Home Ameliorated antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer properties by Plectranthus vettiveroides root extract-mediated green synthesis of chitosan nanoparticles
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Ameliorated antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer properties by Plectranthus vettiveroides root extract-mediated green synthesis of chitosan nanoparticles

  • Kamalesh Balakumar Venkatesan , Saravanan Alamelu , Sivamathi Rathna Priya , Nivedha Jayaseelan , Sathish-Kumar Kamaraj , Manoj Kumar Srinivasan EMAIL logo , Mohammed Ali Alshehri , Chellasamy Panneerselvam EMAIL logo , Ahmed Saif and Selvendiran Periyasamy
Published/Copyright: October 26, 2023
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Green Processing and Synthesis
From the journal Green Processing and Synthesis Volume 12 Issue 1

Abstract

In this investigation, using the biogenic approach, Plectranthus vettiveroides root extract was used to synthesize chitosan nanoparticles (P. vettiveroides CNPs). The produced nanoparticles (NPs) were characterized using UV-visible (UV/vis) absorption spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The typical absorption peaks in the UV/vis spectra were located around 253 nm. Functional groups were identified in P. vettiveroides CNPs by FTIR. As per SEM analysis, the NPs generated exhibited a spherical shape with an average diameter of 78.01 nm. In addition, the synthesized P. vettiveroides CNPs were examined for antioxidant and antibacterial properties and anticancer activities. They show a strong antioxidant activity compared to butylated hydroxytoluene as a standard antioxidant. P. vettiveroides root extract CNPs demonstrated the most significant zone of inhibition against Klebsiella pneumoniae (22 mm), followed by Escherichia coli (21 mm), Bacillus cereus (19 mm), and Staphylococcus aureus (17 mm). In addition, using MTT assay, anticancer efficacy against KB (oral cancer) cells was studied. The cytotoxic reaction was observed in a dosage-dependent manner. P. vettiveroides CNPs show bioefficacy because of their size and the existence of bioactive compounds, which can enhance antibacterial and anticancer activities by lysing bacterial and cancer cell walls.

Graphical abstract

Keywords: antibacterial; anticancer; antioxidant; chitosan nanoparticles; Plectranthus vettiveroides

Abbreviation

ABTS•+

2, 2′-Azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)

BHT

Butylated hydroxytoluene

CNPs

Chitosan nanoparticles

DMEM

Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium

DMRT

Duncan’s multiple range tests

DMSO

Dimethyl sulfoxide

DPPH

1,1-Diphenyl-2-picryl hydroxyl

FBS

Fetal bovine serum

FRAP

Ferric reducing antioxidant power

FTIR

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy

H2O2

Hydrogen peroxide

MTT

3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide

NCCS

National Centre for Cell Sciences

NPs

Nanoparticles

O2‒

Superoxide anion

SEM

Scanning electron microscopy

TCA

Trichloroacetic acid

TPP

Sodium tripolyphosphate

1 Introduction

Chitosan is a naturally occurring poly-cation deacetylated polymer made of D- and N-acetyl glucosamine groups. Chitosan comes in various molecular weights, has intriguing properties, and can be used in various industrial processes, most notably for medication delivery. Chitosan particles could be created as nanoparticles (NPs), microspheres, and microcapsules. Chitosan, via its amino groups, will engage in a wide range of chemical processes [1]. Natural polymers are superior to synthetic polymers mainly because they are biodegradable, non-toxic, and biocompatible [2]. NPs are tiny (1–100 nm) chemical compounds with functional unity. These substances have the potential to be used as medicinal substances, transfection vectors, antibacterial agents, and fluorescent labels, and their use in consumer goods and medical applications is growing [3]. Root extract-based biogenic nanoscale metal particles are becoming increasingly important. Since using biological sources to synthesize trustworthy, eco-friendly nanoscale materials, bio-nanotechnology is an intriguing and developing technical instrument. Chitosan nanoparticles (CNPs) used now include food packaging, gene therapy, heavy metal removal, reducing agent metal NP medication delivery systems, and antibacterial activities [4]. CNPs aid water purification by adsorbing pollutants, while biomedically they enable drug delivery and wound healing. Additionally, chitosan supports catalysis and green chemical processes through functionalized NPs [5]. Numerous conventional techniques have been used to create NPs, but these techniques have several drawbacks, including cost, the production of toxic chemicals, and others. As a result, research has been intensified to develop safe, ecologically acceptable alternatives for generating NPs, emphasizing biological systems as a primary green method. From an industrial and commercialization standpoint, large-scale synthesis of CNPs using green sources like plants is practical to a certain extent. Advantages include the sustainability of plant-based sources, reduced environmental impact, and potential cost savings. However, drawbacks may include variability in chitosan content among different plant species, slower extraction processes, and potential scalability challenges. Additionally, ensuring consistent quality and yield may pose challenges, warranting further optimization for reliable and efficient production [6]. Biological systems can create exact forms and manage structures [7]. The ionic gelation approach has garnered much interest among the techniques developed to make CNPs since it is non-toxic, devoid of organic solvents, practical, and controlled. The ion gelation method is commonly used to form NPs from chitosan. This process involves the crosslinking of chitosan molecules to create stable NPs through the use of ions, such as tripolyphosphate (TPP), which act as crosslinking agents [8,9]. The root extract of Plectranthus vettiveroides, which contains negatively charged groups, was used in this study to create CNPs instead of other artificially negatively charged materials. This novel process is based on the ionic gelation technique. P. vettiveroides is a fragrant, herbaceous plant member of the Lamiaceae family. Locally, it is known as Lavanchi and Muchivala in Kannada, Vettiveru and Kuriver in Telugu, Vetiver and Kuru ver in Tamil, Valak in Hindi, and Iruveli in Malayalam [10]. Its lamina is relatively thin, its roots are fragrant, and its leaves are unscented. Additionally, the extract of P. vettiveroides exhibits antimicrobial, antifungal, and antioxidant activities. Glycosides, phenolic content, terpenoids, anthraquinones, saponin, tannins, and lignin were found in the methanol extracts of P. vettiveroides, using the phytochemical analysis. The root extract biomolecules may serve as catalysts for the biosynthesis of CNPs. This system has a few intriguing characteristics: (a) a biological system; very gentle circumstances; and no use of high temperature, surfactant, or other specialized experimental technologies are required to create the NPs and (b) because of their small size and positive surface charges, NPs may be more stable in bioactivities by engaging with negatively charged biomembranes and being linked to specific areas in vivo [11]. Biomolecules present in plant extracts have the potential to be used in the manufacture of NPs. However, many chemicals in aromatic and therapeutic plants are biologically active. On the other hand, as far as we know, P. vettiveroides aqueous root extracts have never been used to manufacture CNPs. So, for the first time, this work investigates the synthesis of CNPs using P. vettiveroides root extracts and their antibacterial, antioxidant, and anticancer activities.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Reagents

Sodium phosphate, sodium carbonate, potassium acetate, chloroform, methanol, ethyl acetate, sulfuric acid, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and trichloroacetic acid reagents were purchased from Qualigens (Mumbai). 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT), chitosan, sodium TPP, 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl hydroxyl (DPPH), and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) were purchased from Sigma Aldrich. All other substances used in this study were of the highest quality and analytical grade. KB (oral cancer) cells were procured from NCCS (National Centre for Cell Sciences), Pune, India.

2.2 Collection of plant material and plant extract

Root samples of the plant P. vettiveroides were collected from Kodumudi Dam, Cuddalore district, Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu. A Botanist at the Department of Botany, Annamalai University, identified the collected plant material.

P. vettiveroides root extract was prepared from collected roots. About 10 g of the finely chopped root was used and boiled for 5 min in 100 ml of ethanol. The resulting extract was cooled and filtered using Whatman No. 1 filter paper and kept at 4°C for storage.

2.3 Synthesis of CNPs

CNPs were made using a modified version of the previously described ionic gelation of chitosan with TPP anions [12]. 20 mg of chitosan were mixed with 20 ml of 1% (V/V) acetum (acetic acid) solution at room temperature under continuous magnetic stirring. Subsequently, the pH was adjusted to 5.5. Next, 3.5 ml of 2.0 mg·ml−1 TPP was dropwise added to the chitosan solution. Transient sonication resulted in the formation of an opaque and transparent solution. By pouring 1 ml of P. vettiveroides ethanol solution with a concentration of 3 mg·ml−1 into the chitosan solution before adding TPP, P. vettiveroides-loaded CNPs (P. vettiveroides CNPs) were synthesized (Figure 1). After centrifuging the NPs at 8,000 rpm, 4°C for 30 min, collecting the supernatant, and suspending the precipitate after three double distilled water washes, the NPs were lyophilized.

Figure 1 Synthesis of P. vettiveroides CNPs.
Figure 1

Synthesis of P. vettiveroides CNPs.

The synthesized CNPs were subjected to various characterization techniques to determine their unique characteristics. A UV-visible (UV/vis) spectrometer was used to record the absorption spectrum for optical qualities, and an scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to assess the form of CNPs.

2.4 Antibacterial activity

Antimicrobials and antibiotics are substances that eradicate bacterial growth. It is only possible to use novel molecules not derived from synthetic antimicrobial drugs to prevent antibiotic resistance [13]. In this study, the antibacterial effects of P. vettiveroides CNPs have been examined on the bacterial strains Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Ampicillin is used as the standard antibiotic treatment for particular bacterial species. On a plate of solidified agar, the pure solvent was inoculated with microorganisms in a 1:1 ratio for the control experiment.

2.5 Antioxidant activity

2.5.1 DPPH• antioxidant assay

The antioxidant activity of the P. vettiveroides CNPs against DPPH• was measured using the method described in Brand Williams et al.’s study [14]. The stable free radical DPPH can accept hydrogen radicals (H) or an electron to create a stable molecule. When it mixes with a free radical that may produce H, DPPH is reduced. It was documented when the hue changed (from deep violet to blue). P. vettiveroides CNPs in various concentrations totaling 1 ml were introduced with 1 ml of DPPH and 3 ml of water. The produced blue color was read at 517 nm using BHT as a reference.

DPPH antioxidant activity ( % ) = ( A 1 − A 2 ) / A 1 × 100

The absorbance of the control is A1, whereas the absorbance of the sample is A2.

2.5.2 ABTS•+ (2, 2′-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)) assay

Using the method described in Re et al.’s study, the ABTS•+ radical cation decolorization test was used to measure the total free radical activity of samples [15]. As was already discussed, the inhibition% was calculated.

2.5.3 Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay

Benzie and Strain developed the FRAP method, which can determine the antioxidant capability of P. vettiveroides CNPs [16]. This approach intends to transform a ferric tripyridyltriazine complex into its ferrous-colored version in the presence of antioxidants.

2.5.4 O2•− (superoxide anion) assay

Liu et al. calculated the superoxide anion scavenging activity [17]. About 0.1 ml of P. vettiveroides CNPs (25–100 µg−1) was added to 1 ml of nitro blue tetrazolium chloride (NBT), reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, and other chemicals. At 25°C, this mixture was incubated for a few minutes. The reagent mixture was used as a control, but no sample was added. The absorbance was spectrophotometrically determined at 560 nm. BHT was used as a reference standard. The percentage of inhibition was determined.

2.5.5 H2O2

Using the Nebavi et al.’s method, the P. vettiveroides CNPs capacity to scavenge H2O2 was assessed [18]. About 1.2 ml of H2O2 and 2.0 ml of P. vettiveroides CNPs (25–100 µg) in phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) were added. A blank tube was created using the same method but without including H2O2. The absorbance at 230 nm was calculated following 10 min of incubation. The percentage of inhibition was estimated using BHT as the reference standard.

2.6 MTT (cytotoxicity assay)

The KB cells were cultured in Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium (DMEM), media with 10% FBS (fetal bovine serum), and 1% antibiotics (penicillin–streptomycin) in 5% CO2 incubator at 37°C. The MTT test was used to assess the cytotoxicity of the P. vettiveroides CNPs.

To get the KB cells to adhere to the plates, they were seeded in a 96-well plate at a density of 5 × 10−3 cells per well and then incubated for around 24 h. After washing away the culture medium, the cells were treated with P. vettiveroides CNPs diluted in DMEM at 25, 50, 75, 100, and 125 µg·ml−1 concentrations. A separate group of untreated cells was kept in identical circumstances as the treated cells. After 24 h of incubation, 20 µl of MTT solution was added to each well, followed by an additional 4 h of 37°C incubation.

The mitochondria of living cells react with the MTT reagent to produce a purple formazan. The media were removed from each well, and 100 µl of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) was used to dissolve the formazan crystals. The absorbance at 570 nm was determined using a microplate reader [19]. The % cell viability was estimated as follows:

% Cytotoxicity = 100 − % Cell viability

2.7 Statistical analysis

All the biochemical assays were carried out in triplicate. The mean and standard deviation were used to present experimental test results. One-way analysis of variance was used to analyze the data using SPSS version 21, and DMRT (Duncan’s multiple range tests) was used to compare the group averages.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Analytical characterization

3.1.1 UV/vis spectroscopy

The primary applications of UV/vis spectroscopy are the identification and qualitative evaluation of chemical compounds. The presence of absorption peaks at 253 nm in the UV/vis spectra suggests the occurrence of electronic transitions within P. vettiveroides CNPs (Figure 2). These transitions relate to the material’s molecular structure and conjugation, providing insights into its optical and electronic properties, aiding in characterizing and understanding the composition and behavior Of NPs.

Figure 2 UV/vis spectroscopy of CNPs synthesized using P. vettiveroides root extract.
Figure 2

UV/vis spectroscopy of CNPs synthesized using P. vettiveroides root extract.

3.1.2 Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis

Figure 3 shows the FTIR spectra of CNPs P. vettiveroides. FTIR analysis confirms the involvement of these phytochemicals by revealing characteristic peaks at 3,448, 2,810, 1,674, 1,467, 1,124, and 619 cm−1 corresponding to O–H, C–H bond, NH3+, −COO, C═O, and C–O functional groups, indicative of their binding to the NPs. This dual function of phytochemicals in the synthesis of CNPs underscores their significance in promoting eco-friendly and efficient NP production.

Figure 3 FTIR spectrum CNPs synthesized using P. vettiveroides root extract.
Figure 3

FTIR spectrum CNPs synthesized using P. vettiveroides root extract.

3.1.3 SEM

SEM was used to examine the surface morphology of P. vettiveroides root extract CNPs (Figure 4). The SEM findings demonstrated the existence of NP aggregates and spherical shapes with excellent resolution. The SEM images were used to produce a particle size distribution histogram, which revealed significant variance in the particle size. The diameters of the particles range from 10 to 140 nm, with a mean and standard deviation of 78.01 and 23.67 nm, respectively (Figure 5).

Figure 4 SEM image of CNPs synthesized using P. vettiveroides root extract.
Figure 4

SEM image of CNPs synthesized using P. vettiveroides root extract.

Figure 5 SEM image of CNPs synthesized using P. vettiveroides root extract determined using a particle size distribution histogram.
Figure 5

SEM image of CNPs synthesized using P. vettiveroides root extract determined using a particle size distribution histogram.

3.2 Antibacterial activity

A reliable diffusion technique was used to evaluate the antibacterial activity of P. vettiveroides CNPs against bacterial pathogens (S. aureus, B. cereus, E. coli, and K. pneumoniae). The results are given in Figures 6 and 7 and Table 1. The biosynthesized CNPs demonstrated an antibacterial activity on all the studied bacterial strains. Based on the differences in the structural makeup of Gram-positive (+ve) and Gram-negative (−ve) bacteria, the bactericidal impact of CNPs was determined to be stronger for −ve bacteria than for +ve bacteria. At 100 µg concentrations, P. vettiveroides root extract CNPs demonstrated the most significant zone of inhibition against K. pneumoniae (22 mm), followed by E. coli (21 mm), B. cereus (19 mm), and S. aureus (17 mm).

Figure 6 Graphical representation of zone of inhibition of CNPs synthesized using P. vettiveroides root extract.
Figure 6

Graphical representation of zone of inhibition of CNPs synthesized using P. vettiveroides root extract.

Figure 7 Antibacterial activity CNPs synthesized using P. vettiveroides root extract.
Figure 7

Antibacterial activity CNPs synthesized using P. vettiveroides root extract.

Table 1

Zone of inhibition of CNPs synthesized using P. vettiveroides root extract

Bacterial pathogens Zone of inhibition (mm)
25 µg 50 µg 75 µg 100 µg Positive
K. pneumoniae 9 13 18 22 28
E. coli 8 12 16 21 27
B. cereus 8 10 14 19 30
S. aureus 7 11 13 17 25

3.3 Antioxidant activity

3.3.1 Effect of P. vettiveroides CNPs on DPPH radical scavenging activity

Our results show that the P. vettiveroides CNPs have a similar free radical scavenger activity as BHT (Figure 8). It was evident that the P. vettiveroides CNPs showed proton-donating activities, indicating that they may be used as free radical scavengers or inhibitors even though their extreme scavenging capacities of DPPH were somewhat inferior to those of BHT. The P. vettiveroides CNPs suppressed the DPPH radical by 36.62%, 39.21%, 45.25%, and 49.91% at 25, 50, 75, and 100 µg·ml−1, respectively. The findings of this study suggest that the ability of P. vettiveroides CNPs to donate hydrogen may serve as primary antioxidants, which in turn mediates their capacity to scavenge free radicals.

Figure 8 Effect of P. vettiveroides CNPs on DPPH assay.
Figure 8

Effect of P. vettiveroides CNPs on DPPH assay.

3.3.2 Effect of P. vettiveroides CNPs on ABTS radical scavenging activity

Synthesized P. vettiveroides CNPs nearly matched the standard BHT in their ability to neutralize ABTS•+ (Figure 9). The percentage of inhibition for P. vettiveroides CNPs was 47.13% at 100 µg·ml−1 concentration.

Figure 9 Effect of P. vettiveroides CNPs on ABTS assay.
Figure 9

Effect of P. vettiveroides CNPs on ABTS assay.

3.3.3 Effect of P. vettiveroides CNPs on FRAP radical scavenging activity

The present findings showed that P. vettiveroides CNPs and BHT have a dose-dependent reducing power, ranging from 25 to 100 µg·ml−1. Their inhibition percentages are 47.23% to 59.34% and 49.12% to 61.47%, respectively, where the reference compound is similar to the potential of P. vettiveroides CNPs (Figure 10).

Figure 10 Effect of P. vettiveroides CNPs on FRAP assay.
Figure 10

Effect of P. vettiveroides CNPs on FRAP assay.

3.3.4 Effect of P. vettiveroides CNPs on superoxide anion radical scavenging assay

The P. vettiveroides CNPs inhibit the synthesis of blue formazan in a dosage-dependent manner (Figure 11). P. vettiveroides CNPs, from 25 to 100 µg·ml−1 of the fraction of inhibitory concentration, rises by the dose from 35.66% to 47.91%. At 25 to 100 µg·ml−1 with 47.42% to 61.34%, the inhibitory concentrations of the BHT and the sample derivative are virtually comparable. According to these findings, P. vettiveroides CNPs possess a strong superoxide radical scavenging capability.

Figure 11 Effect of P. vettiveroides CNPs on superoxide anions.
Figure 11

Effect of P. vettiveroides CNPs on superoxide anions.

3.3.5 Effect of P. vettiveroides CNPs on H2O2 radical scavenging assay

The P. vettiveroides CNPs has the capacity to scavenge H2O2 radicals in a dosage-dependent manner (Figure 12). The BHT has a somewhat higher degree of inhibition (46–60%) than the sample derivative, used to compare the P. vettiveroides CNPs. When the dose is increased from 25 to 100 µg·ml−1, the P. vettiveroides CNPs have a percentage inhibitory concentration of 39–49%.

Figure 12 Effect of P. vettiveroides CNPs on H2O2.
Figure 12

Effect of P. vettiveroides CNPs on H2O2.

3.4 Anticancer activity

Concentrations of P. vettiveroides CNPs (25, 50, 75, 100, and 125 µg·ml−1) were tested for their cytotoxicity against KB oral cancer cells. A microscope was used to check on the growth of the cells. Under the microscope, the images of KB cells treated with P. vettiveroides CNPs showed cell shrinkage and condensed and shattered nuclei (Figure 13).

Figure 13 Morphological changes of KB cells treated with various concentrations of P. vettiveroides CNPs.
Figure 13

Morphological changes of KB cells treated with various concentrations of P. vettiveroides CNPs.

Lesser concentrations of P. vettiveroides CNPs did not cause noticeable morphological alterations. As shown in Figure 14, the substance-induced cytotoxicity in KB oral cancer cells is concentration dependent. The half-inhibitory concentration (IC50) for P. vettiveroides CNPs was determined to be 74 µg·ml−1.

Figure 14 Effect of P. vettiveroides CNPs on the viability of KB cells determined by MTT assay.
Figure 14

Effect of P. vettiveroides CNPs on the viability of KB cells determined by MTT assay.

4 Discussion

CNPs have been synthesized using a variety of different methods. When selecting a suitable preparation method, aspects such as the stability and safety of CNPs should be considered in addition to their particle size [20]. For the production of CNPs in this work, the root extract from P. vettiveroides was used. The synthesis of CNPs using bioactive compounds from plant root extracts involves a stabilization mechanism. Phytochemicals present in the extracts, notably secondary metabolites, serve as stabilizers, preventing NP agglomeration by forming a capping layer on the particle surface [21]. This green synthesis method offers advantages over chemical and physical approaches by using eco-friendly sources, reducing toxic by-products, and offering a sustainable pathway for NP production. The presence of secondary metabolites facilitates the formation of green NPs, highlighting the potential of plant-derived compounds in advancing nanomaterial synthesis [22].

A main characterization test based on UV/vis spectra was used to ensure the development of the NPs. The present absorption peak wavelength was 253 nm, consistent with that previously reported in the UV region at 285 and 320 nm [23]. The CNP biopolymer’s strong intensity suggests that CNPs were successfully synthesized using photosynthesis [24]. The minor peak at 645 cm−1 in the FTIR spectrum is the wiggling of the saccharide structure of chitosan [25]. The structural integrity of chitosan during phytoconversion into CNPs is particularly emphasized by FTIR analysis. The NPs in CNPs are well dispersed in the SEM image and are entangled to create a highly exposed surface area, which makes the CNPs ideal for adsorption [26]. Most of the CNPs made from chitosan were spherical, similar to the existing phytosynthesis of CNPs, and only a small number had an oval-pleated or rod-shaped structure [27,28,29].

CNPs exhibited an antibacterial activity against K. pneumoniae and E. coli [30]. The origin of CNPs’ antibacterial effect may be due to the penetration and disintegration of the membrane by smaller-sized NPs, resulting in cell lysis [31]. Another theory for the mechanism behind the bactericidal action of CNPs is the release of H2O2 from their surface. The amount of chitosan’s surface area is crucial for the production of H2O2, which damages the bacteria by penetrating their cell membrane [32]. The P. vettiveroides root extracts demonstrated a potential bactericidal activity against the tested bacteria, which could be helpful for biomedical applications. It also contains terpenoids, alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids, carbohydrates, saponins, sterols, amino acids, and proteins. CNPs tend to exhibit greater efficacy against −ve bacteria due to differences in cell wall structure. −ve bacteria have an outer lipid membrane that is less dense and provides a weaker barrier, allowing CNPs to more easily penetrate and disrupt the membrane integrity. In contrast, +ve bacteria possess a thicker peptidoglycan layer, which can hinder the penetration of CNPs, reducing their antibacterial effect. This difference in efficacy highlights the importance of considering bacterial cell wall composition when designing chitosan-based antimicrobial strategies [33,34].

Numerous ailments, including cancer and cardiovascular disease, are made worse by the generation of free radicals. Antioxidant activity can be evaluated using the well-known DPPH• free radical scavenging activity. The P. vettiveroides CNPs convert a violet DPPH solution to a yellow product, diphenyl picryl hydrazine, in the DPPH assay, in a dosage-dependent manner. Due to its short analytical time, this method has frequently been used to forecast the antioxidant activity of diverse substances. Since antioxidants tend to donate hydrogen, they are hypothesized to impact DPPH [35].

The ABTS˙+ test can be used to evaluate antioxidant activity indirectly. The ABTS radical undergoes a strong reaction with phenolics, an H-atom donor, which creates an ABTS˙+. The ABTS˙+ is generally stable without phenolics [36]. The effectiveness of the antioxidants to specifically scavenge ABTS˙+ is evaluated using the ABTS test and compared to BHT. It is well known that plant phenolics are potent antioxidants [37]. The observed antioxidant activity may be due to phenolic antioxidants in P. vettiveroides CNPs. Their capacity to operate as an antioxidant and a neutralizer of reactive species is influenced by the location of their hydroxyl atoms, the structure of phenolic compounds, and other characteristics.

The FRAP assay measures an antioxidant capacity to convert a ferric tripyridyltriazine (Fe3+–TPTZ) complex into a Fe2+–TPTZ complex. Reducers are substances that provide one hydrogen atom to the chain-breaking reaction of free radicals [38]. The absorbance of P. vettiveroides CNP increases as the concentration of the Fe2+–TPTZ combination increases. The P. vettiveroides CNPs improved ferric reducing capacity with increasing concentration, similar to traditional antioxidants.

Superoxide, a radical with oxygen at its center, is selectively reactive. Although superoxide has a low chemical reactivity and is a very inert oxidant, it can create more hazardous species, such as singlet oxygen and hydroxyl radicals, which lead to lipid peroxidation [39]. Some enzyme systems produce these species. Superoxide anions are consequently precursors to active free radicals that can harm tissue when interacting with biological macromolecules. Superoxide anions are produced by the riboflavin/methionine/illuminate system from dissolved oxygen, reducing NBT in this system. This method produces the blue formazan, spectrophotometrically detected at 560 nm when the superoxide anion lowers the yellow dye (NBT2+). The P. vettiveroides CNPs can stop the growth of blue formazan.

Both biological systems and beverages high in polyphenols can produce H2O2 when physiological conditions are met [40]. Superoxide dismutase is one of many oxidizing enzymes that can generate H2O2 in living things. It can pass through membranes and oxidize various things gradually. H2O2 is known to cause damage and in vitro cell death [41]. This radical can link DNA nucleotides, breaking the strand. H2O2 can interfere with various biological energy-producing activities [42].

NP toxicity is significantly affected by particle size and dose [43,44]. Several mechanisms allow NPs to enter cancer cells, including macro-pinocytotic uptake, clathrin-mediated transport, and caveolae-dependent endocytosis [45,46]. Once within the cell, hematite NPs can directly interact with NADPH oxidases from the plasma membrane and mitochondria to produce superoxide anion [47,48]. This causes pro-inflammatory effects and cytotoxicity by activating redox-sensitive signaling cascades [49,50].

P. vettiveroides CNPs exhibit multifaceted biological activities. As antimicrobial agents, they inhibit microbial growth by disrupting cell membranes. Their antioxidant potential arises from scavenging free radicals, preventing oxidative stress and cellular damage. Moreover, these NPs display anticancer effects by inducing apoptosis, inhibiting cell proliferation, and modulating signaling pathways. Using these mechanisms, P. vettiveroides CNPs offer a promising avenue for addressing microbial infections, oxidative stress-related disorders, and cancer, showcasing their versatile therapeutic potential.

5 Conclusion

CNPs were synthesized using a biogenic method and a methanolic extract from P. vettiveroides root. A UV/vis spectroscopic investigation found a band at 234 nm that proved that CNPs were synthesized. SEM analysis shows that the synthesized CNPs have the shape of a sphere. Based on the results of this study, the synthesized P. vettiveroides CNPs have a wide range of antibacterial, antioxidant, and anticancer properties. The DPPH•, ABTS•+, FRAP, O2•, and H2O2 scavenging assays showed that the CNPs from P. vettiveroides had an antioxidant activity. At 100 µg·ml−1, P. vettiveroides CNPs had the best antioxidant activity of the three doses because they could eliminate the free radicals. At all doses tested, K. pneumonia, E. coli, B. cereus, and S. aureus were killed by P. vettiveroides CNPs. At 100 µg·ml−1, P. vettiveroides CNPs had the most significant effect against pathogens. The right amount of P. vettiveroides CNPs to fight free radicals and infections was 100 µg·ml−1. P. vettiveroides CNPs killed KB oral cancer cells in a way that depended on their concentration. Future directions might involve optimizing biogenic synthesis processes, enhancing scalability, and developing applications across various industries, aligning with eco-friendly practices. Before P. vettiveroides CNPs can be used in clinical use, more studies must be carried out on their antioxidant effects on living organisms.

  1. Funding information: The authors state no funding was involved in this study.

  2. Author contributions: Kamalesh Balakumar Venkatesan and Saravanan Alamelu – methodology and formal analysis, Sivamathi Rathna Priya – data curation, Nivedha Jayaseelan – writing-original draft preparation, Sathish-Kumar Kamaraj – writing-review and editing, Manoj Kumar Srinivasan – supervision, Mohammed Ali Alshehri, Chellasamy Panneerselvam – funding acquisition and supervision, Ahmed Saif – project administration, Selvendiran Periyasamy – characterization.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2023-05-27
Accepted: 2023-09-04
Published Online: 2023-10-26

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  5. Removal efficiency of dibenzofuran using CuZn-zeolitic imidazole frameworks as a catalyst and adsorbent
  6. Rapid and efficient microwave-assisted extraction of Caesalpinia sappan Linn. heartwood and subsequent synthesis of gold nanoparticles
  7. The catalytic characteristics of 2-methylnaphthalene acylation with AlCl3 immobilized on Hβ as Lewis acid catalyst
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https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2023-0086
Keywords for this article
antibacterial; anticancer; antioxidant; chitosan nanoparticles; Plectranthus vettiveroides
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Value-added utilization of coal fly ash and recycled polyvinyl chloride in door or window sub-frame composites
  3. High removal efficiency of volatile phenol from coking wastewater using coal gasification slag via optimized adsorption and multi-grade batch process
  4. Evolution of surface morphology and properties of diamond films by hydrogen plasma etching
  5. Removal efficiency of dibenzofuran using CuZn-zeolitic imidazole frameworks as a catalyst and adsorbent
  6. Rapid and efficient microwave-assisted extraction of Caesalpinia sappan Linn. heartwood and subsequent synthesis of gold nanoparticles
  7. The catalytic characteristics of 2-methylnaphthalene acylation with AlCl3 immobilized on Hβ as Lewis acid catalyst
  8. Biodegradation of synthetic PVP biofilms using natural materials and nanoparticles
  9. Rutin-loaded selenium nanoparticles modulated the redox status, inflammatory, and apoptotic pathways associated with pentylenetetrazole-induced epilepsy in mice
  10. Optimization of apigenin nanoparticles prepared by planetary ball milling: In vitro and in vivo studies
  11. Synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Origanum onites leaves: Cytotoxic, apoptotic, and necrotic effects on Capan-1, L929, and Caco-2 cell lines
  12. Exergy analysis of a conceptual CO2 capture process with an amine-based DES
  13. Construction of fluorescence system of felodipine–tetracyanovinyl–2,2′-bipyridine complex
  14. Excellent photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B over Bi2O3 supported on Zn-MOF nanocomposites under visible light
  15. Optimization-based control strategy for a large-scale polyhydroxyalkanoates production in a fed-batch bioreactor using a coupled PDE–ODE system
  16. Effectiveness of pH and amount of Artemia urumiana extract on physical, chemical, and biological attributes of UV-fabricated biogold nanoparticles
  17. Geranium leaf-mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their transcriptomic effects on Candida albicans
  18. Synthesis, characterization, anticancer, anti-inflammatory activities, and docking studies of 3,5-disubstituted thiadiazine-2-thiones
  19. Synthesis and stability of phospholipid-encapsulated nano-selenium
  20. Putative anti-proliferative effect of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) seed and its nano-formulation
  21. Enrichment of low-grade phosphorites by the selective leaching method
  22. Electrochemical analysis of the dissolution of gold in a copper–ethylenediamine–thiosulfate system
  23. Characterisation of carbonate lake sediments as a potential filler for polymer composites
  24. Evaluation of nano-selenium biofortification characteristics of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.)
  25. Quality of oil extracted by cold press from Nigella sativa seeds incorporated with rosemary extracts and pretreated by microwaves
  26. Heteropolyacid-loaded MOF-derived mesoporous zirconia catalyst for chemical degradation of rhodamine B
  27. Recovery of critical metals from carbonatite-type mineral wastes: Geochemical modeling investigation of (bio)hydrometallurgical leaching of REEs
  28. Photocatalytic properties of ZnFe-mixed oxides synthesized via a simple route for water remediation
  29. Attenuation of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate-induced hepatic and renal toxicity by naringin nanoparticles in a rat model
  30. Novel in situ synthesis of quaternary core–shell metallic sulfide nanocomposites for degradation of organic dyes and hydrogen production
  31. Microfluidic steam-based synthesis of luminescent carbon quantum dots as sensing probes for nitrite detection
  32. Transformation of eggshell waste to egg white protein solution, calcium chloride dihydrate, and eggshell membrane powder
  33. Preparation of Zr-MOFs for the adsorption of doxycycline hydrochloride from wastewater
  34. Green nanoarchitectonics of the silver nanocrystal potential for treating malaria and their cytotoxic effects on the kidney Vero cell line
  35. Carbon emissions analysis of producing modified asphalt with natural asphalt
  36. An efficient and green synthesis of 2-phenylquinazolin-4(3H)-ones via t-BuONa-mediated oxidative condensation of 2-aminobenzamides and benzyl alcohols under solvent- and transition metal-free conditions
  37. Chitosan nanoparticles loaded with mesosulfuron methyl and mesosulfuron methyl + florasulam + MCPA isooctyl to manage weeds of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
  38. Synergism between lignite and high-sulfur petroleum coke in CO2 gasification
  39. Facile aqueous synthesis of ZnCuInS/ZnS–ZnS QDs with enhanced photoluminescence lifetime for selective detection of Cu(ii) ions
  40. Rapid synthesis of copper nanoparticles using Nepeta cataria leaves: An eco-friendly management of disease-causing vectors and bacterial pathogens
  41. Study on the photoelectrocatalytic activity of reduced TiO2 nanotube films for removal of methyl orange
  42. Development of a fuzzy logic model for the prediction of spark-ignition engine performance and emission for gasoline–ethanol blends
  43. Micro-impact-induced mechano-chemical synthesis of organic precursors from FeC/FeN and carbonates/nitrates in water and its extension to nucleobases
  44. Green synthesis of strontium-doped tin dioxide (SrSnO2) nanoparticles using the Mahonia bealei leaf extract and evaluation of their anticancer and antimicrobial activities
  45. A study on the larvicidal and adulticidal potential of Cladostepus spongiosus macroalgae and green-fabricated silver nanoparticles against mosquito vectors
  46. Catalysts based on nickel salt heteropolytungstates for selective oxidation of diphenyl sulfide
  47. Powerful antibacterial nanocomposites from Corallina officinalis-mediated nanometals and chitosan nanoparticles against fish-borne pathogens
  48. Removal behavior of Zn and alkalis from blast furnace dust in pre-reduction sinter process
  49. Environmentally friendly synthesis and computational studies of novel class of acridinedione integrated spirothiopyrrolizidines/indolizidines
  50. The mechanisms of inhibition and lubrication of clean fracturing flowback fluids in water-based drilling fluids
  51. Adsorption/desorption performance of cellulose membrane for Pb(ii)
  52. A one-pot, multicomponent tandem synthesis of fused polycyclic pyrrolo[3,2-c]quinolinone/pyrrolizino[2,3-c]quinolinone hybrid heterocycles via environmentally benign solid state melt reaction
  53. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using durian rind extract and optical characteristics of surface plasmon resonance-based optical sensor for the detection of hydrogen peroxide
  54. Electrochemical analysis of copper-EDTA-ammonia-gold thiosulfate dissolution system
  55. Characterization of bio-oil production by microwave pyrolysis from cashew nut shells and Cassia fistula pods
  56. Green synthesis methods and characterization of bacterial cellulose/silver nanoparticle composites
  57. Photocatalytic research performance of zinc oxide/graphite phase carbon nitride catalyst and its application in environment
  58. Effect of phytogenic iron nanoparticles on the bio-fortification of wheat varieties
  59. In vitro anti-cancer and antimicrobial effects of manganese oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the Glycyrrhiza uralensis leaf extract on breast cancer cell lines
  60. Preparation of Pd/Ce(F)-MCM-48 catalysts and their catalytic performance of n-heptane isomerization
  61. Green “one-pot” fluorescent bis-indolizine synthesis with whole-cell plant biocatalysis
  62. Silica-titania mesoporous silicas of MCM-41 type as effective catalysts and photocatalysts for selective oxidation of diphenyl sulfide by H2O2
  63. Biosynthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles from molted feathers of Pavo cristatus and their antibiofilm and anticancer activities
  64. Clean preparation of rutile from Ti-containing mixed molten slag by CO2 oxidation
  65. Synthesis and characterization of Pluronic F-127-coated titanium dioxide nanoparticles synthesized from extracts of Atractylodes macrocephala leaf for antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties
  66. Effect of pretreatment with alkali on the anaerobic digestion characteristics of kitchen waste and analysis of microbial diversity
  67. Ameliorated antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer properties by Plectranthus vettiveroides root extract-mediated green synthesis of chitosan nanoparticles
  68. Microwave-accelerated pretreatment technique in green extraction of oil and bioactive compounds from camelina seeds: Effectiveness and characterization
  69. Studies on the extraction performance of phorate by aptamer-functionalized magnetic nanoparticles in plasma samples
  70. Investigation of structural properties and antibacterial activity of AgO nanoparticle extract from Solanum nigrum/Mentha leaf extracts by green synthesis method
  71. Green fabrication of chitosan from marine crustaceans and mushroom waste: Toward sustainable resource utilization
  72. Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
  73. The enhanced adsorption properties of phosphorus from aqueous solutions using lanthanum modified synthetic zeolites
  74. Separation of graphene oxides of different sizes by multi-layer dialysis and anti-friction and lubrication performance
  75. Visible-light-assisted base-catalyzed, one-pot synthesis of highly functionalized cinnolines
  76. The experimental study on the air oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid with Co–Mn–Br system
  77. Highly efficient removal of tetracycline and methyl violet 2B from aqueous solution using the bimetallic FeZn-ZIFs catalyst
  78. A thermo-tolerant cellulase enzyme produced by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens M7, an insight into synthesis, optimization, characterization, and bio-polishing activity
  79. Exploration of ketone derivatives of succinimide for their antidiabetic potential: In vitro and in vivo approaches
  80. Ultrasound-assisted green synthesis and in silico study of 6-(4-(butylamino)-6-(diethylamino)-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)oxypyridazine derivatives
  81. A study of the anticancer potential of Pluronic F-127 encapsulated Fe2O3 nanoparticles derived from Berberis vulgaris extract
  82. Biogenic synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Consolida orientalis flowers: Identification, catalytic degradation, and biological effect
  83. Initial assessment of the presence of plastic waste in some coastal mangrove forests in Vietnam
  84. Adsorption synergy electrocatalytic degradation of phenol by active oxygen-containing species generated in Co-coal based cathode and graphite anode
  85. Antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, and cytotoxicity activities of the aqueous extract of Syzygium aromaticum-mediated synthesized novel silver nanoparticles
  86. Synthesis of a silica matrix with ZnO nanoparticles for the fabrication of a recyclable photodegradation system to eliminate methylene blue dye
  87. Natural polymer fillers instead of dye and pigments: Pumice and scoria in PDMS fluid and elastomer composites
  88. Study on the preparation of glycerylphosphorylcholine by transesterification under supported sodium methoxide
  89. Wireless network handheld terminal-based green ecological sustainable design evaluation system: Improved data communication and reduced packet loss rate
  90. The optimization of hydrogel strength from cassava starch using oxidized sucrose as a crosslinking agent
  91. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Saccharum officinarum leaf extract for antiviral paint
  92. Study on the reliability of nano-silver-coated tin solder joints for flip chips
  93. Environmentally sustainable analytical quality by design aided RP-HPLC method for the estimation of brilliant blue in commercial food samples employing a green-ultrasound-assisted extraction technique
  94. Anticancer and antimicrobial potential of zinc/sodium alginate/polyethylene glycol/d-pinitol nanocomposites against osteosarcoma MG-63 cells
  95. Nanoporous carbon@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite as a green absorbent for the adsorptive removal of Hg(ii) from aqueous solutions
  96. Characterization of silver sulfide nanoparticles from actinobacterial strain (M10A62) and its toxicity against lepidopteran and dipterans insect species
  97. Phyto-fabrication and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Withania somnifera: Investigating antioxidant potential
  98. Effect of e-waste nanofillers on the mechanical, thermal, and wear properties of epoxy-blend sisal woven fiber-reinforced composites
  99. Magnesium nanohydroxide (2D brucite) as a host matrix for thymol and carvacrol: Synthesis, characterization, and inhibition of foodborne pathogens
  100. Synergistic inhibitive effect of a hybrid zinc oxide-benzalkonium chloride composite on the corrosion of carbon steel in a sulfuric acidic solution
  101. Review Articles
  102. Role and the importance of green approach in biosynthesis of nanopropolis and effectiveness of propolis in the treatment of COVID-19 pandemic
  103. Gum tragacanth-mediated synthesis of metal nanoparticles, characterization, and their applications as a bactericide, catalyst, antioxidant, and peroxidase mimic
  104. Green-processed nano-biocomposite (ZnO–TiO2): Potential candidates for biomedical applications
  105. Reaction mechanisms in microwave-assisted lignin depolymerisation in hydrogen-donating solvents
  106. Recent progress on non-noble metal catalysts for the deoxydehydration of biomass-derived oxygenates
  107. Rapid Communication
  108. Phosphorus removal by iron–carbon microelectrolysis: A new way to achieve phosphorus recovery
  109. Special Issue: Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications (Guest Editors: Arpita Roy and Fernanda Maria Policarpo Tonelli)
  110. Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications
  111. Nano-encapsulated tanshinone IIA in PLGA-PEG-COOH inhibits apoptosis and inflammation in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury
  112. Green fabrication of silver nanoparticles using Melia azedarach ripened fruit extract, their characterization, and biological properties
  113. Green-synthesized nanoparticles and their therapeutic applications: A review
  114. Antioxidant, antibacterial, and cytotoxicity potential of synthesized silver nanoparticles from the Cassia alata leaf aqueous extract
  115. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Callisia fragrans leaf extract and its anticancer activity against MCF-7, HepG2, KB, LU-1, and MKN-7 cell lines
  116. Algae-based green AgNPs, AuNPs, and FeNPs as potential nanoremediators
  117. Green synthesis of Kickxia elatine-induced silver nanoparticles and their role as anti-acetylcholinesterase in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease
  118. Phytocrystallization of silver nanoparticles using Cassia alata flower extract for effective control of fungal skin pathogens
  119. Antibacterial wound dressing with hydrogel from chitosan and polyvinyl alcohol from the red cabbage extract loaded with silver nanoparticles
  120. Leveraging of mycogenic copper oxide nanostructures for disease management of Alternaria blight of Brassica juncea
  121. Nanoscale molecular reactions in microbiological medicines in modern medical applications
  122. Synthesis and characterization of ZnO/β-cyclodextrin/nicotinic acid nanocomposite and its biological and environmental application
  123. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles via Taxus wallichiana Zucc. plant-derived Taxol: Novel utilization as anticancer, antioxidation, anti-inflammation, and antiurolithic potential
  124. Recyclability and catalytic characteristics of copper oxide nanoparticles derived from bougainvillea plant flower extract for biomedical application
  125. Phytofabrication, characterization, and evaluation of novel bioinspired selenium–iron (Se–Fe) nanocomposites using Allium sativum extract for bio-potential applications
  126. Erratum
  127. Erratum to “Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)”
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