-63 cells
  95. Nanoporous carbon@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite as a green absorbent for the adsorptive removal of Hg(ii) from aqueous solutions
  96. Characterization of silver sulfide nanoparticles from actinobacterial strain (M10A62) and its toxicity against lepidopteran and dipterans insect species
  97. Phyto-fabrication and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Withania somnifera: Investigating antioxidant potential
  98. Effect of e-waste nanofillers on the mechanical, thermal, and wear properties of epoxy-blend sisal woven fiber-reinforced composites
  99. Magnesium nanohydroxide (2D brucite) as a host matrix for thymol and carvacrol: Synthesis, characterization, and inhibition of foodborne pathogens
  100. Synergistic inhibitive effect of a hybrid zinc oxide-benzalkonium chloride composite on the corrosion of carbon steel in a sulfuric acidic solution
  101. Review Articles
  102. Role and the importance of green approach in biosynthesis of nanopropolis and effectiveness of propolis in the treatment of COVID-19 pandemic
  103. Gum tragacanth-mediated synthesis of metal nanoparticles, characterization, and their applications as a bactericide, catalyst, antioxidant, and peroxidase mimic
  104. Green-processed nano-biocomposite (ZnO–TiO2): Potential candidates for biomedical applications
  105. Reaction mechanisms in microwave-assisted lignin depolymerisation in hydrogen-donating solvents
  106. Recent progress on non-noble metal catalysts for the deoxydehydration of biomass-derived oxygenates
  107. Rapid Communication
  108. Phosphorus removal by iron–carbon microelectrolysis: A new way to achieve phosphorus recovery
  109. Special Issue: Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications (Guest Editors: Arpita Roy and Fernanda Maria Policarpo Tonelli)
  110. Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications
  111. Nano-encapsulated tanshinone IIA in PLGA-PEG-COOH inhibits apoptosis and inflammation in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury
  112. Green fabrication of silver nanoparticles using Melia azedarach ripened fruit extract, their characterization, and biological properties
  113. Green-synthesized nanoparticles and their therapeutic applications: A review
  114. Antioxidant, antibacterial, and cytotoxicity potential of synthesized silver nanoparticles from the Cassia alata leaf aqueous extract
  115. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Callisia fragrans leaf extract and its anticancer activity against MCF-7, HepG2, KB, LU-1, and MKN-7 cell lines
  116. Algae-based green AgNPs, AuNPs, and FeNPs as potential nanoremediators
  117. Green synthesis of Kickxia elatine-induced silver nanoparticles and their role as anti-acetylcholinesterase in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease
  118. Phytocrystallization of silver nanoparticles using Cassia alata flower extract for effective control of fungal skin pathogens
  119. Antibacterial wound dressing with hydrogel from chitosan and polyvinyl alcohol from the red cabbage extract loaded with silver nanoparticles
  120. Leveraging of mycogenic copper oxide nanostructures for disease management of Alternaria blight of Brassica juncea
  121. Nanoscale molecular reactions in microbiological medicines in modern medical applications
  122. Synthesis and characterization of ZnO/β-cyclodextrin/nicotinic acid nanocomposite and its biological and environmental application
  123. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles via Taxus wallichiana Zucc. plant-derived Taxol: Novel utilization as anticancer, antioxidation, anti-inflammation, and antiurolithic potential
  124. Recyclability and catalytic characteristics of copper oxide nanoparticles derived from bougainvillea plant flower extract for biomedical application
  125. Phytofabrication, characterization, and evaluation of novel bioinspired selenium–iron (Se–Fe) nanocomposites using Allium sativum extract for bio-potential applications
  126. Erratum
  127. Erratum to “Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)”
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