Home Nanoporous carbon@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite as a green absorbent for the adsorptive removal of Hg(ii) from aqueous solutions
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Nanoporous carbon@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite as a green absorbent for the adsorptive removal of Hg(ii) from aqueous solutions

  • Lawal Abubakar , Nor Azah Yusof EMAIL logo , Abdul Halim Abdullah , Mohd Hanif Wahid , Siti Fatimah Abd Rahman , Faruq Mohammad EMAIL logo , Hamad A. Al-Lohedan and Ahmed A. Soleiman
Published/Copyright: December 29, 2023
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Green Processing and Synthesis
From the journal Green Processing and Synthesis Volume 12 Issue 1

Abstract

To address the harmful pollutants found in heavy metals and agricultural waste, researchers have worked on creating various materials that can capture these pollutants. They have experimented with altering the shape, size, structure, surface properties, and bioactive components of these materials. This study aims to improve the effectiveness of materials used for adsorption, focusing on the combination of cobalt spinal ferrite (CoFe2O4) and nanoporous carbon (NC) obtained from discarded palm kernel shells with the aim of Hg(ii) removal. The composite formed by the hydrothermal method was characterized thoroughly with morphological, structural, functional, pore sizes, thermal analysis, and magnetization analysis. Adsorption experiments were conducted under optimal conditions with a mass of 0.3 g, a concentration of 30 mg·L−1 of Hg(ii), and a pH of 3. The aim was to adsorb Hg(ii) ions from aqueous solutions. The analysis of kinetic studies using the Freundlich model revealed that it provided the most accurate fit for the adsorption isotherm. This model indicated a maximum Hg(ii) adsorption efficiency of 232.56 mg·g−1. Additionally, the thermodynamic measurements indicate that the adsorption is a spontaneous, favorable, and endothermic process. Likewise, we assessed how well the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite could absorb Hg(ii) ions in actual condensate samples from the oil and gas industry. The results demonstrated a 93% recovery rate for Hg(ii) ions in wastewater. According to the findings, the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite synthesized appears to be a strong contender for wastewater treatment and, at the same time, the prepared nanocomposite’s effectiveness, affordability, and non-toxic nature support the potential applications.

Keywords: nanoporous carbon; CoFe2O3 ; magnetite nanoparticles; Hg(ii) adsorption; thermodynamics; wastewater treatment

1 Introduction

The recent increase in industrialization has rapidly polluted the soil, water, and environment and therefore the United Nations (UN) sustainable development has set the goal of clean water and sanitation by 2030. This includes cleanliness and sanitation, wastewater treatment, water quality, water scarcity, unified water resources administration, and preserving and reinstating aquatic ecosystems [1]. Rapid urbanization and industrialization, especially in developing nations, pose a significant threat to the environment and human health due to heavy metal pollution. This is particularly concerning as polluted water bodies, which are a primary source of drinking water for many people, are heavily affected [2,3,4]. Metals like mercury, lead, zinc, arsenic, nickel, manganese, copper, cadmium, and chromium can cause cancer and are harmful substances [5,6]. They are emitted into the environment, particularly bodies of water, by various substances, including dyes, fertilizers, pesticides, and industrial products, contributing to water pollution, originating from both natural and human-made sources.

Mercury, specifically in its ionized form (Hg), is now recognized as a significant environmental threat to public health due to its extreme toxicity, both in immediate and prolonged exposure. Its ability to move through ecosystems poses a serious risk to the central nervous system, kidneys, lungs, and reproductive system. Thus, its debris could be found in the human body due to gastrointestinal absorption, skin contact, or pulmonary inhalation [7,8,9]. Hg(ii) exposure can occur from natural and artificial sources and is released into bodies of water when no additional treatment is subjected to the polluted water [10,11]. However, combating pollution at its source and treating wastewater protects the public health environment, reduces the cost of pollution, and improves the water resource availability, in addition to recovering vital nutrients and water resources, as there is a need for modern techniques to overcome the risk of untreated wastewater containing Hg(ii) [12]. Due to fast urban growth and increased industrial activity, the environment faces a serious problem from harmful substances like metals that are heavy and colored dyes. This is a major worry in poorer nations, where dirty water sources play a big role in providing drinking water to the population. For example, Nodehi and colleagues developed F3O4@NiO core–shell magnetic nanoparticles (NPs) to effectively eliminate alizarin red S dye from polluted wastewater [13], Congo red [14], anionic methyl orange [15], and cationic dyes [16]. However, NiFe2O4 and NiFe2O4/HNTs/GQD magnetic NPs were found to be effective for removing Cd(ii) from water as a unique adsorbent [17,18].

To date, different kinds of materials have been applied as adsorbents, including polymers, nanocomposites, activated carbons, clays, graphene materials, and metal oxides like Al2O3, TiO2, and SiO2 [19]. Recently, magnetite NPs have sparked a lot of interest due to their unique physico-chemical properties, particularly strong magnetic quality, unique electrical characteristics, a spacious surface, and are very effective at absorbing substances. Due to their magnetic properties, magnetite NPs can be effortlessly extracted from water using a magnet. Additionally, the surface can be readily modified with different composite materials [20,21,22]. The magnetite NP materials are especially motivating for use in separating and removing mercury(ii) due to their inspiring properties [23,24]. As shown in Table 1, many researchers used different magnetite NPs for Hg(ii) removal and selectivity.

Table 1

Magnetite NPs for Hg(ii) adsorption/removal

Magnetite NPs Adsorption/removal Temperature (°C) Reference
γ-Fe2O3 140 mg·g−1 30 [25]
Polyrhodanine-coated γ-Fe2O3 179 mg·g−1 30 [25]
Fe3O4@SiO2 98% [26]
MPTS-CNTs/Fe3O4 65.52 mg·g−1 25 [27]
Fe2O3–Al2O3 63.69 mg·g−1 [28]
Fe3O4–GS 23.03 mg·g−1 [29]
Water-soluble Fe3O4 99% 25 [30]
Fe3O4@C 83.1 mg·g−1 [31]
EDTA–Fe3O4 203 mg·g−1 25 [32]
Fe3O4@SiO2-SH 132 mg·g−1 25 [33]
NanoFe3O4@Nano-SiO2 100 µmol·g−1 [34]
Fe3O4/poly(C3N3S3) 344.8 mg·g−1 25 [35]
rGO–PDTC/Fe3O4 181.82 mg·g−1 25 [36]
rGO–poly(C3N3S3)/Fe3O4 400 mg·g−1 25 [37]
CNTs–SH@Fe3O4 172.4 mg·g−1 25 [38]
Ggh–g-PAcM/Fe3O4 213.8 mg·g−1 30 [39]
Fe2O3@SiO2@SH 98% [40]
Pec–g-PHEAA/Fe3O4 240.2 mg·g−1 [41]

Cobalt spinel ferrites, also known as CoFe2O4, have gained significant attention from researchers due to their remarkable properties, including strong directionality in magnetism, high resistance to demagnetization, decent magnetic strength, and reliable stability under elevated temperatures. These attributes make them useful in a wide range of technological applications, including sensors, data storage devices, magnetic cards, solar panels, drug delivery systems, medical equipment, catalytic processes, and biotechnology [42,43,44]. Changing the coating can make CoFe2O4 particles disperse better and remain stable in water. However, to enhance the ability of CoFe2O4 to adsorb Hg(ii), surface chemical modifications through grafting need to be carried out. Additionally, further embellishments are required to improve the overall performance of CoFe2O4 in capturing Hg(ii) ions [45]. The interaction between cobalt spinel ferrites and mercury (Hg) adsorption is influenced by both surface interactions and magnetic properties, i.e., Hg(ii) adsorption onto cobalt spinel ferrites involves chemical bonding, surface interactions, and potential ion exchange, all influenced by the properties of the ferrite and the solution.

Research in this area continues to explore the optimization of cobalt spinal ferrites for effective and efficient Hg(ii) removal from various aqueous systems, particularly in the context of water purification and environmental remediation. Therefore, many researchers used a grafting modification to enhance the Hg(ii) adsorption efficiency. For example, Zhang et al. synthesized CoFe2O4–rGO for Hg(ii) removal in wastewater and their sorption efficiency was 157.9 mg·g−1 [46]. Wang et al. prepared CoFe2O4@ SiO2 and achieved an adsorption efficiency of 149.3 mg·g−1 on Hg(ii) [47] and Xia et al. synthesized CoFe2O4@ SiO2–EDTA using a hydrothermal method. The results revealed that the composite material achieved a maximum adsorption efficiency of 103.3 mg·g−1 for removing Hg(ii) ions [48]. Other cobalt spinal ferrite composites involved in Hg(ii) removal includes CoFe2O4@SiO2-SH [49], CoFe2O4@SiO2@m-SiO2-SH/NH2 [50], SH-mSiO2@CoFe2O4 [21], CoFe2O4@SiO2-Ppy [45], and Py-CoFe2O4@SiO2@KCC-1 [44].

This study utilized nanoporous carbon (NC) derived from discarded palm kernel shells to coat a nanocomposite of CoFe2O4. This coated material has the potential for removing mercury (Hg(ii)), aiming to address the environmental risks associated with both heavy metal pollution and agricultural waste. Since the NC is a carbon-rich material with a solid, disordered structure, it can be altered to have high porosity and contains various oxygen-related functional groups like carboxylic acids, phenols, carbonyls, and lactones. These characteristics make it suitable for different applications involving adsorbents. While CoFe2O4 nanocomposite likely contributes to the composite’s magnetic properties, facilitating separation from the treated water. This nanocomposite could serve as an efficient and environmentally friendly solution for addressing mercury pollution in water systems [51,52]. The synthesized NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite was characterized for its surface area (nitrogen adsorption–desorption isotherm), structure (crystalline or amorphous), morphology, thermal stability, magnetization, and functional group(s) prior to be applied for the elimination of Hg(ii) ions from a water-based solution. Finally, adsorptive parameters, real application, and adsorption mechanisms were also added to the studies.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Materials, chemicals, and reagents

Palm kernel shell (NC), iron nitrate (Fe(NO3)2·9H2O, 99%), cobalt nitrate (Co(NO3)2·6H2O, 99%), polyethylene glycol 400 (99%), sodium dodecyl sulfate (99%), and ammonia solution were purchased from R&M Chemicals (25%). All chemicals were utilized in their original state without additional purification. Deionized water was employed exclusively for the preparation of solutions in this study.

2.2 Synthesis of NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite

The hydrothermal synthesis procedure for the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite (Figure 1) consisted of dissolving 6.1 g of Fe(NO3)2·9H2O and 4.2 g of Co(NO3)2·6H2O in 20 mL of deionized water. Afterward, 5 mL of ammonia solution was added to the mixture. The mixture was stirred for 30 min. Later, various surfactants were added and stirred for an hour again at 35°C to avoid particle precipitation, and pH was adjusted to 10–12. The NC (2 g) was added shortly afterward and the mixture was treated ultrasonically for 2 h and later stirred for 12 h. The end product was moved into an autoclave and heated to 180°C for a duration of 24 h. Afterward, it was spun in a centrifuge and rinsed with both water and ethanol. Finally, the product was dried under vacuum conditions at 70°C overnight to achieve the nanocomposite synthesis.

Figure 1 Schematic of the synthesis of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite starting from Co(NO3)2 and Fe(NO3)2, followed by the addition of surfactant, NC, as well as autoclave, centrifugation, washing, and drying at 70°C.
Figure 1

Schematic of the synthesis of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite starting from Co(NO3)2 and Fe(NO3)2, followed by the addition of surfactant, NC, as well as autoclave, centrifugation, washing, and drying at 70°C.

2.3 Batch adsorption experiments

The effectiveness of the prepared adsorbents in removing metals was assessed using batch adsorption experiments. In a standard experiment, a measured amount of the substance that can capture other substances (adsorbent) was placed into a set of 250 mL flasks. These flasks contained a solution with 100 mg·L−1 Hg(ii) ions. The flasks were shaken vigorously at room temperature for a duration of 2 h. At specific time intervals, the samples were collected from the flasks, and the concentration of Hg(ii) ions in these samples was measured using a MA-3Solo Mercury Analyzer, a specialized instrument.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Characterization

Table 2 shows a comparison of the textural properties, such as nitrogen adsorption–desorption isotherms, surface area, pore size, and pore volume, between the NC and NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite.

Table 2

Textural properties of NC and NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite materials

Sample BET surface area (m2·g−1) Average pore volume (cm3·g−1) Average pore size (nm)
NC 1,280 0.677 2.116
NC@CoFe2O4 328.9 0.157 1.905

From the comparison of Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET)-specific surface area values provided in Table 2, the NC@CoFe2O4 has an increased value as against the pure NC and is linked to the introduction of CoFe2O4 NPs onto the NC. At the same time, the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite has slightly lesser average pore volume and pore sizes as compared to pure NC and thereby providing a hint that the addition of cobalt ferrite NPs are not entirely closing the pores of NC. Similar observations of decreased pore sizes and volumes are also reported in magnetically supported materials, where the main point to consider is the persistence of porosity even after the composite formation [53,54,55]. Figure 2 illustrates the nitrogen adsorption behavior of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite, depending on various types of sorption isotherms. The NC treated with cobalt ferrite NPs showed an isothermal change from Type IV isothermal to Type I isothermal, leading to a decrease in the adsorption of N2 at high pressure. However, in this case, the Type I isotherm finding indicates microporosity isotherm [56]. Conversely, absorbent materials with larger surface areas are more effective in cleaning pollutants from water and wastewater [57].

Figure 2 Isotherms of N2 adsorption–desorption and pore size distribution of the NC (a) and NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite (b).
Figure 2

Isotherms of N2 adsorption–desorption and pore size distribution of the NC (a) and NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite (b).

As shown in Figure 3a, the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite exhibits six distinct peaks. These peaks can be attributed to the well-developed crystalline structure of cubic cobalt ferrite. Additionally, a faint peak at 2θ = 25.2–26.6 (002) was observed, indicating the presence of NC in the composite material [46,47,58]. The diffraction peaks of composite material were observed at specific angles, represented as 2θ values, of 30.4°, 35.6°, 43.3°, 53.6°, 57.1°, and 63.1°. These angles correspond to the crystallographic planes of (220), (311), (400), (422), (511), and (440), respectively. This crystal structure is thus assumed to be more favorable for adsorption performance and demonstrated that the major phase was the spinel ferrite composite [2,59]. The reported X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns are in line with those previously reported for the activated carbon/CoFe2O4, CoFe2O4-NP/activated carbon, and thiol-functionalized cobalt ferrite magnetic mesoporous silica (SH-mSiO2@CoFe2O4) [21,55,60].

Figure 3 XRD spectrum (a) and magnetization curve (VSM) (b) of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite.
Figure 3

XRD spectrum (a) and magnetization curve (VSM) (b) of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite.

To understand the magnetic properties of the newly synthesized NC@CoFe2O nanocomposite, a vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM) was used to measure its magnetic behavior at room temperature. As shown in Figure 3b, the magnetic nature of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite exhibited a clear hysteresis appearance, indicating the superparamagnetic behavior [17] with saturation magnetization, retentivity, and coercivity values to be 33.65 emu·g−1, 10.354 Oe, and 418.43 Oe, respectively, which are within the range of those reported for bare CoFe2O4 particles in previous studies [61,62,63,64,65]. However, the magnetic separation capability of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite was confirmed by employing a magnet close to the composite and observing how fast the black material is drawn near the magnet [38]. This result confirms that the composite can potentially be applied as an adsorbent for the abstraction of heavy metals.

Figure 4b displays the FT-IR spectrum of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite. In this spectrum, a significant peak is observed at approximately 3,380 cm−1. This peak is attributed to the stretching vibration of the –OH bond, indicating the presence of physically adsorbed water molecules on the adsorbent material [57,66]. The peak observed at 2,919 cm−1 is attributed to the stretching vibration of the –CH group found in the methyl group [64,67]. As mentioned earlier, palm kernel shells were treated with phosphoric acid (H3PO4). The presence of phosphorus groups in the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite is responsible for the observed bands in the range of 970–1,174 cm−1 [68,69]. However, the peaks at 1,781, 1,564, and 1,348 cm−1 correspond to –C═O, aromatic –C═C, and carboxy –C–O groups on the exterior of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite [70,71]. The peak at 817–460 cm−1, shown in Figure 4b, indicates the common distinctive absorption pattern associated with the vibrations of Co–O and Fe–O bands [47,50,72,73], and additionally, the presence of magnetite NPs on the surface of the NC has been confirmed. The appearance of these absorption bands serves as strong evidence that the CoFe2O4 has effectively combined with the NC, indicating a successful conjugation.

Figure 4 FTIR spectrum of the pure NC (a) and NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite (b).
Figure 4

FTIR spectrum of the pure NC (a) and NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite (b).

The structure of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite appears to generate spots for adsorption, thereby improving the elimination of mercury ions (Hg(ii)) from a solution. Morphological characterization of NC (Figure 5a) showed appreciable development of porous structures and higher surface area showing the effect of phosphoric acid evaporation during the carbonization process [67,74]. As shown in Figure 5b, the CoFe2O4 NPs deposited on the surface of NC are accumulated due to their inherent magnetic interactions and uniformly showed a regular smooth surface with cracks and cavities, indicating a larger BET value [2,57,72,75].

Figure 5 FESEM image of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite (a) and NC (b).
Figure 5

FESEM image of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite (a) and NC (b).

The thermal stability and degradation pattern were studied by the TGA/DTG analysis. Figure 6a shows the qualitative assessment of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite and the graph clearly indicates that the synthesized composite material underwent three significant stages of decomposition. With an initial decomposition temperature below 100°C, the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite exhibited 9.62% weight loss attributed to the saturated water evaporation. The second weight loss, which occurred at temperatures ranging from 220°C to 260°C, is caused by the breaking of chemically bonded NPs. This is similar to what Choi et al. found when they observed the weight loss occurring between 200°C and 350°C [76]. The final decomposition temperature of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite was around 720°C, indicating the stability of this composite at this high temperature (can withstand extreme working conditions). Similar observations were also reported in the CoFe2O4–graphene oxide composite due to the effective bonding and stability provided by the graphene molecules to the cobalt ferrites [2].

Figure 6 TGA thermogram (a) and DTG profile (b) of thr NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite.
Figure 6

TGA thermogram (a) and DTG profile (b) of thr NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite.

The DTG thermogram of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite in Figure 6b showed three degradation steps, with the main step starting below 100°C, followed by a second degradation at 247°C. Finally, the maximum degradation rate due to lignin decomposition at slightly above 700°C confirming the effective coating of the NC material.

3.2 Hg(ii) ion adsorption

The effect of various factors like the pH level of the solution, the amount of adsorbent used, the time of contact, the initial concentration of the ion solution, and the temperature of the reaction affect the process of removing Hg(ii) from a water-based solution.

3.2.1 Effect of pH

The effectiveness of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite in removing Hg(ii) was assessed by measuring how well it adsorbed Hg(ii) across a range of pH values from 2 to 6. In Figure 7, it is evident that the ability of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite to capture Hg(ii) ions from a solution increases significantly between pH values 2 and 3. The highest adsorption efficiency for Hg(ii) ions, which is 93.2 mg·g−1, occurs at pH 3. This increase in efficiency can be attributed to the electrostatic interaction that occurs when more negatively charged active sites become available [77]. The pHPZC of NC and NC@CoFe2O4 is a crucial property that defines the pH at which the surface becomes electrically neutral. The pH drift method was used to determine this parameter in this study where the adsorbent materials can remove the ionic species at the desired pH. The pHPZC values for the NC and NC@CoFe2O4 composite are 3.67 and 4.5, respectively. The measured pHPZC values decrease slightly within a range that results in a negative surface charge. This is attributed to the presence of oxygen-functional groups, which promote the adsorption of cations. Additionally, Tomar and Jeevanandam [62] found that when cations and hydrogen ions both try to stick to the adsorbent surface, they do not compete with each other effectively. This can result in the formation of compounds like Hg(OH)+ and Hg(OH)2. As a consequence, the ability of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite to capture pollutants decreases, and it only captures 61.64 mg·g−1 of Hg(ii) ions as pH increases above 3 [78]. A similar pH effect was reported in S-functionalized magnetic metal–organic frameworks and CNT-SH@Fe3O4 materials, respectively [38,79]. As a result, pH 3 was selected as the optimum pH for the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite adsorption experiment in this study.

Figure 7 Effect of pH on Hg(ii) ion adsorption efficiency of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite.
Figure 7

Effect of pH on Hg(ii) ion adsorption efficiency of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite.

3.2.2 Effect of dosage adsorbent

The dosage of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite was varied between 0.1 and 0.5 g in 100 mL of 10 mg·L−1 at the optimal pH level of 3 and temperature of 25°C. According to Xia and co-researchers, the concentration of Hg(ii) ions in the solution is related to the number of active sites on the surface and the availability of functional groups for the adsorption process. This relationship is illustrated in Figure 8 of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite. The results show that the increased amount of adsorbent dosage is expected to increase the percentage of removal. This is a result of the reaction between COOH and Hg(ii) ions [48]. However, the adsorption efficiency of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite rapidly decreased as the adsorbent dosage increased. The adsorption efficiency decreased from 78.01 to 19.3 mg·g−1 for the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite and this is because enhancing the adsorbent dosage completely covers the vacant space of the active sites and its saturation in the adsorption process [57]. Several observations have been recorded in various studies that reiterated that the adsorption efficiency decreases with that of the increased adsorbent dosage [49,63,80]. To find the appropriate amount of a substance that can capture other substances from a solution most effectively, how much of this capturing substance should be used was determined. Eventually, the optimal adsorbent dose for the remaining adsorption experiments was resolved to be 0.3 g for the composite.

Figure 8 Effect of adsorbent dose on Hg(ii) ion adsorption efficiency and the removal percentage of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite.
Figure 8

Effect of adsorbent dose on Hg(ii) ion adsorption efficiency and the removal percentage of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite.

3.2.3 Effect of Hg(ii) ion concentration

The effect of changing the initial concentration of Hg(ii) ions in a 100 mL solution, ranging from 10 to 50 mg·L−1, affects the efficiency of adsorption and the percentage of Hg(ii) removal on an NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite. As shown in Figure 9, the conditions were as follows: the adsorbent weighed 0.3 g, the duration was 120 min, the temperature was 25°C, and the pH was 3. Lima stated that the primary factor for overcoming the resistance to mass transfer caused by the molecules between the adsorbent material and the adsorbate is the initial concentration of the adsorbent [81]. From the results, it is evident that when the starting concentration of Hg(ii) in the solutions increased from 10 to 50 mg·L−1, the ability of the composites to capture Hg(ii) increased from 32.7 to 158.3 mg·g−1. As the concentration of the Hg(ii) solution increased, the composites made better use of their binding sites, which increased their capacity to adsorb Hg(ii) ions [2,82,83]. However, when the starting concentration of Hg(ii) solution increased from 10 to 50 mg·L−1, the percentage of Hg(ii) removed by the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite dropped slightly from 98.2% to 95%. This decrease might be because at a higher concentration, the Hg(ii) ions either fill the available surface of the nanocomposite or reach a point of saturation. As a result, the removal percentage decreased when the concentration was higher [57,78].

Figure 9 Effect of initial concentration on Hg(ii) ion adsorption efficiency and the removal percentage of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite.
Figure 9

Effect of initial concentration on Hg(ii) ion adsorption efficiency and the removal percentage of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite.

3.2.4 Effect of contact time

Figure 10 shows how the amount of Hg(ii) adsorbed by the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite is related to the time of contact. The findings indicated that quick adsorption occurs within the initial 60 min, with no significant variation in the adsorption efficiency over the entire contact time [35,64]. The NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite has functional groups that offer numerous active sites. These sites facilitate the quick interaction and bonding of Hg(ii) ions within the initial hour of contact [48,78,84]. Despite this, the highest achieved adsorption efficiency is 66.45 mg·g−1, and the ideal contact time is determined to be 60 min.

Figure 10 Effect of contact time on Hg(ii) ion adsorption efficiency and the removal percentage of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite.
Figure 10

Effect of contact time on Hg(ii) ion adsorption efficiency and the removal percentage of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite.

3.3 Adsorption isotherm studies

In a 100 mL solution, the amount of mercury ions was changed from 10 to 50 mg·L−1, while keeping other factors constant, such as pH at 3 and 0.3 g of the adsorbent. To understand how mercury ions interacted with the adsorbent, the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms were used to describe this interaction. In simpler terms, the models explained how the concentration of mercury ions in the solution and their attachment to the adsorbent relate to each other using these two models [85].

An adsorption isotherm is crucial for understanding how metal ions and absorbents interact. It helps to determine how molecules are distributed between a solid and liquid when adsorption reaches a balance, revealing the highest efficiency of adsorption. The effectiveness of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite in capturing Hg(ii) was evaluated by analyzing the data with two different models: the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms [86]. The Langmuir theory suggests that adsorption occurs at particular uniform spots within the material where it occurs, leading to a single layer of adsorption [79,87]. By contrast, the Freundlich model is typically more suitable for describing processes where adsorption occurs in multiple layers on a surface with uneven characteristics [88]. Eq. 1 shows the Langmuir model in a linear form, while Eq. 2 represents the Freundlich model in a linear form [42,89]:

(1) C e Q e = 1 Q max K L + C e Q max

The equilibrium concentration of Hg(ii) ions in a substance, denoted as Q e (mg·g−1), depends on the affinity of Hg(ii) ions for the binding sites on certain composites, represented by K L, and the equilibrium concentration of Hg(ii) ions in the surrounding liquid, denoted as C e (mg·L−1). The Langmuir isotherm was confirmed in Figure 11, which displayed the relationship between C e /Q e and C e. By analyzing the graph’s straight-line equation, the values of Q max and K L were determined using the slope and intercept:

(2) log Q e = log K F + 1 n log C e

where K F is the effectiveness of the sorbent in adsorbing Hg(ii) ions, and 1/n is the concentration of these ions affecting the sorption process. To find these values, a mathematical model called the Freundlich kinetic model was used by plotting the logarithm of the amount of Hg(ii) ions adsorbed (log Q e) against the logarithm of their concentration (log C e).

Figure 11 Langmuir (a) and Freundlich (b) model isotherms for Hg(ii) adsorption on the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite.
Figure 11

Langmuir (a) and Freundlich (b) model isotherms for Hg(ii) adsorption on the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite.

The assessment relied on the highest R 2 value obtained from the initial concentration-effect data displayed in a regression plot. In this study, the R 2 values obtained through linear regression for the Langmuir and Freundlich models were 0.9895 and 0.9962, as illustrated in Figure 11 and are presented in Table 3, respectively. The adsorption behavior of Hg(ii) adhered more closely to the Freundlich model than the Langmuir model, as indicated by the fact that the correlation coefficient (R 2) for the Freundlich model was higher than that for the Langmuir model. The NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite captures Hg(ii) by evenly distributing active adsorption sites across its surface. These sites then attract and adhere to Hg(ii) ions on the material’s surface [38,78,90]. Meanwhile, the determined R F value decreases within the range of 0–1.0 (0.0258), which is derived from the K F values obtained through the Freundlich model. This suggests that the process of Hg(ii) adsorption onto the adsorbent was favorable in the study. The highest Hg(ii) sorption capacity of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite fitted by the Freundlich isothermal model was 232.56 mg·g−1.

Table 3

Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm model parameters for Hg(ii) adsorption by the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite

Langmuir isotherm Fruendlich isotherm
Maximum adsorption capacity (mg·g−1) Langmuir constant, K L (L·mg−1) Correlation coefficient, R 2 Freundlich constant, K F (mg·g−1) Freundlich constant, n Correlation coefficient, R 2
232.56 1.256 0.9895 5.366 1.65 0.9962

3.4 Adsorption kinetic studies

The time for which Hg(ii) ion solution adsorption occurs ranges from 15 to 120 min. This experiment was carried out at a pH of 3 and a temperature of 25°C, with an initial concentration of Hg(ii) ions set at 30 mg·L−1. To analyze the adsorption process, two kinetic models were employed: the pseudo-first-order rate equation (Eq. 3) and the pseudo-second-order kinetic model (Eq. 4):

(3) ln ( q e − q t ) = ln q e − k t

where q e is the amount of Hg(ii) adsorbed onto the surface when equilibrium is reached (mg·g−1), q t is the amount of Hg(ii) adsorbed onto the surface at a specific time t, and k is a constant that describes the speed of the adsorption process and is determined by plotting a graph of the natural logarithm of ln(q e – q t ) against t (min−1):

(4) t q t = 1 k 2 q e 2 + t q e

where t is the time in minutes during which Hg(ii) ions are adsorbed, q t is the quantity of the metal ions adsorbed at a specific time (mg·g−1), and q e is the amount of metal ions adsorbed at equilibrium (mg·g−1). Additionally, k 2 represents the rate constant for the second-order adsorption process (g·mg−1·min−1).

The following models, pseudo-first and pseudo-second order (Figure 12), are employed to delve deeper into understanding how Hg(ii) ions are absorbed by the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite by studying the time taken to reach equilibrium. The correlation coefficient (R 2) values for the kinetic model fitting were found to be 0.9063 and 0.9999, respectively. These values suggest that the adsorption of Hg(ii) ions on the absorbent adhered closely to the pseudo-second-order kinetic model. The experimental result for q e being fairly similar to the calculated value provides additional evidence that chemisorption played a significant role in this experiment [45,91,92]. Although the pseudo-first-order model may show a strong correlation coefficient (R 2), it is clear that there is a substantial disparity between the actual experimental q e and the calculated q e. Consequently, it is evident that the adsorption process does not adhere to the pseudo-first-order model. Table 4 displays the parameters for both the pseudo-first- and pseudo-second-order kinetics models used to describe the sorption of Hg(ii) on the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite.

Figure 12 Pseudo-first-order model (a) and pseudo-second-order model (b) for Hg(ii) adsorption on the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite.
Figure 12

Pseudo-first-order model (a) and pseudo-second-order model (b) for Hg(ii) adsorption on the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite.

Table 4

Parameters of the pseudo-first- and pseudo-second-order kinetic models for Hg(ii) adsorption by the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite

Kinetic models q e, experimental (mg·g−1) q e, calculated (mg·g−1) Correlation coefficient R 2
Pseudo-first order 66.45 7.55 0.9063
Pseudo-second order 66.45 66.23 0.9999

3.5 Adsorption thermodynamic studies

Thermodynamic investigations were conducted by placing Erlenmeyer flasks in a water bath with temperatures ranging from 25°C to 50°C. This experiment was conducted at pH 3, and the mixture was agitated for 2 h, starting with an initial concentration of 30 mg·L−1 Hg(ii) ions. The universal gas constant, denoted as R, was utilized to compute essential thermodynamic parameters, including enthalpy (ΔH), entropy (ΔS), and Gibbs free energy (ΔG). The results of these investigations were determined using Eqs. 5 and 6 [93]:

(5) ∆ G = − RT ln K d

(6) ln K d = − ∆ H RT + ∆ S R

where K d represents a constant that describes how well substances stick to each other when they come into contact, R is a number used in science to help with calculations, and T is the temperature (K). To find the values for ΔH and ΔS, a graph of the logarithm of K d vs the reciprocal of temperature (1/T) was plotted These values help in understanding the heat and entropy changes that occur during this adsorption process.

Adsorption is significantly affected by the environment’s temperature. Thermodynamic properties can also help in determining if adsorption is likely to occur and whether the process is spontaneous or not. The changes in sorption effectiveness as temperature increases also reveal whether a process is endothermic or exothermic [49,94]. Figure 13a shows the effect of temperature change on adsorption and removal percentage of Hg(ii) onto the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite. According to the graph, as the temperature increases from 25°C to 50°C, both the effectiveness of adsorption and the percentage of material removed show a slight improvement. This suggests that the adsorption process becomes more effective and favorable at higher temperatures, indicating it is an endothermic reaction. As the temperature increases, the energy associated with the movement of Hg(ii) molecules also increases. This is explained by the kinetic theory, which suggests that these molecules interact with the surface they are adsorbed on through collisions [72,95].

Figure 13 Effect of temperature for Hg(ii) adsorption (a) and Van’t Hoff plot used to calculate the activation energy for Hg(ii) adsorption (b) on the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite.
Figure 13

Effect of temperature for Hg(ii) adsorption (a) and Van’t Hoff plot used to calculate the activation energy for Hg(ii) adsorption (b) on the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite.

Figure 13b shows the Van’t Hoff plot utilized to estimate the changes in free energy (ΔG), enthalpy (ΔH), and entropy (ΔS) associated with the process of Hg(ii) adsorption on the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite. Moreover, the computed energy change values listed in Table 5 demonstrate negative values of ΔG with increased temperature, indicating that the adsorption mechanism of the absorbent is a spontaneous process as a result of constant mobility increment and diffusion of ions into its pores [93]. The positive enthalpy, ΔH, and entropy, ΔS, values implied that the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite adsorption toward Hg(ii) is an endothermic reaction and that the probability of favorable adsorption mechanism randomly increases, displaying a strong affinity between Hg(ii) and the adsorbate [42,48,55,61].

Table 5

Studies of thermodynamic parameters for Hg(ii) adsorption by the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite

Temperature (K) ΔS (kJ·mol−1·K−1) ΔH (kJ·mol−1) ΔG (kJ·mol−1)
298 42.05 5.14 −7.46
303 −7.62
308 −7.74
313 −7.89
323 −8.56

The influence of the pH studies of NC@CoFe2O4 (Figure 7) supports the formation of negatively charged surfaces, which favors the cationic adsorption studies and, in our case, the Hg(ii) ions. Likewise, the adsorbent and adsorbate dosage studies of NC@CoFe2O4 (Figures 8 and 9) have indicated that the Hg(ii) adsorption at the porous sites occurs only through physicochemical and van der Waals attractions. A rapid increase in the adsorbent dosage is expected to have supported the complete coverage of the adsorbent material’s active vacant spaces and so saturation in the adsorption procedure was achieved. Additionally, the isotherm adsorption studies (Figure 11) and kinetic models (Figure 12 indicate the Hg(ii) recovery onto the NC@CoFe2O4 composite to be more suited by the Fruendlich model with pseudo-second order, meaning the process occurs on the multi-layer heterogeneous surface and is chemisorbed. Finally, adsorption thermodynamics (Figure 13) are observed with a positive enthalpy and entropy, i.e., Hg(ii) adsorption on NC@CoFe2O4 is endothermic with strong affinity among the Hg(ii) ions and the functional groups attached to NC and CoFe2O4. Overall, the nanocomposite with its porous architecture offered by the carbonaceous base originating from the natural palm kernel shell in conjugation with the solid magnetic support (CoFe2O4) allows for the natural recovery of positively charged Hg(ii) ions in aqueous solutions. The porous nanocomposite adsorbent base with its negative charge on its surface of active sites allows for the spontaneous and natural adsorption (no requirement of additional energies like stirring, heating, light, etc.) of Hg(ii) ions. Such natural localization provides more stabilization to the adsorbent Hg(ii) ions through physicochemical and electrostatic attractions at the multi-layer heterogeneous surfaces, thereby confirming the effective performance of our NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite.

3.6 Testing of NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite toward real wastewater sample

To test the efficacy of our developed NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite in practical applications, the adsorbent was employed to remove Hg(ii) ions under the previously mentioned optimized conditions. In that view, the real wastewater samples of condensate having a mercury concentration of 0.214 mg·L−1 collected from the petroleum (oil and natural gas) industry were tested against our NC@CoFe2O4 adsorbate using a mercury analyzer. The results of adsorption studies confirmed the removal of 93% Hg(ii) ions, corresponding to 0.199 mg·L−1 of the condensate of the petroleum industry. This confirms the effective adsorption behavior of the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite towards Hg(ii) removal available in industrial wastewaters and at the same time highlights its attractive features like low costs, larger and easy production, natural origin, and magnetic nature.

4 Conclusion

The NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite was successfully synthesized using a hydrothermal technique. The prepared composite exhibited a saturation magnetization capability of 33.650 emu·g−1, with maximum adsorption efficiency of 232.56 mg·g−1 toward Hg(ii) at pH 3. The adsorption isotherm was effectively combined with the Freundlich isotherm model, and the kinetic analysis was conducted using the pseudo-second-order reaction. Moreover, the adsorption mechanism aligns well with spontaneous and endothermic reactions, as evidenced by the negative free energy and positive enthalpy/entropy values. Additionally, the NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite material, which was successfully synthesized, demonstrated effectiveness in detecting and removing Hg(ii) from actual waste condensate in the oil and gas industry. The NC@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite demonstrates notable contributions to Hg(ii) removal in a green environment through its high adsorption capacity, magnetic retrievability, regenerability, selective removal, low energy consumption, and compatibility with green technologies. These features collectively make it a promising and environmentally friendly material for mercury remediation applications.

tel: +966 (0)11 467 5998

  1. Funding information: This work was supported by the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE), Malaysia, under the Prototype Research Grant Scheme (PRGS) and Universiti Putra Malaysia. Also, the KSU authors acknowledge the funding from Researchers Supporting Project number (RSP2023R54), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  2. Author contributions: Lawal Abubakar: conceptualization, methodology, investigation, writing original draft, and review and editing; Nor Azah Yusof: methodology, validation, formal analysis, and supervision; Abdul Halim Abdullah: formal analysis, data curation, and supervision; Mohd Hanif Wahid: validation, formal analysis, and resources; Siti Fatimah Abd Rahman: validation, data curation, and resources; Faruq Mohammad: writing original draft, and review and editing; Hamad A. Al-Lohedan: supervision and funding acquisition; and Ahmed A. Soleiman: formal analysis and project administration. All authors agreed to publish this version of the manuscript.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

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Received: 2023-09-14
Accepted: 2023-12-04
Published Online: 2023-12-29

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2023-0169
Keywords for this article
nanoporous carbon; CoFe2O3; magnetite nanoparticles; Hg(ii) adsorption; thermodynamics; wastewater treatment
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Value-added utilization of coal fly ash and recycled polyvinyl chloride in door or window sub-frame composites
  3. High removal efficiency of volatile phenol from coking wastewater using coal gasification slag via optimized adsorption and multi-grade batch process
  4. Evolution of surface morphology and properties of diamond films by hydrogen plasma etching
  5. Removal efficiency of dibenzofuran using CuZn-zeolitic imidazole frameworks as a catalyst and adsorbent
  6. Rapid and efficient microwave-assisted extraction of Caesalpinia sappan Linn. heartwood and subsequent synthesis of gold nanoparticles
  7. The catalytic characteristics of 2-methylnaphthalene acylation with AlCl3 immobilized on Hβ as Lewis acid catalyst
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  10. Optimization of apigenin nanoparticles prepared by planetary ball milling: In vitro and in vivo studies
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  12. Exergy analysis of a conceptual CO2 capture process with an amine-based DES
  13. Construction of fluorescence system of felodipine–tetracyanovinyl–2,2′-bipyridine complex
  14. Excellent photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B over Bi2O3 supported on Zn-MOF nanocomposites under visible light
  15. Optimization-based control strategy for a large-scale polyhydroxyalkanoates production in a fed-batch bioreactor using a coupled PDE–ODE system
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  17. Geranium leaf-mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their transcriptomic effects on Candida albicans
  18. Synthesis, characterization, anticancer, anti-inflammatory activities, and docking studies of 3,5-disubstituted thiadiazine-2-thiones
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  20. Putative anti-proliferative effect of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) seed and its nano-formulation
  21. Enrichment of low-grade phosphorites by the selective leaching method
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  23. Characterisation of carbonate lake sediments as a potential filler for polymer composites
  24. Evaluation of nano-selenium biofortification characteristics of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.)
  25. Quality of oil extracted by cold press from Nigella sativa seeds incorporated with rosemary extracts and pretreated by microwaves
  26. Heteropolyacid-loaded MOF-derived mesoporous zirconia catalyst for chemical degradation of rhodamine B
  27. Recovery of critical metals from carbonatite-type mineral wastes: Geochemical modeling investigation of (bio)hydrometallurgical leaching of REEs
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  50. The mechanisms of inhibition and lubrication of clean fracturing flowback fluids in water-based drilling fluids
  51. Adsorption/desorption performance of cellulose membrane for Pb(ii)
  52. A one-pot, multicomponent tandem synthesis of fused polycyclic pyrrolo[3,2-c]quinolinone/pyrrolizino[2,3-c]quinolinone hybrid heterocycles via environmentally benign solid state melt reaction
  53. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using durian rind extract and optical characteristics of surface plasmon resonance-based optical sensor for the detection of hydrogen peroxide
  54. Electrochemical analysis of copper-EDTA-ammonia-gold thiosulfate dissolution system
  55. Characterization of bio-oil production by microwave pyrolysis from cashew nut shells and Cassia fistula pods
  56. Green synthesis methods and characterization of bacterial cellulose/silver nanoparticle composites
  57. Photocatalytic research performance of zinc oxide/graphite phase carbon nitride catalyst and its application in environment
  58. Effect of phytogenic iron nanoparticles on the bio-fortification of wheat varieties
  59. In vitro anti-cancer and antimicrobial effects of manganese oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the Glycyrrhiza uralensis leaf extract on breast cancer cell lines
  60. Preparation of Pd/Ce(F)-MCM-48 catalysts and their catalytic performance of n-heptane isomerization
  61. Green “one-pot” fluorescent bis-indolizine synthesis with whole-cell plant biocatalysis
  62. Silica-titania mesoporous silicas of MCM-41 type as effective catalysts and photocatalysts for selective oxidation of diphenyl sulfide by H2O2
  63. Biosynthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles from molted feathers of Pavo cristatus and their antibiofilm and anticancer activities
  64. Clean preparation of rutile from Ti-containing mixed molten slag by CO2 oxidation
  65. Synthesis and characterization of Pluronic F-127-coated titanium dioxide nanoparticles synthesized from extracts of Atractylodes macrocephala leaf for antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties
  66. Effect of pretreatment with alkali on the anaerobic digestion characteristics of kitchen waste and analysis of microbial diversity
  67. Ameliorated antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer properties by Plectranthus vettiveroides root extract-mediated green synthesis of chitosan nanoparticles
  68. Microwave-accelerated pretreatment technique in green extraction of oil and bioactive compounds from camelina seeds: Effectiveness and characterization
  69. Studies on the extraction performance of phorate by aptamer-functionalized magnetic nanoparticles in plasma samples
  70. Investigation of structural properties and antibacterial activity of AgO nanoparticle extract from Solanum nigrum/Mentha leaf extracts by green synthesis method
  71. Green fabrication of chitosan from marine crustaceans and mushroom waste: Toward sustainable resource utilization
  72. Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
  73. The enhanced adsorption properties of phosphorus from aqueous solutions using lanthanum modified synthetic zeolites
  74. Separation of graphene oxides of different sizes by multi-layer dialysis and anti-friction and lubrication performance
  75. Visible-light-assisted base-catalyzed, one-pot synthesis of highly functionalized cinnolines
  76. The experimental study on the air oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid with Co–Mn–Br system
  77. Highly efficient removal of tetracycline and methyl violet 2B from aqueous solution using the bimetallic FeZn-ZIFs catalyst
  78. A thermo-tolerant cellulase enzyme produced by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens M7, an insight into synthesis, optimization, characterization, and bio-polishing activity
  79. Exploration of ketone derivatives of succinimide for their antidiabetic potential: In vitro and in vivo approaches
  80. Ultrasound-assisted green synthesis and in silico study of 6-(4-(butylamino)-6-(diethylamino)-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)oxypyridazine derivatives
  81. A study of the anticancer potential of Pluronic F-127 encapsulated Fe2O3 nanoparticles derived from Berberis vulgaris extract
  82. Biogenic synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Consolida orientalis flowers: Identification, catalytic degradation, and biological effect
  83. Initial assessment of the presence of plastic waste in some coastal mangrove forests in Vietnam
  84. Adsorption synergy electrocatalytic degradation of phenol by active oxygen-containing species generated in Co-coal based cathode and graphite anode
  85. Antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, and cytotoxicity activities of the aqueous extract of Syzygium aromaticum-mediated synthesized novel silver nanoparticles
  86. Synthesis of a silica matrix with ZnO nanoparticles for the fabrication of a recyclable photodegradation system to eliminate methylene blue dye
  87. Natural polymer fillers instead of dye and pigments: Pumice and scoria in PDMS fluid and elastomer composites
  88. Study on the preparation of glycerylphosphorylcholine by transesterification under supported sodium methoxide
  89. Wireless network handheld terminal-based green ecological sustainable design evaluation system: Improved data communication and reduced packet loss rate
  90. The optimization of hydrogel strength from cassava starch using oxidized sucrose as a crosslinking agent
  91. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Saccharum officinarum leaf extract for antiviral paint
  92. Study on the reliability of nano-silver-coated tin solder joints for flip chips
  93. Environmentally sustainable analytical quality by design aided RP-HPLC method for the estimation of brilliant blue in commercial food samples employing a green-ultrasound-assisted extraction technique
  94. Anticancer and antimicrobial potential of zinc/sodium alginate/polyethylene glycol/d-pinitol nanocomposites against osteosarcoma MG-63 cells
  95. Nanoporous carbon@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite as a green absorbent for the adsorptive removal of Hg(ii) from aqueous solutions
  96. Characterization of silver sulfide nanoparticles from actinobacterial strain (M10A62) and its toxicity against lepidopteran and dipterans insect species
  97. Phyto-fabrication and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Withania somnifera: Investigating antioxidant potential
  98. Effect of e-waste nanofillers on the mechanical, thermal, and wear properties of epoxy-blend sisal woven fiber-reinforced composites
  99. Magnesium nanohydroxide (2D brucite) as a host matrix for thymol and carvacrol: Synthesis, characterization, and inhibition of foodborne pathogens
  100. Synergistic inhibitive effect of a hybrid zinc oxide-benzalkonium chloride composite on the corrosion of carbon steel in a sulfuric acidic solution
  101. Review Articles
  102. Role and the importance of green approach in biosynthesis of nanopropolis and effectiveness of propolis in the treatment of COVID-19 pandemic
  103. Gum tragacanth-mediated synthesis of metal nanoparticles, characterization, and their applications as a bactericide, catalyst, antioxidant, and peroxidase mimic
  104. Green-processed nano-biocomposite (ZnO–TiO2): Potential candidates for biomedical applications
  105. Reaction mechanisms in microwave-assisted lignin depolymerisation in hydrogen-donating solvents
  106. Recent progress on non-noble metal catalysts for the deoxydehydration of biomass-derived oxygenates
  107. Rapid Communication
  108. Phosphorus removal by iron–carbon microelectrolysis: A new way to achieve phosphorus recovery
  109. Special Issue: Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications (Guest Editors: Arpita Roy and Fernanda Maria Policarpo Tonelli)
  110. Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications
  111. Nano-encapsulated tanshinone IIA in PLGA-PEG-COOH inhibits apoptosis and inflammation in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury
  112. Green fabrication of silver nanoparticles using Melia azedarach ripened fruit extract, their characterization, and biological properties
  113. Green-synthesized nanoparticles and their therapeutic applications: A review
  114. Antioxidant, antibacterial, and cytotoxicity potential of synthesized silver nanoparticles from the Cassia alata leaf aqueous extract
  115. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Callisia fragrans leaf extract and its anticancer activity against MCF-7, HepG2, KB, LU-1, and MKN-7 cell lines
  116. Algae-based green AgNPs, AuNPs, and FeNPs as potential nanoremediators
  117. Green synthesis of Kickxia elatine-induced silver nanoparticles and their role as anti-acetylcholinesterase in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease
  118. Phytocrystallization of silver nanoparticles using Cassia alata flower extract for effective control of fungal skin pathogens
  119. Antibacterial wound dressing with hydrogel from chitosan and polyvinyl alcohol from the red cabbage extract loaded with silver nanoparticles
  120. Leveraging of mycogenic copper oxide nanostructures for disease management of Alternaria blight of Brassica juncea
  121. Nanoscale molecular reactions in microbiological medicines in modern medical applications
  122. Synthesis and characterization of ZnO/β-cyclodextrin/nicotinic acid nanocomposite and its biological and environmental application
  123. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles via Taxus wallichiana Zucc. plant-derived Taxol: Novel utilization as anticancer, antioxidation, anti-inflammation, and antiurolithic potential
  124. Recyclability and catalytic characteristics of copper oxide nanoparticles derived from bougainvillea plant flower extract for biomedical application
  125. Phytofabrication, characterization, and evaluation of novel bioinspired selenium–iron (Se–Fe) nanocomposites using Allium sativum extract for bio-potential applications
  126. Erratum
  127. Erratum to “Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)”
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