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Green nanoarchitectonics of the silver nanocrystal potential for treating malaria and their cytotoxic effects on the kidney Vero cell line

  • Abdullah F. Shater , Fayez M. Saleh , Zuhair M. Mohammedsaleh , Hattan Gattan , Bassam M. Al-Ahmadi , Nizar H. Saeedi , Mohammed M. Jalal and Chellasamy Panneerselvam EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: May 15, 2023
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Green Processing and Synthesis
From the journal Green Processing and Synthesis Volume 12 Issue 1

Abstract

This study focused on testing manufactured silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) against the malaria pathogen Plasmodium falciparum and the malaria vector Anopheles stephensi using the plant filtrate from Madhuca longifolia. The M. longifolia leaf extracts were used to synthesize the AgNPs, which were then subjected to several physicochemical methods to determine their characteristics. To evaluate the effectiveness of the green produced AgNP therapy, the mosquitocidal activity of A. stephensi, cytotoxicity assay in Vero cells, and antiplasmodial activity assay were performed. The larval and pupal toxicity of biosynthesized AgNPs against the malarial vector A. stephensi is 90% promising in laboratory settings at low dosages (10 ppm). When tested on African green monkey kidney cells, the cytotoxic effect of biosynthesized materials was found to be inappropriately damaging up to 100 g·mL−1. The antimalarial efficacy of AgNPs was evaluated against P. falciparum strains. The parasites that were restrained by AgNPs at 100 ppm had the highest parasitemia restraint rate (80.4%). AgNPs then showed significant in vitro antimalarial activity against P. falciparum. Our findings suggested that the biosynthesized AgNPs might function as a novel antimalarial agent that is both safer for the environment and a barrier to infections spread by mosquitoes.

Graphical abstract

Illustration of AgNP synthesis in the fight against malaria.

Keywords: Anopheles stephensi ; antimalarial activity; IC50 ; Madhuca longifolia ; silver nanoparticles

1 Introduction

Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) are the fundamental and first parasitic vectors and they can transmit parasites, pathogens, and a larger number of infections than a few other species of arthropods, which have a devastating effect on many individuals throughout the world. Every year, about 1 billion people are affected, and nearly 1 million people die due to vector-borne insects. Lymphatic filariasis has an impact of over 120 million individuals in 73 nations, including southeast Asia, India, Pacific Islands, and Africa. These diseases demonstrate not only to have an impact over mortality and horribleness, but also have unlimited monetary misfortunes and social obstruction in many nations, including countries in middle east, India, and so forth. India has around 40% of worldwide filariasis presence and is evaluated to cause a yearly annual income loss of 720 crore [1]. The mosquito, Anopheles stephensi (A. stephensi), is the key vector that transmits intestinal sickness among various fields and urban zones of India and other West Asian nations [2,3]. Jungle fever is a mosquito-borne ailment caused by Plasmodium pathogens; besides, it affects directly or indirectly the newborns, youngsters, and causes death in adults. Around 3,000,000 individuals are in danger of intestinal sickness worldwide and 1,000 deaths are caused yearly [4]. Even though World Health Organization has assessed 15 million cases and 20,000 mortalities by the Southeast Asia Regional Office, of all jungle fever cases in Southeast Asia [5], over about 77% of cases were contributed by India. Human intestinal sickness cases are typically because of five Plasmodium sp., specifically P. falciparum, P. malariae, P. vivax, P. ovale, and P. knowlesi [6]. Their control is a significant objective for the improved overall well-being of humans. A few environmental issues, for example, ecological maintainability, unsafe impact on the well being of humans, and other non-target populaces, their non-biodegradable nature, higher pace of organic amplification through biological system, and advancement of obstruction in targeting vectors because of their tenacious gathering on the earth [7,8]. Under these circumstances, eco-accommodating approaches have recently emerged to build control management methods in contrast to mosquito vectors, with unique reference to organic mosquitocidals [9,10]. Therapeutic plants might be an excellent operator for regulation of mosquito menace, since they are rich in optional bioactive compounds, which are dynamic against the predetermined quantity of animal groups and found to be bio-degradable in nature; they are possibly appropriate for use in various control management methods of animals and insects [11]. Recently, scientists have been focusing on plant-related compounds, including their bioactive extracts, which play a pivotal role in targeting mosquitoes. They have mosquitocidal and ovicidal effects and are used as oviposition obstacles, in the development or potentially multiplication inhibitors, and as anti-agents [12,13,14,15,16].

The majority of researchers work to prevent and kill adult female mosquitoes while they are still larval. Paris green and petroleum oil are two substances that successfully kill adult female mosquitoes. While effective, synthetic pyrethroid and many organophosphates are dangerous to unintended aquatic organisms, primarily fish. Using insecticides for malaria sickness is seriously hampered by their harmful and long-lasting effects. The increase in mosquitoes that are resistant to pesticides is a significant obstacle.

In recent years, nanoscience technology research has been extensively found in various field areas including electronics, antibiotics, biomedicine, sensors, catalysts, optical fibers, etc. Nanoparticles have been utilized in many applications, for example, electrochemistry, photochemical, and biomedical. Plants, microorganisms, and organisms have been utilized for the development of nanoparticles. Plant-based green blends of nanoparticles are fast, require minimal effort, are eco-accommodating, and a solitary advance strategy for biosynthesis process [17]; they offer various advantages of financially amiable, ecologically harmonious, and are used for human applications [18]. Until now, metal nanoparticles are generally organized of noble metals like gold (Au), platinum (Pt), lead (Pb), and silver (Ag); among these metals silver (Ag) is one of the best metals for assessing the organic framework [19]. AgNPs are more averse to cause environmental harm and have been distinguished as an expected substitution for manufacturing synthetic bug sprays. Besides, developing numerous plants and shrubs have been planned for productive and fast extracellular production of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) [20], which show phenomenal mosquitocidal activities in a field environment [21,22].

Madhuca longifolia (normally known as Mahua) belongs to the family Sapotaceae, and is a medium estimated deciduous tree found in many countries, including Nepal, India, and Sri Lanka [23]. Blossoms are light yellow in color and beefy. Further, they are a good source of sugars, nutrients, thiamine, ascorbic acid, calcium, potassium, iron, magnesium, copper, riboflavin, betaines, anthocyanins, and salts of succinic and malic acids [24]. The bark of this plant comprises 17% tannins and utilized for the treatment of stiffness, ulcer, tingles, draining, and light gums [25]. This species is known for their cell reinforcement, antibacterial, antimicrobial, mitigating, anticancer, and antifungal properties [26,27]. The use of large-sized materials in the therapeutic process by herbal medicines has drawbacks, including in vivo instability, poor solubility, low bioavailability, poor absorption in the body, problems with target-specific delivery, and tonic efficacy. Hence, utilizing novel disease-treating systems based on nanotechnology and nanomedicine can be a successful solution to these problems. Effective agents are used in nanotechnology for tissue engineering, drug delivery, biosensors, disease prevention, and remediation. Particles with a nanoscale size exhibit special biological, chemical, mechanical, magnetic, and structural features. Additionally, it clarifies how to use nanomaterials, such as biomimetic materials in living cells and nanosensors for diagnosis and medicine delivery.

Thus, this study mainly focused on the following: (i) characterization of AgNPs biosynthesized from the leaf extract of Madhuca longifolia by utilizing various biophysical approaches including FESEM, UV-vis spectroscopy, EDAX, FTIR, and XRD; (ii) efficacy of the Madhuca longifolia leaf extract and biosynthesized AgNPs against larval and pupal population activity of jungle fever vector A. stephensi. (iii) Furthermore, the counter plasmodial movement of M. longifolia and AgNPs was assessed toward the CQ-safe (CQ-r) and CQ delicate (CQ-s) strains of the jungle fever parasite P. falciparum.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Madhuca longifolia plant extract

The leaves of M. longifolia were collected from around the Bharathiar University campus and the materials were identified by the taxonomist of the Botany Department, Bharathiar University, and Coimbatore. M. longifolia leaves were desiccated at room temperature and pulverized utilizing an electronic processor. About 500 g of the plant materials was extracted using 1.5 L of methanol (72 h), and the crude plant extract was concentrated using a rotary evaporator and stored at 4°C in the refrigerator. About 1 g of the plant residue was dissolved in 100 mL of acetone, as 1% (w/v) stock solution.

2.2 Synthesis of AgNPs from M. longifolia

About 10 g of the washed leaves was minced into slight pieces in a 300 mL 4088 Erlenmeyer flask containing 100 mL of disinfected two-fold refined water. It was mixed with silver nitrate and boiled for 5 min. Then, it was filtered using Whatman filter paper and stored at −4°C. An earthy-colored yellow formation demonstrated the development of AgNPs. The watery AgNPs were condensed by M. longifolia extract forming stable AgNPs in water [28].

2.3 Characterization of AgNPs

The morphological and physicochemical properties of the synthesized nanomaterials were characterized by different methods. The development of M. longifolia-synthesized AgNPs was observed in the UV-Vis band range of 200–800 nm followed by centrifugation at 15,000 rpm for about 20 min. The obtained pellets were mixed with deionized water. The morphological nature of Ag nanoparticles was confirmed under a scanning electron microscope. Furthermore, the size and functional groups of the nanoparticles were observed using FTIR spectroscopy and, finally, the phase purity of nanoparticles was determined by XRD and EDAX [28].

2.4 Larval morphological changes

A. stephensi eggs were collected from the neighborhood water body (Tabuk region, Saudi Arabia). Eggs were moved to research facility conditions (28 ± 3°C, 76–88% RH, 13:11 photoperiod) and set in 20 cm × 12 cm × 5 cm plastic compartments containing 500 mL of distilled water. Hatchlings were taken care with a blend of canine scones and hydrolyzed yeast. Hatchlings were gathered, moved to a glass dish loaded with 500 mL of DD water, and subjected to ensuing tests. The transferred hatchlings were treated with different convergences of the biosynthesized material for 24 h incubation, after brooding over the rewarded and untreated hatchlings were broken down under minute conditions.

2.5 Larval/pupal toxicity assessment

Following the methods reported by Kovendan et al. [29] A. stephensi larvae (I-IV instar) or pupae (25 nos) were taken from the conical flask containing 250 mL of distilled water, 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 ppm (individually) concentrations of the M. longifolia leaf extract, and 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 ppm of synthesized AgNPs (individually). The control was separately maintained in this experiment against A. stephensi [29]. All treatments were repeated five times against larva and pupa. Mortality rate (%) was calculated as follows:

(1) Death rate = No . of larvae dead No . of larvae treated × 100

2.6 Cytotoxic effect of AgNPs on Vero cells

Vero cells were obtained from NCCS (National Centre for Cell Sciences) located in Pune, India. Cells were maintained in a Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium (DMEM) supplemented with balanced salt solution and 2 mM l-glutamine, which contained 1.5 g·L−1 Na2CO3, 1.5 g·L−1 glucose, 2 mM l-glutamine, 0.1 mM non-essential amino acids, 10 mM (4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1-piperazineethane sulfonic acid) (HEPES), 1 mM sodium pyruvate, and 10% fetal bovine serum. Also, 100 IU·of 100 µg−1 streptomycin and 1 mL·L−1 penicillin were used. Further, the cells were retained at 5% CO2 in a humidified CO2 atmosphere at 37°C. The cells were treated with varied concentrations of AgNPs for about 24 h.

2.7 Assessment of cytotoxicity

Cell cytotoxicity assay (MTT, Hi-Media) was done to measure the inhibitory concentration (IC50) values. Vero cells were developed in 96-well plate (1 × 104 cells·well−1) to obtain 80% confluency for 48 h. The medium was then substituted with AgNPs comprising fresh medium at different concentrations (10, 20, or 50 μM); similarly, they were treated with M. longifolia extract followed by incubation for 48 h. Consequently, the culture medium was observed, and 100 µL of MTT was then added to each of the well. Then, the temperature was increased to 37°C for 4 h, accompanied by the supernatant elimination. Further, 50 µL of DMSO was added to each well and then reared approximately for 10 min to formazan crystal solubilization. The optical density (OD) of the cells was read using an Elisa plate reader (Thermo Multiskan EX, USA) fixed at 490 nm. Further, the cytotoxicity of the AgNPs was calculated using the following formula:

(2) Percentage cell viability = OD of experimental sample OD of experimental control × 100

2.8 Morphological investigation

Vero cells were allowed to multiply on coverslips (1,105 cells) and then incubated with AgNPs at various concentrations for 6–24 h before being fixed with ethanol/acetic acid (3:1; v/v) solution. For morphological observation, the cover slips were loosely placed to glass slides. Three monolayers of each experiment were photographed. Using a light microscope (Nikon, Japan) with a 20× magnification, the morphological changes of the treated cells were examined.

2.9 Parasite culture

Human erythrocytes from RP-mature C’s layer of cells generated parasites: The RPMI culture was prepared by adding 25 mM HEPES, l-glutamine, and 16.2 g of powdered RPMI 1640 without sodium bicarbonate. To create an initial parasitemia between 0.1% and 1.0%, freshly cleansed RBC was added to the parasites. In order to culture the expansion of new erythrocytes for every 4–5 days, the incubation environment was maintained with 1.5% O2, 5% CO2, and 95% nitrogen atmosphere [30]. The media were changed every 24 h.

2.10 In vitro antiplasmodial investigation

The control stock solution of chloroquine was prepared in DD water. The M. longifolia extract AgNP suspension was prepared in dimethyl sulfoxide. In all groups, with the exception of CQ, the last arrangement contained 0.4% DMSO. The antiplasmodial activity of the concentrate of the M. longifolia extract AgNP test was determined by adding it to a 96-well plate as done by Rieckmann [31], with the modification shown by Carvalho et al. [32]. A solution of infected RBC containing most trophozoites was inoculated to the well to make a final volume of 100 mL. The positive control was CQ, and uninfected and contaminated RBC was incorporated with a negative standard. The well plates were kept at 37°C, followed by 24 h incubation with and without freshly containing AgNPs. After brooding for 24 h, Giemsa-stained blood films were set up in every well of the plates, and the level of restraint of parasite development was determined using a visualizing instrument by examining the number of sporozoites with at least minimum three independent test experiments with that of control wells.

2.11 Statistical analysis

SPSS programming version 16.0 variant was used for all experiments. Data from mosquitocidal tests were analyzed by probit investigation, containing lethal concentrations 50 and 90 [33]. In anti-plasmodial examination, values were determined as rate development hindrance; the focus causing half restraint of parasite development (IC50) was determined from the medication fixation reaction curves.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Characterization of M. longifolia-synthesized AgNPs

Humanity benefits from the development of affordable, dependable, and environmentally friendly approaches to increase the synthesis and effectiveness of nanoparticles [34]. Because of the impact of surface plasmon resonance, silver nitrate was reduced when plant filtrates were added, which was followed by a slight increase in the shading from clear to yellowish earthy color (SPR). UV-Vis spectroscopy, one of the most often used techniques, was used to observe the auxiliary portrayal of AgNPs. The light earthy shading was produced by increasing the hatching time. The pale earthy-colored shading of silver colloids inclusion range showed a clear peak at 425 nm (Figure 1).

Figure 1 UV-Vis spectrum of M. longifolia-synthesized AgNPs.
Figure 1

UV-Vis spectrum of M. longifolia-synthesized AgNPs.

In concurrence with our outcomes, a peak with most extreme retention at 410 nm described the biosynthesis of Aloe vera-synthesized AgNPs [22]. Essentially, the Delphinium denudatum AgNPs synthesized showed a peak with most extreme retention at 416 nm. Additionally, the position and condition of AgNP plasmon ingestion are greatly influenced by the molecule size, surface-adsorbed species, and the dielectric medium [35].

Four extreme peaks in the two-value range, spanning values of 25–60, are visible in the XRD spectrum. In the current experiment, the AgNPs were framed at two estimates of 38.32°, 52.45°, and 66.65° in comparison to planes for silver, individually (Figure 2). The XRD image clearly demonstrates that AgNPs were crystalline in character and were formed by the reduction of AgNO3 particles by M. longifolia. For AgNPs made from Acalypha indica, similar results have been explained [36].

Figure 2 XRD pattern of M. longifolia-synthesized AgNPs.
Figure 2

XRD pattern of M. longifolia-synthesized AgNPs.

FTIR analysis was done to distinguish conceivable biomolecules on the M. longifolia leaf extract that might be liable for biosynthesis and adjustment of AgNPs. An FTIR spectrum for the synthesis of AgNPs is shown in Figure 3. The significant peaks in the FTIR range of AgNPs have been seen at 648, 1,216, 1,819, and 3,984 cm−1. Additionally, for the FTIR range of Delphinium denudatum root extricate, the peaks were seen at 3,354, 2,952, 2,063, 1,651, 1,419, 1,383, 1,354, 1,171, 1,093, 780, 672, and 605 cm−1. The FTIR had featured the nearness of various utilitarian gatherings, including alkane, alkene, methylene, amine, and carboxylic groups, which are known to be present in the biosynthesized AgNPs [37].

Figure 3 FTIR spectrum of M. longifolia-synthesized AgNPs.
Figure 3

FTIR spectrum of M. longifolia-synthesized AgNPs.

SEM micrographs demonstrated that M. longifolia-integrated AgNPs were primarily spherical in shape, ranging from 20 to 40 nm (Figure 4). Ulva lactuca-synthesized AgNPs were found to be in appropriation of sizes, mostly ranging from 20 to 35 nm [38]. The EDX graph uncovered a solid sign in the Ag area, affirming the nearness of natural Ag, demonstrating a sharp peak at 3 keV, for the synthesized AgNPs (Figure 5). Essentially, metallic Ag nanocrystals demonstrated an average optical retention peak roughly at 3 keV because of SPR [39,40]. EDX likewise indicated the nearness of oxygen, indicating that AgNPs were topped by the natural parts present in the seaweeds, as additionally featured by the FTIR investigation [41,42].

Figure 4 SEM micrograph showing the morphological characteristics of M. longifolia-synthesized AgNPs.
Figure 4

SEM micrograph showing the morphological characteristics of M. longifolia-synthesized AgNPs.

Figure 5 EDX spectrum of M. longifolia-synthesized AgNPs.
Figure 5

EDX spectrum of M. longifolia-synthesized AgNPs.

3.2 Mosquitocidal action

In the laboratory analysis, the M. longifolia filtrate was found to be poisonous against hatchlings and pupae of A. stephensi, regardless of whether tried at low dosages. LC50 values were found to be 31.577 (I), 43.657 (II), 63.084 (III), 74.895  (IV), and 119.258 ppm (pupal population stages) (Table 1) at different instars, respectively. Likewise, a subsidiary impact was found as recently published by Benelli et al. [8]; Murugan et al. [43] had shown for other plant-borne mosquitocidals. Further, the research center analysis had shown M. longifolia interceded AgNPs to have profoundly expanded larval and pupal mortality against A. stephensi. The LC50 values were found to be 1.302 (I), 2.035 (II), 2.181 (III), 3.876 (IV), and 6.102 ppm (pupal population stages) (shown in Table 2). In contrast to A. stephensi, Arokiyaraj et al. [44] considered the larvicidal activity of AgNPs included by botanical concentrate of C. indicum. It should be noted that additional AgNPs produced by Aloe vera were extremely viable at lower concentrations than those used in the current study [22]. Recently, Mondal et al. [45] reported that Colocasia esculenta stem-synthesized AgNP filtrate concentrate was biotoxic to Culex quinquefasciatus hatchlings, with greater mortality at extremely low concentrations.

Table 1

Acute toxicity of M. longifolia aqueous extracts against larvae and pupae of the malaria vector A. stephensi

Target LC50 (LC90) (mg·L−1) 95% confidence limit Regression equation x 2
LC50 (LC90) (mg·L−1)
LCL UCL
I instar 41.460 (121.404) 31.577 (106.579) 48.993 (145.744) y = −0.665 + 0.016x 0.053n.s
II instar 53.005 (145.398) 43.657 (124.530) 61.181 (182.580) y = −0.735 + 0.014x 0.205n.s
III instar 72.285 (176.627) 63.084 (146.882) 84.228 (234.545) y = −0.888 + 0.012x 0.054n.s
IV instar 86.002 (199.629) 74.895 (162.083) 104.335 (278.465) y = −0.970 + 0.011x 0.316n.s
Pupae 151.951 (304.488) 119.258 (220.588) 252.400 (573.433) y = −1.277 + 0.008x 0.056n.s

Control = no mortality; LC50 = lethal concentration killing 50% of the insects; LC90 = lethal concentration killing 90% of the insects; χ 2 = chi-square; n.s. = not significant (α = 0.05).

Table 2

Acute toxicity of M. longifolia-synthesized AgNPs against larvae and pupae of the malaria vector A. stephensi

Target LC50 (LC90) (mg·L−1) 95% confidence Limit Regression equation x 2
LC 50 (LC90) (mg·L−1)
LCL UCL
I instar 1.302 (6.660) 0.025 (5.975) 2.146 (7.619) y = −0.311 + 0.239x 5.246n.s
II instar 2.035 (10.058) 0.442 (8.829) 3.046 (12.092) y = −0.325 + 0.160x 5.053n.s
III instar 2.181 (12.017) 0.185 (10.250) 3.348 (15.328) y = −0.284 + 0.130x 2.150n.s
IV instar 3.876 (16.435) 1.991 (13.306) 5.028 (23.444) y = −0.396 + 0.102x 0.007*
Pupae 6.102 (21.077) 4.664 (16.194) 7.592 (34.142) y = −0.522 + 0.086x 0.072n.s

Control = no mortality; LC50 = lethal concentration killing 50% of the insects; LC90 = lethal concentration killing 90% of the insects; χ 2 = chi-square; n.s. = not significant (α = 0.05).

3.3 Cytotoxic assay

The MTT test was used to determine how biosynthesized AgNPs affected the mortality of Vero cells. The in vitro cytotoxic activity of AgNPs (concentrations: 10–100 g·mL−1) against the selected cells is shown in Figure 6. The test findings demonstrated that the particles did not completely prevent cell division. Instead, the fact that the majority of the cells (60%) were in a healthy state suggested that the substance was ideal for use in the selected cells. The results clearly showed that the IC50 cell reasonability is what caused the cells to be so similar to one another. According to a previous research, AgNP particles incubated with Vero cells for 72 h showed reduced or no toxicity to mammalian cells [46].

Figure 6 Cytotoxic effect of the synthesized AgNPs on Vero cells.
Figure 6

Cytotoxic effect of the synthesized AgNPs on Vero cells.

3.4 Cell morphology investigation

The morphological changes of chosen cells in the presence and absence of AgNPs at different concentrations are shown in Figure 7. It can be seen from Figure 7 that the control cells did not show any exceptional changes on their morphology. Nevertheless, AgNPs were not shown to have any unfavorable impact to the Vero cells. The cytological examinations evidenced that the synthesized AgNPs are profoundly biocompatible to the framework and explicitly harmful to the parasites.

Figure 7 Morphological observation of synthesized AgNP-treated Vero cells: (a) control, (b) 25 μg·mL−1, (c) 50 μg·mL−1, and (d) 100 μg·mL−1.
Figure 7

Morphological observation of synthesized AgNP-treated Vero cells: (a) control, (b) 25 μg·mL−1, (c) 50 μg·mL−1, and (d) 100 μg·mL−1.

3.5 Larval deformity

As shown in Figure 8, introduction of AgNPs caused neglect of improvement on the ordinary morphology, the regularly contortions including shrinkage mid-region and tracheal gills stomach extremities in mosquito hatchlings. The locomotory movement of hatchlings at 6 dpf time point (after the AgNP presentation period) was broken down irrespective of if the blended particles introduction could have a relentless consequence for larval conduct. We found that the rewarded hatchlings decreased locomotory conduct and butt-centric papillae gnawing conduct. Farida et al. [47] had revealed the harmfulness of the metabolites of B. bassiana on the fourth instar hatchlings of Cx. pipiens and had observed numerous histological alterations and contortion in the rewarded larval tissues and body, particularly in fat cells and fingernail skin. Other findings had detailed that the midgut of tried mosquitoes’ hatchlings had increased in the gut lumen and decreased the intercellular substance and deterioration of cores, when P. daleae mycelium were removed [48].

Figure 8 Microscopic analysis of the synthesized AgNPs on mosquito larvae: (a–c) untreated mosquito larvae; (d–f) AgNP-treated mosquito larvae.
Figure 8

Microscopic analysis of the synthesized AgNPs on mosquito larvae: (a–c) untreated mosquito larvae; (d–f) AgNP-treated mosquito larvae.

3.6 Antiplasmodial tests

Figures 9 and 10 show that the efficacy of AgNPs orchestrated with M. longifolia at various focuses on the restraint pace of the malarial parasites, which was seen subsequent to the plant extract treatment. Extreme inhibition ranges were seen subsequent to the treatment with synthesized AgNPs. The lowest inhibition range of parasitemia (44.5%) was seen in parasites at 50 ppm concentration of M. longifolia-synthesized AgNPs. Further, the parasitemia inhibition ranges were extremely high, about 44.5%, 66.2%, and 80.4% for 50, 75, and 100 ppm, respectively, for M. longifolia-synthesized AgNPs. Similarly, Mimosa pudica leaf extracts and AgNPs were shown to have a good antiparasitic activity [49]. Also, Murugan et al. [16] found that the antiplasmodial activities of O. basilicum and S. occidentalis were not in favor of CQ (s and r) strains of P. falciparum. Further, Murugan et al. [38] revealed that the antiplasmodial action of U. lactuca-seaweed-synthesized AgNPs were not in favor of CQ (s and r) strains of P. falciparum, while in U. lactuca-synthesized AgNPs, the IC50 values were 76.33  (CQ-s) and 79.13 μg·mL−1 (CQ-r). This information on the antiplasmodial activity of M. longifolia-synthesized AgNPs implies that IC50 values would be useful in understanding their antimalarial properties.

Figure 9 Antiplasmodial activity of the synthesized AgNPs against P. falciparum: (a) control, (b) 50 ppm, (c) 75 ppm, and (d) 100 ppm.
Figure 9

Antiplasmodial activity of the synthesized AgNPs against P. falciparum: (a) control, (b) 50 ppm, (c) 75 ppm, and (d) 100 ppm.

Figure 10 In vitro antiplasmodial activity of AgNPs synthesized using M. longifolia against the malaria parasite P. falciparum.
Figure 10

In vitro antiplasmodial activity of AgNPs synthesized using M. longifolia against the malaria parasite P. falciparum.

4 Conclusion

The goal of this study is to study eco-friendly green-blended AgNPs against the A. stephensi malaria vector. The quick and inexpensive synthesis of AgNPs was confirmed by IR, SEM, XRD, UV-Vis spectroscopy. This study demonstrated that M. longifolia-intervened AgNPs can be used at small dosages to effectively reduce populations of the jungle fever vector. Up to 100 g·mL−1, the cytotoxic effect of the biosynthesized nanomaterial on African green monkey kidney cells was considered to be of negligible toxicity. The combined effects of the inserted AgNPs led to A. stephensi larval deformation during the instar phase, which prompted larval passage. In conclusion, M. longifolia-intervened AgNPs has the potential to impede the growth of the P. falciparum malaria parasite. This study demonstrated that the biosynthesized AgNPs can be employed to build safer and more recent specialists for the control of intestinal illness in the near future.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the Department of Zoology, Bharathiar University, for providing the laboratory facilities.

  1. Funding information: The authors state no funding involved.

  2. Author contributions: Chellasamy Panneerselvam: conducted the experiments and data compilation; Abdullah F. Shater, Fayez M. Saleh, Zuhair M. Mohammedsaleh: wrote the draft and discussed the results; Hattan Gattan, Bassam M. Al-Ahmadi, Nizar H. Saeedi: contributed to formal analysis and data curation; Mohammed M. Jalal, Chellasamy Panneerselvam: reviewed and edited the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available in the article.

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Received: 2022-09-30
Revised: 2023-03-04
Accepted: 2023-03-07
Published Online: 2023-05-15

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2022-8111
Keywords for this article
Anopheles stephensi; antimalarial activity; IC50; Madhuca longifolia; silver nanoparticles
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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  13. Construction of fluorescence system of felodipine–tetracyanovinyl–2,2′-bipyridine complex
  14. Excellent photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B over Bi2O3 supported on Zn-MOF nanocomposites under visible light
  15. Optimization-based control strategy for a large-scale polyhydroxyalkanoates production in a fed-batch bioreactor using a coupled PDE–ODE system
  16. Effectiveness of pH and amount of Artemia urumiana extract on physical, chemical, and biological attributes of UV-fabricated biogold nanoparticles
  17. Geranium leaf-mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their transcriptomic effects on Candida albicans
  18. Synthesis, characterization, anticancer, anti-inflammatory activities, and docking studies of 3,5-disubstituted thiadiazine-2-thiones
  19. Synthesis and stability of phospholipid-encapsulated nano-selenium
  20. Putative anti-proliferative effect of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) seed and its nano-formulation
  21. Enrichment of low-grade phosphorites by the selective leaching method
  22. Electrochemical analysis of the dissolution of gold in a copper–ethylenediamine–thiosulfate system
  23. Characterisation of carbonate lake sediments as a potential filler for polymer composites
  24. Evaluation of nano-selenium biofortification characteristics of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.)
  25. Quality of oil extracted by cold press from Nigella sativa seeds incorporated with rosemary extracts and pretreated by microwaves
  26. Heteropolyacid-loaded MOF-derived mesoporous zirconia catalyst for chemical degradation of rhodamine B
  27. Recovery of critical metals from carbonatite-type mineral wastes: Geochemical modeling investigation of (bio)hydrometallurgical leaching of REEs
  28. Photocatalytic properties of ZnFe-mixed oxides synthesized via a simple route for water remediation
  29. Attenuation of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate-induced hepatic and renal toxicity by naringin nanoparticles in a rat model
  30. Novel in situ synthesis of quaternary core–shell metallic sulfide nanocomposites for degradation of organic dyes and hydrogen production
  31. Microfluidic steam-based synthesis of luminescent carbon quantum dots as sensing probes for nitrite detection
  32. Transformation of eggshell waste to egg white protein solution, calcium chloride dihydrate, and eggshell membrane powder
  33. Preparation of Zr-MOFs for the adsorption of doxycycline hydrochloride from wastewater
  34. Green nanoarchitectonics of the silver nanocrystal potential for treating malaria and their cytotoxic effects on the kidney Vero cell line
  35. Carbon emissions analysis of producing modified asphalt with natural asphalt
  36. An efficient and green synthesis of 2-phenylquinazolin-4(3H)-ones via t-BuONa-mediated oxidative condensation of 2-aminobenzamides and benzyl alcohols under solvent- and transition metal-free conditions
  37. Chitosan nanoparticles loaded with mesosulfuron methyl and mesosulfuron methyl + florasulam + MCPA isooctyl to manage weeds of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
  38. Synergism between lignite and high-sulfur petroleum coke in CO2 gasification
  39. Facile aqueous synthesis of ZnCuInS/ZnS–ZnS QDs with enhanced photoluminescence lifetime for selective detection of Cu(ii) ions
  40. Rapid synthesis of copper nanoparticles using Nepeta cataria leaves: An eco-friendly management of disease-causing vectors and bacterial pathogens
  41. Study on the photoelectrocatalytic activity of reduced TiO2 nanotube films for removal of methyl orange
  42. Development of a fuzzy logic model for the prediction of spark-ignition engine performance and emission for gasoline–ethanol blends
  43. Micro-impact-induced mechano-chemical synthesis of organic precursors from FeC/FeN and carbonates/nitrates in water and its extension to nucleobases
  44. Green synthesis of strontium-doped tin dioxide (SrSnO2) nanoparticles using the Mahonia bealei leaf extract and evaluation of their anticancer and antimicrobial activities
  45. A study on the larvicidal and adulticidal potential of Cladostepus spongiosus macroalgae and green-fabricated silver nanoparticles against mosquito vectors
  46. Catalysts based on nickel salt heteropolytungstates for selective oxidation of diphenyl sulfide
  47. Powerful antibacterial nanocomposites from Corallina officinalis-mediated nanometals and chitosan nanoparticles against fish-borne pathogens
  48. Removal behavior of Zn and alkalis from blast furnace dust in pre-reduction sinter process
  49. Environmentally friendly synthesis and computational studies of novel class of acridinedione integrated spirothiopyrrolizidines/indolizidines
  50. The mechanisms of inhibition and lubrication of clean fracturing flowback fluids in water-based drilling fluids
  51. Adsorption/desorption performance of cellulose membrane for Pb(ii)
  52. A one-pot, multicomponent tandem synthesis of fused polycyclic pyrrolo[3,2-c]quinolinone/pyrrolizino[2,3-c]quinolinone hybrid heterocycles via environmentally benign solid state melt reaction
  53. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using durian rind extract and optical characteristics of surface plasmon resonance-based optical sensor for the detection of hydrogen peroxide
  54. Electrochemical analysis of copper-EDTA-ammonia-gold thiosulfate dissolution system
  55. Characterization of bio-oil production by microwave pyrolysis from cashew nut shells and Cassia fistula pods
  56. Green synthesis methods and characterization of bacterial cellulose/silver nanoparticle composites
  57. Photocatalytic research performance of zinc oxide/graphite phase carbon nitride catalyst and its application in environment
  58. Effect of phytogenic iron nanoparticles on the bio-fortification of wheat varieties
  59. In vitro anti-cancer and antimicrobial effects of manganese oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the Glycyrrhiza uralensis leaf extract on breast cancer cell lines
  60. Preparation of Pd/Ce(F)-MCM-48 catalysts and their catalytic performance of n-heptane isomerization
  61. Green “one-pot” fluorescent bis-indolizine synthesis with whole-cell plant biocatalysis
  62. Silica-titania mesoporous silicas of MCM-41 type as effective catalysts and photocatalysts for selective oxidation of diphenyl sulfide by H2O2
  63. Biosynthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles from molted feathers of Pavo cristatus and their antibiofilm and anticancer activities
  64. Clean preparation of rutile from Ti-containing mixed molten slag by CO2 oxidation
  65. Synthesis and characterization of Pluronic F-127-coated titanium dioxide nanoparticles synthesized from extracts of Atractylodes macrocephala leaf for antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties
  66. Effect of pretreatment with alkali on the anaerobic digestion characteristics of kitchen waste and analysis of microbial diversity
  67. Ameliorated antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer properties by Plectranthus vettiveroides root extract-mediated green synthesis of chitosan nanoparticles
  68. Microwave-accelerated pretreatment technique in green extraction of oil and bioactive compounds from camelina seeds: Effectiveness and characterization
  69. Studies on the extraction performance of phorate by aptamer-functionalized magnetic nanoparticles in plasma samples
  70. Investigation of structural properties and antibacterial activity of AgO nanoparticle extract from Solanum nigrum/Mentha leaf extracts by green synthesis method
  71. Green fabrication of chitosan from marine crustaceans and mushroom waste: Toward sustainable resource utilization
  72. Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
  73. The enhanced adsorption properties of phosphorus from aqueous solutions using lanthanum modified synthetic zeolites
  74. Separation of graphene oxides of different sizes by multi-layer dialysis and anti-friction and lubrication performance
  75. Visible-light-assisted base-catalyzed, one-pot synthesis of highly functionalized cinnolines
  76. The experimental study on the air oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid with Co–Mn–Br system
  77. Highly efficient removal of tetracycline and methyl violet 2B from aqueous solution using the bimetallic FeZn-ZIFs catalyst
  78. A thermo-tolerant cellulase enzyme produced by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens M7, an insight into synthesis, optimization, characterization, and bio-polishing activity
  79. Exploration of ketone derivatives of succinimide for their antidiabetic potential: In vitro and in vivo approaches
  80. Ultrasound-assisted green synthesis and in silico study of 6-(4-(butylamino)-6-(diethylamino)-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)oxypyridazine derivatives
  81. A study of the anticancer potential of Pluronic F-127 encapsulated Fe2O3 nanoparticles derived from Berberis vulgaris extract
  82. Biogenic synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Consolida orientalis flowers: Identification, catalytic degradation, and biological effect
  83. Initial assessment of the presence of plastic waste in some coastal mangrove forests in Vietnam
  84. Adsorption synergy electrocatalytic degradation of phenol by active oxygen-containing species generated in Co-coal based cathode and graphite anode
  85. Antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, and cytotoxicity activities of the aqueous extract of Syzygium aromaticum-mediated synthesized novel silver nanoparticles
  86. Synthesis of a silica matrix with ZnO nanoparticles for the fabrication of a recyclable photodegradation system to eliminate methylene blue dye
  87. Natural polymer fillers instead of dye and pigments: Pumice and scoria in PDMS fluid and elastomer composites
  88. Study on the preparation of glycerylphosphorylcholine by transesterification under supported sodium methoxide
  89. Wireless network handheld terminal-based green ecological sustainable design evaluation system: Improved data communication and reduced packet loss rate
  90. The optimization of hydrogel strength from cassava starch using oxidized sucrose as a crosslinking agent
  91. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Saccharum officinarum leaf extract for antiviral paint
  92. Study on the reliability of nano-silver-coated tin solder joints for flip chips
  93. Environmentally sustainable analytical quality by design aided RP-HPLC method for the estimation of brilliant blue in commercial food samples employing a green-ultrasound-assisted extraction technique
  94. Anticancer and antimicrobial potential of zinc/sodium alginate/polyethylene glycol/d-pinitol nanocomposites against osteosarcoma MG-63 cells
  95. Nanoporous carbon@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite as a green absorbent for the adsorptive removal of Hg(ii) from aqueous solutions
  96. Characterization of silver sulfide nanoparticles from actinobacterial strain (M10A62) and its toxicity against lepidopteran and dipterans insect species
  97. Phyto-fabrication and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Withania somnifera: Investigating antioxidant potential
  98. Effect of e-waste nanofillers on the mechanical, thermal, and wear properties of epoxy-blend sisal woven fiber-reinforced composites
  99. Magnesium nanohydroxide (2D brucite) as a host matrix for thymol and carvacrol: Synthesis, characterization, and inhibition of foodborne pathogens
  100. Synergistic inhibitive effect of a hybrid zinc oxide-benzalkonium chloride composite on the corrosion of carbon steel in a sulfuric acidic solution
  101. Review Articles
  102. Role and the importance of green approach in biosynthesis of nanopropolis and effectiveness of propolis in the treatment of COVID-19 pandemic
  103. Gum tragacanth-mediated synthesis of metal nanoparticles, characterization, and their applications as a bactericide, catalyst, antioxidant, and peroxidase mimic
  104. Green-processed nano-biocomposite (ZnO–TiO2): Potential candidates for biomedical applications
  105. Reaction mechanisms in microwave-assisted lignin depolymerisation in hydrogen-donating solvents
  106. Recent progress on non-noble metal catalysts for the deoxydehydration of biomass-derived oxygenates
  107. Rapid Communication
  108. Phosphorus removal by iron–carbon microelectrolysis: A new way to achieve phosphorus recovery
  109. Special Issue: Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications (Guest Editors: Arpita Roy and Fernanda Maria Policarpo Tonelli)
  110. Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications
  111. Nano-encapsulated tanshinone IIA in PLGA-PEG-COOH inhibits apoptosis and inflammation in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury
  112. Green fabrication of silver nanoparticles using Melia azedarach ripened fruit extract, their characterization, and biological properties
  113. Green-synthesized nanoparticles and their therapeutic applications: A review
  114. Antioxidant, antibacterial, and cytotoxicity potential of synthesized silver nanoparticles from the Cassia alata leaf aqueous extract
  115. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Callisia fragrans leaf extract and its anticancer activity against MCF-7, HepG2, KB, LU-1, and MKN-7 cell lines
  116. Algae-based green AgNPs, AuNPs, and FeNPs as potential nanoremediators
  117. Green synthesis of Kickxia elatine-induced silver nanoparticles and their role as anti-acetylcholinesterase in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease
  118. Phytocrystallization of silver nanoparticles using Cassia alata flower extract for effective control of fungal skin pathogens
  119. Antibacterial wound dressing with hydrogel from chitosan and polyvinyl alcohol from the red cabbage extract loaded with silver nanoparticles
  120. Leveraging of mycogenic copper oxide nanostructures for disease management of Alternaria blight of Brassica juncea
  121. Nanoscale molecular reactions in microbiological medicines in modern medical applications
  122. Synthesis and characterization of ZnO/β-cyclodextrin/nicotinic acid nanocomposite and its biological and environmental application
  123. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles via Taxus wallichiana Zucc. plant-derived Taxol: Novel utilization as anticancer, antioxidation, anti-inflammation, and antiurolithic potential
  124. Recyclability and catalytic characteristics of copper oxide nanoparticles derived from bougainvillea plant flower extract for biomedical application
  125. Phytofabrication, characterization, and evaluation of novel bioinspired selenium–iron (Se–Fe) nanocomposites using Allium sativum extract for bio-potential applications
  126. Erratum
  127. Erratum to “Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)”
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