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Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

An erratum for this article can be found here: https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2023-0301
  • Bilal Ahmad Khan EMAIL logo , Muhammad Ather Nadeem , Hussam F. Najeed Alawadi , Muhammad Mansoor Javaid , Athar Mahmood , Rafi Qamar , Mudassar Iqbal , Amina Mumtaz , Rizwan Maqbool , Hesham Oraby EMAIL logo and Nehal Elnaggar
Published/Copyright: November 1, 2023
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Green Processing and Synthesis
From the journal Green Processing and Synthesis Volume 12 Issue 1

Abstract

Nanoherbicides are articulated by exploiting the prospective of nanotechnology for effectively delivering chemical and biological herbicides using nanomaterial‐based herbicide combinations. The nanoparticles were characterized using X-ray diffraction and FT-IR. On the targeted weeds, the nanoherbicides were sprayed at the third to fourth leaf stage. Six different doses were applied. The mortality and visual injury caused by both chitosan-based nanoherbicides reached 100% at the recommended dose of standard herbicide. The 5-fold lower dose exhibited weed density and maximum wheat yield and related parameters. For the same traits, the nanoherbicide at 10-fold lower dose of commercial herbicides showed a comparable influence as the suggested dose. The size of both herbicides was found to be 35–65 nm. It was observed that the clodinofop-propargyl nanoherbicide has an intense peak appearing at a 2θ value of 29.83°, corresponding to the (176) plane of the anatase phase and NPs of fenoxaprop-P-ethyl showed an intense peak around the 2θ value of 30.55° corresponding to the (74) plane of the anatase phase. The FT-IR spectra of fenoxaprop-P-ethyl clearly showed that the major functional groups were located in the FT-IR region between 610 and 1,840 cm−1 and the major functional ones of clodinofop propargyl were located in the FT-IR region between 640 and 1,740 cm−1. Nanoherbicides could restore the efficacy of conventional herbicides by improving stability and reducing toxicity.

Keywords: clodinofop-propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl nanoherbicides; weed control; wheat and yield parameters

1 Introduction

Wheat is an important food crop that is used extensively in daily life, and its sustainable production is essential for human welfare [1]. However, wheat cultivation is affected by poor input management, water shortage, and yield loss due to weeds, pests, and diseases [2,3,4]. Weeds are a significant cause of yield loss in wheat. The most problematic grassy weeds in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) are wild oat (Avena fatua L.) and canary grass (Phalaris minor Ritz.), which reduce yield by about 30% [4,5]. In addition to lowering output, these weeds also interfere with harvesting processes, cause deterioration of produce quality, and mix their seeds with grains [6]. Chemical weed control is considered the most effective and least time-consuming method. However, the emergence of herbicide resistance in weeds [7] and environmental and health disquiet due to the overuse and misuse of synthesized herbicides [8] led researchers to emphasize alternative strategies for weed control. Nanoherbicides for wheat are herbicide formulations developed using nanoparticles to improve their efficacy and reduce their environmental impact. The use of nanoherbicides for weed control has shown promising and potential benefits. The smaller particle size of nanoparticles allows them to better penetrate plant tissue, increasing the overall effectiveness of the herbicide. This means that lower doses of herbicide can be used, resulting in less environmental impact and lower costs. In addition, nanoherbicides can be designed to be more selective, attacking only the weeds and leaving the crop unharmed. This is achieved by attaching a targeted molecule to the nanoparticle that recognizes and binds to specific weeds. Moreover, the use of nanoherbicides can lead to reduced environmental impact. The smaller particle size of the nanoparticles reduces the amount of herbicide needed, which in turn reduces the amount of herbicide residue in the soil and water. Furthermore, the controlled nature of the nanoherbicides improves the efficacy and longevity of the herbicide. This means that the herbicide can be released over a longer period, providing continuous weed control. The use of nanoherbicides can potentially reduce the development of herbicide-resistant weeds. The smaller particle size of the nanoparticles allows for better herbicide uptake by the plant, which may reduce the likelihood of weed resistance.

The chitosan matrix containing agrochemicals can act as a defensive reservoir for functional constituents, protect the active components from the surrounding environment, and monitor their spread, allowing them to perform as applicable gene delivery schemes for plant modification. Clodinofop-propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl are two widely used herbicides that belong to the aryloxyphenoxypropionate chemical class. These herbicides are commonly used in the control of grassy weeds in wheat. Nanoparticle-based formulations of these herbicides have been developed to improve their efficacy and reduce their environmental impact. For example, the use of clodinofop-propargyl nanoparticles resulted in better weed control and higher yields compared to the conventional herbicide formulation. Also, the use of fenoxaprop-P-ethyl nanoparticles resulted in a lower dosage requirement for effective weed control and, hence, lower herbicide residues in the soil compared to the conventional formulations.

The present study aims to investigate the synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop-propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.).

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Chemicals

The following chemicals were utilized during experimentation: chitosan (MW: 27 kDa, degree of deacetylation: 75–85%), tripoly phosphate (TPP), clodinofop-propargyl (recommended dose 55 g a.i ha−1), and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl (93.75 g a.i ha−1).

2.2 Synthesis of chitosan-based clodinofop-propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl

The nanoparticles were prepared by the ionic gelification technique [9]. A solution of 0.1% chitosan (MW: 27 kDa, degree of deacetylation: 75–85%) in 0.2% acetic acid was maintained under magnetic agitation for 12 h at pH 4.7. A separate aqueous solution of 0.1% TPP was prepared and refrigerated at 4°C. Both solutions were filtered through a membrane (0.45 m, Millipore) to remove any aggregated or insoluble material. After the preparation of these solutions, 5 mL of the TPP solution was added to 20 mL of the chitosan solution under magnetic stirring. Thereafter, the mixture was stirred for another 10 min. The resulting chitosan/TPP nanoparticles were stored in amber flasks at ambient temperature (25°C). Commercial herbicide (12 mg) was incorporated into the chitosan solution prior to the preparation of the nanoparticles, and the final concentration of the herbicide in the solution containing the NP was 0.48 mg·mL−1. Then, the liquid was evaporated by using a rotatory evaporator till the paste was formed and the paste was oven dried for 24 h at 60°C. Solid material was ground to powdered form. The ground material was passed through 200 μm sieve for confirmation nanoparticle. Then, the nanoparticles were stored for further experimentations and characterization.

2.3 Characterization of chitosan-based nanoparticles of clodinofop-propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl

The size distribution of the chitosan-based nanoherbicides of clodinofop-propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl was examined by passing the resulting particles through 200 μm sieve. To determine the types, the prepared NP powder was characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) (PAN analytical X-pert powder, with Cu-Kα as X-ray source). Scanning of NPs was performed at 2θ with a scanning speed of 1°·min−1 and a step size of 0.02° [10]. Binding properties were investigated using FT-IR. FT-IR spectroscopy was performed to study the functional groups on the NPs with spectrometer FT-IR (Thermo-Nicolet 6700) using the KBr disk technique [11].

2.4 Site description

Field studies were conducted in two consecutive growing seasons (2020–2021 and 2021–2022) at the Agronomic Research Area, College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha. The texture class of the field soil was sandy clay loam with a slightly alkaline reaction (pH 7.7) and an organic matter of 0.71%. The contents of total nitrogen, available phosphorus, and available potassium were 0.44%, 5.12 ppm, and 127 ppm, respectively. Bulk density and cation exchange capacity were 1.33 g·cm−3 and 3.9 cmolc·kg−1, respectively. The climate in Sargodha is semi-arid, with an average winter (November to March) rainfall of 10–15 mm and a relative humidity of 60%.

2.5 Experimental details

Wheat (cv. FSD-2008) was sown in the third week of November with a manual single-row drill at a row spacing of 22.50 cm and a seed rate of 125 kg·ha−1. The recommended fertilizer dose of 105–85–65 kg·ha−1 (N:P:K) was applied in the form of urea (46% N), diammonium phosphate (46% P2O5 and 18% N), and potash sulfate (50% K2O). All of the potassium and phosphate fertilizers and half of the nitrogen were applied as a basal dose at the time of seeding. The remaining half of the nitrogen (53 kg·ha−1) was topdressed in two equal splits at the tillering and sprouting stages of wheat. All other practices, except the one studied, were kept the same for all treatments. In this study, only the weeds P. minor and A. fatua were retained, and all other grassy and broadleaf weeds were manually removed. The two weeds were sprayed with different doses of clodinofop-propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl nanoherbicides. Those doses were optimized during a previous pot study. The recommended herbicide doses for control of the studied weeds were considered 100% doses, and the other doses were calculated on that basis. The nanoherbicides were sprayed at the three to four leaf stage of the target weeds with a Knapsack handheld sprayer using an apartment fan nozzle at a pressure of 30 psi. The sprayer was calibrated, and the amount of water was calculated for 1 m2.

2.6 Herbicidal activity of chitosan-based nanoparticles of clodinofop-propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl

Experiments were arranged in RCBD using a factorial arrangement with three replicates. The nanoherbicides were sprayed at the three to four leaf stage of the target weeds at seven different doses (D 0 = weedy check, D 1 = normal herbicide at the recommended dose, D 2 = nanoherbicide at the recommended dose of normal herbicide, D 3 = 05-fold lower dose of nanoherbicide, D 4 = 10-fold lower dose of nanoherbicide, and D 5 = 15-fold lower dose of nanoherbicide). The data regarding weed density (m−2), number of grains per spike, number of spike-bearing tillers (m2), 1,000-grain weight (g), and grain yield (kg·ha−1) were calculated using the standard procedure.

2.7 Statistical analysis

The data were examined using Statistical Analysis Software (version 8.1 Statistix, Tallahassee, FL, USA), and the highest significant difference (HSD) was used to compare the mean values of the treatments at a 5% probability level.

3 Results

3.1 Characterization of clodinofop-propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl nanoherbicides

3.1.1 Nanoparticle size

The size of nanoparticles of both herbicides under investigation was determined using a 200 μm sieve and ranged from 35 to 65 nm for clodinofop-propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl, respectively.

3.1.2 FT-IR analysis

Physical and chemical compatibility of the herbicide-loaded chitosan-based nanoparticles of clodinofop-propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl was investigated using FT-IR. The major functional groups were in the FT-IR region between 640 and 1,740 cm−1. Free and esterified carboxyl groups were indicated by carbonyl bands in the 640–714 and 810–1,015 cm−1 regions, respectively. The absorption band at 1,040–1,370 cm−1 was due to the presence of ether, while the band between 1,420 and 1,740 cm−1 was due to the cyclic C–C bonds. The broadband from 1,700 to 3,400 cm−1 was due to the polymeric O–H stretching band, while the band at 1,600 cm−1 reflected the O–H stretching band of the carboxyl group (Table 1). Moreover, the FT-IR spectra of fenoxaprop-P-ethyl clearly showed that the major functional groups were in the FT-IR region between 610 and 1,840 cm−1. Free and esterified carboxyl groups were indicated by carbonyl bands in the 610–712 and 78,018–1,012 cm−1 regions, respectively. The absorption band at 1,030–1,360 cm−1 was due to the presence of ether, while the band between 1,840 and 3,240 cm−1 was due to the cyclic C–C bonds in the fenoxaprop-P-ethyl (Table 1).

Table 1

FT-IR analysis of clodinofop-propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl

Sample Frequency (wave number) (cm−1)
Clodinofop-propargyl 640–3,470
640–714
810–1,015
1,040–1,370
1,420–1,740
1,740–3,470
Fenoxaprop-P-ethyl 610–3,240
610–712
780–1,012
1,030–1,360
1,840–3,240

3.1.3 XRD analyses

The crystallinity and crystallite size of the clodinofop-propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl nanoherbicides were tested. It was noticed that the clodinofop-propargyl nanoherbicide has an intense peak appearing at a 2θ value of 29.83°, which corresponds to the (176) plane of the anatase phase (Figure 1a). Additionally, various smaller peaks were detected at 2θ values of 23.59°, 41.47°, 43.71°, and 51.80°, which correspond to the (150), (70), (57), and (54) planes of the anatase phase. The fenoxaprop-P-ethyl NPs showed an intense peak around the 2θ value of 30.55° corresponding to the (74) plane of the anatase phase, and several other peaks were also observed at 2θ values of 24,65°, 28.71, 38.33°, 53.53°, 47.19°, and 46.16° corresponding to the (64)-, (68)-, (78)-, (45)-, (42)-, and (33)-planes of the anatase phase, respectively (Figure 1b).

Figure 1 XRD analyses of NPs of clodinofop-propargyl (a) and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl (b).
Figure 1

XRD analyses of NPs of clodinofop-propargyl (a) and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl (b).

3.2 Effect of clodinofop-propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl nanoherbicides on weeds

3.2.1 Density of P. minor

The density of weed species is an important yield-reducing factor for the crop. The data on the effect of the different nanoherbicide doses are presented in Table 2. Clodinofop-propargyl caused lower mortality of P. minor compared to fenoxaprop-P-ethyl. There were no significant differences between the mean values of each herbicide in the 2 years, with the maximum reported in clodinofop-propargyl (5.83 and 6.38 m−2) and the minimum reported in fenoxaprop-P-ethyl (4.55 and 4.83 m−2). The main effect of the different doses was found to be statistically significant for the density of P. minor in both studied years. The maximum density of P. minor (18.33 and 19.33 m−2) was recorded in plots treated with no dose of clodinofop-propargyl nanoparticles (control) in both experimental years (D 0). However, the interaction between the different herbicide doses and the nanoherbicides showed that the nanoparticles of both herbicides at the recommended dose of the commercial herbicides caused 100% mortality of P. minor (D 2). The fivefold lower dose of nanoherbicides (D 3) showed the minimum density (1.16 and 1.50 m−2) as a mean for both herbicides during the 2 years.

Table 2

Effect of nanoparticles of narrow-leaved herbicides on the density of P. minor (m−2)

Doses of herbicides Density of P. minor (m−2)
2020–2021 2021–2022
Clodinofop-propargyl Fenoxaprop-P-ethyl Mean Clodinofop-propargyl Fenoxaprop-P-ethyl Mean
D 0 18.33 a 17.00 a 17.66 A 19.33 a 17.33 b 18.33 A
D 1 3.66 c 2.66 cde 3.16 C 4.00de 3.00 def 3.33 C
D 2 0.00 f 0.00 f 0.00D 0.00 g 0.00 g 0.00D
D 3 1.33 def 1.00 ef 1.16 D 1.667 efg 1.33 fg 1.50 D
D 4 3.33 cd 2.33 cde 2.83 C 3.667 def 2.66 def 3.17 C
D 5 8.33b 4.33 c 6.33 B 9.00c 4.667 d 6.83 B
Mean 5.83 A 4.55 B 6.38 A 4.83 B
HSD at 5% Doses = 1.26, herbicides = 0.48, doses × herbicides = 2.09 Doses = 1.57, herbicides = 0.60, doses × herbicides = 2.60

The lettering of Means always in Capital letters and interaction in small letters. D 0 = weedy check, D 1 = normal herbicides at the recommended dose, D 2 = nanoparticles of herbicides at the recommended dose of normal herbicide, D 3 = 05-fold lower dose of nanoparticles of herbicides, D 4 = 10-fold lower dose of nanoparticles of herbicides, D 5 = 15-fold lower dose of nanoparticles of herbicides.

3.2.2 Density of A. fatua

The data regarding the effect of different doses of nanoparticles herbicides on the density of A. fatua (Table 3) showed that different doses of nanoherbicides significantly affected the density of A. fatua in both studied years. The application of nanoherbicides at the suggested dose of the normal ones (D 2) caused 100% mortality to A. fatua. The maximum density of A. fatua (20.16 and 22.16 m−2) was detected in plots treated with the recommended dose of normal herbicides (D 0) in both experimental years. Among the herbicide treatments, the maximum density of A. fatua was recorded in plots treated with nanoherbicides at 15-fold lower doses of clodinofop-propargyl (10.00 and 11.00) and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl (6.33 and 5.66). The 5-fold lower dose of nanoherbicides (D 3) showed the minimum density (1.66 and 2.17 m−2) as a mean for both herbicides during the 2 years, respectively.

Table 3

Effect of nanoparticles of narrow-leaved herbicides on the density of A. fatua (m−2)

Doses of herbicides Density of A. fatua (m−2)
2020–2021 2021–2022
Clodinofop-propargyl Fenoxaprop-P-ethyl Mean Clodinofop-propargyl Fenoxaprop-P-ethyl Mean
D 0 22.67 a 17.67 b 20.16 A 19.67NS 24.66 22.16 A
D 1 5.00 def 3.33 efg 4.16 C 4.33 3.67 4.00 CD
D 2 0.00 h 0.00 h 0.00 E 0.00 0.00 0.00 E
D 3 2.00 gh 1.33 gh 1.66 D 2.00 2.33 2.17 D
D 4 5.67 de 3.00 fg 4.33 C 5.00 3.33 4.16 C
D 5 10.00 c 6.33 d 8.16 B 11.00 5.66 8.83 B
Mean 7.55 A 5.27 B 7.00 NS 6.61
HSD at 5% Doses = 1.47, herbicides = 0.56, doses × herbicides = 2.43 Doses = 1.96, herbicides = NS, doses × herbicides = NS

The lettering of Means always in Capital letters and interaction in small letters. D 0 = weedy check, D 1 = normal herbicides at the recommended dose, D 2 = nanoparticles of herbicides at the recommended dose of normal herbicide, D 3 = 05-fold lower dose of nanoparticles of herbicides, D 4 = 10-fold lower dose of nanoparticles of herbicides, D 5 = 15-fold lower dose of nanoparticles of herbicides.

3.3 Effect of clodinofop-propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on growth and yield of wheat

3.3.1 Number of spikes bearing tillers (m−2)

The number of spikes bearing tillers is an important yield-determining component of the wheat crop. Data on the effect of nanoparticles of narrowleaf herbicides on the number of spike-bearing shoots were found to be significant, as illustrated in Table 4. The main effect of different herbicide doses showed that the maximum number of tillers (379.33 and 376.50 m−2) with nanoparticles of narrowleaf herbicides was recorded at the recommended dose of commercial herbicides and the minimum number was reported under control (284.33 and 286.50 m−2) during both studied years. Among herbicide treatments, clodinofop-propargyl resulted in a minimum number of spikes bearing tillers (346.00 and 340.61 m−2), and the maximum (346.00 and 345.50 m−2) was reported with fenoxaprop-P-ethyl. The interactive effect of different doses × herbicides showed that the nanoparticles of fenoxaprop-P-ethyl at the recommended dose of normal herbicides resulted in a maximum number of spikes bearing tillers (382.00 and 378.33 m−2) with the nanoparticles of clodinofop-propargyl at the recommended dose of normal herbicide and minimum (282.33 and 283.67 m−2) under control by clodinofop-propargyl that was statistically comparable to that of fenoxaprop-P-ethyl under control during both years.

Table 4

Effect of nanoparticles of narrow-leaved herbicides on the number of spikes bearing tillers (m−2) of wheat

Doses of herbicides Number of spikes bearing tillers (m−2)
2020–2021 2021–2022
Clodinofop-propargyl Fenoxaprop-P-ethyl Mean Clodinofop-propargyl Fenoxaprop-P-ethyl Mean
D 0 282.33 h 286.33 h 284.33 E 283.67 g 289.33 g 286.50 E
D 1 351.33 e 353.00 e 352.17 C 346.67 de 349.00 d 347.83 C
D 2 376.67 ab 382.00 a 379.33 A 374.67 ab 378.33 a 376.50 A
D 3 365.00 cd 367.00 cd 366.00 B 364.67 c 365.33 bc 365.00 B
D 4 354.67 de 355.33 de 355.00 C 350.00 d 352.00 d 351.00 C
D 5 319.00 g 333.67 f 326.33 D 324.00 f 339.00 e 331.50 D
Mean 341.78 B 346.00 A 340.61 B 345.50 A
HSD at 5% Doses = 5. 86, herbicides = 2.25, doses × herbicides = 9.67 Doses = 7.72, herbicides = 2.20, doses × herbicides = 2.59

The lettering of Means always in Capital letters and interaction in small letters. D 0 = weedy check, D 1 = normal herbicides at the recommended dose, D 2 = nanoparticles of herbicides that the recommended dose of normal herbicide, D 3 = 05-fold lower dose of nanoparticles of herbicides, D 4 = 10-fold lower dose of nanoparticles of herbicides, D 5 = 15-fold lower dose of nanoparticles of herbicides.

3.3.2 Number of grains per spike

The number of grains per spike is a main yield-determining component in wheat. The results regarding the effect of nanoparticles of narrowleaf herbicides on the number of grains per spike were found to be significant, as shown in Table 5. The main effect of different doses of nanoparticles of herbicides showed that the maximum number of grains per spike (54.00 and 52.33) was recorded in both study years (2020–2021 and 2021–2022) with nanoherbicides at the recommended dose of commercial herbicides and the minimum was under control (35.00 and 33.50). The main effect of herbicides showed that nanoparticles of clodinofop-propargyl resulted in a minimum number of grains per spike (47.06 and 45.44 cm) and maximum (48.94 and 47.22) for fenoxaprop-P-ethyl. The two-way interaction of different doses × herbicides proved to be significant for the number of grains per spike. The nanoparticles of fenoxaprop-P-ethyl at the recommended dose of the normal herbicides resulted in a maximum number of grains per spike (54.33 and 52.67) and a minimum (53.67 and 52.00) under the control of clodinofop-propargyl in 2020–2021 and 2021–2022, respectively. This higher number of grains per spike could be due to successful weed control using nanoherbicides at the recommended dose of normal herbicides. The treatments reduced weed density at low weed infestation, resulting in less weed competition for water, light, and nitrogen, which helped the wheat crop to have a higher number of grains per spike. Mekonnen [12] found that the number of grains per spike was higher under complete weed control (weed-free plots) than under the weedy check.

Table 5

Effect of nanoparticles of narrow-leaved herbicides on the number of grains per spike of wheat

Doses of herbicides Number of grains per spike
2020–2021 2021–2022
Clodinofop-propargyl Fenoxaprop-P-ethyl Mean Clodinofop-propargyl Fenoxaprop-P-ethyl Mean
D 0 34.00 f 36.00 f 35.00 E 32.67 e 34.33 e 33.50 E
D 1 49.33 cd 51.33 abc 50.33 C 48.00 bc 49.33 ab 48.67 C
D 2 53.67 ab 54.33 a 54.00 A 52.00 ab 52.67 a 52.33 A
D 3 52.67 abc 53.00 abc 52.83 AB 50.67 ab 51.67 ab 51.17 AB
D 4 50.33 bcd 52.33 abc 51.33 BC 49.00 abc 50.33 ab 49.67 BC
D 5 42.00 e 47.000 d 44.50 D 40.33 d 45.00 c 42.67 D
Mean 47.06 B 48.94 A 45.44 B 47.22 A
HSD at 5% Doses = 2.39, herbicides = 0.92, doses × herbicides = 3.96 Doses = 2.43, herbicides = 0.93, doses × herbicides = 4.01

The lettering of Means always in Capital letters and interaction in small letters. D 0 = weedy check, D 1 = normal herbicides at the recommended dose, D 2 = nanoparticles of herbicides at the recommended dose of normal herbicides, D 3 = 0.5-fold lower dose of nanoparticles of herbicides, D 4 = 10-fold lower dose of nanoparticles of herbicides, D 5 = 15-fold lower dose of nanoparticles of herbicides.

3.3.3 1,000-grain weight (g)

Since 1,000-grain weight is a main yield component, higher 1,000-grain weight results in higher wheat yield. The effect of nanoparticles of narrowleaf herbicides on 1,000-grain weight was significant, as shown in Table 6. The main effect of different doses of nanoherbicides showed that the maximum 1,000-grain weight of wheat plants (43.31 and 41.31 g) was recorded in both years with nanoherbicides at the recommended dose of commercial herbicides and the minimum under control (30.17 and 29.75 g). The main effect of herbicides showed that nanoparticles of clodinofop-propargyl resulted in minimum 1000-grain weight (38.43 and 37.38 cm) and maximum (39.41 and 37.96 g) with fenoxaprop-P-ethyl. The interaction between the different doses and the herbicides proved to be significant for the 1,000-grain weight of wheat. The nanoparticles of fenoxaprop-P-ethyl at the suggested dose of standard herbicides resulted in maximum 1,000-grain weight (43.37 and 41.37 g) and minimum (29.00 and 28.67 g) under control of clodinofop-propargyl in 2020–2021 and 2021–2022, respectively.

Table 6

Effect of nanoparticles of narrow-leaved herbicides on 1,000-grain weight (g) of wheat

Doses of nanoparticle of herbicides 1,000-grain weight (g)
2020–2021 2021–2022
Clodinofop-propargyl Fenoxaprop-P-ethyl Mean Clodinofop-propargyl Fenoxaprop-P-ethyl Mean
D 0 29.00 d 31.33 d 30.17 E 28.67 d 30.84 d 29.75 D
D 1 40.33 b 40.50 b 40.42 C 38.50 bc 39.20 abc 38.85 B
D 2 43.24 a 43.37 a 43.31 A 41.25 a 41.37 a 41.31 A
D 3 42.00 ab 42.17 ab 42.083 AB 40.07 ab 40.20 ab 40.13 AB
D 4 40.37 b 41.63 ab 41.002 BC 39.00 abc 39.50 ab 39.250 B
D 5 35.63 c 37.467 c 36.55 D 36.67 c 36.81 c 36.74 C
Mean 38.43 B 39.41 A 37.38 NS 37.96
HSD at 5% Doses = 1.42, herbicides = 0.54, doses × herbicides = 2.35 Doses = 1.54, herbicides = 0.59, doses × herbicides = 2.54

The lettering of Means always in Capital letters and interaction in small letters. D 0 = weedy check, D 1 = normal herbicides at the recommended dose, D 2 = nanoparticles of herbicides at the recommended dose of normal herbicide, D 3 = 0.5-fold lower dose of nanoparticles of herbicides, D 4 = 10-fold lower dose of nanoparticles of herbicides, D 5 = 15-fold lower dose of nanoparticles of herbicides.

3.3.4 Grain yield (kg·ha−1)

A wheat crop’s grain production is a crucial factor; a higher grain yield means a higher economic return for farmers. As shown in Table 7, the impact of nanoherbicides on grain yield was discovered to be substantial. With nanoherbicides at the recommended dose of commercial herbicides, the maximum grain yield of wheat plants was recorded during both study years (2020–2021 and 2021–2022) at 6,332.6 and 6,197.2 kg·ha−1, and the minimum under control was 3,812.8 and 3,677.00 kg·ha−1. The main effect of herbicides demonstrated that clodinofop-propargyl nanoparticles caused a minimum grain yield (5,313.2 and 5,277.7 kg·ha−1). The major effect of herbicides revealed that fenoxaprop-P-ethyl and clodinofop-propargyl produced the highest and lowest grain yields, respectively (5,469.5 and 5,340.4 kg·ha−1), when used as nanoherbicides. For the grain yield, the two-way interaction of different dosages of herbicides was found to be significant. The maximum grain yield (6,106.0 and 6,002.7 kg·ha−1) and a minimum (3,740.4 and 3,645.5 kg·ha−1) under control by clodinofop-propargyl throughout 2020–2021 and 2021–2022 were achieved using fenoxaprop-P-ethyl nanoparticles at the approved dose of conventional herbicides.

Table 7

Effect of nanoparticles of narrow-leaved herbicides on grain yield (kg·ha−1) of wheat

Doses of nanoparticle of herbicides Grain yield (kg·ha−1)
2020–2021 2021–2022
Clodinofop-propargyl Fenoxaprop-p-ethyl Mean Clodinofop-propargyl Fenoxaprop-p-ethyl Mean
D 0 3,740.4 f 3,885.1 f 3,812.8 E 3,645.5 d 3,708.5 d 3,677.0 D
D 1 5,551.1 d 5,690.0 bcd 5,620.5 C 5,524.5 b 5,548.6 b 5,536.5 B
D 2 6,295.8 a 6,369.3 a 6,332.6 A 6,171.8 a 6,222.6 a 6,197.2 A
D 3 6,009.9 abc 6,106.0 ab 6,058.0 B 5,979.9 ab 6,002.7 ab 5,991.3 A
D 4 5,603.5 cd 5,703.3 bcd 5,653.4 C 5,569.5 b 5,622.6 b 5,596.0 B
D 5 4,678.2 e 5,063.9 e 4,871.0 D 4,774.9 c 4,937.2 c 4,856.0 C
Mean 5,313.2 B 5,469.6 A 5,277.7 A 5,340.4 A
HSD at 5% Doses = 266.30, herbicides = 102.41, doses × herbicides = 439.61 Doses = 295.20, herbicides = 113.52, doses × herbicides = 487.21

The lettering of Means always in Capital letters and interaction in small letters. D 0 = weedy check, D 1 = normal herbicides at the recommended dose, D 2 = nanoparticles of herbicides at the recommended dose of normal herbicide, D 3 = 05-fold lower dose of nanoparticles of herbicides, D 4 = 10-fold lower dose of nanoparticles of herbicides, D 5 = 15-fold lower dose of nanoparticles of herbicide.

4 Discussion

Sethy et al. [13] and Khan et al. [14] showed that NPs were found in the size range of 35–65 nm. The major functional groups were in the FT-IR region between 640 and 1,740 cm−1. Free and esterified carboxyl groups were indicated by carbonyl bands in the 640–714 and 810–1,015 cm−1 regions, respectively. The band at 1,040–1,370 cm−1 was due to the presence of ether, while the band between 1,420 and 1,740 cm−1 was due to the cyclic C–C bonds. The broadband from 1,700 to 3,400 cm−1 was due to the polymeric O–H stretching band, while the band at 1,600 cm−1 reflected the O–H stretching band of the carboxyl group. Moreover, the FT-IR spectra of fenoxaprop-P-ethyl clearly showed that the major functional groups were in the FT-IR region between 610 and 1,840 cm−1. Free and esterified carboxyl groups were indicated by carbonyl bands in the 610–712 and 78,018–1,012 cm−1 regions, respectively. The absorption band at 1,030–1,360 cm−1 was due to the presence of ether, while the band between 1,840 and 3,240 cm−1 was due to the cyclic C–C bonds in the fenoxaprop-P-ethyl. Reflected the O–H stretching band of the carboxyl group [15]. This distinct signature shows the NP formation as reported by Irshad et al. [11]. It was observed that the clodinofop-propargyl nanoherbicide has an intense peak appearing at a 2θ value of 29.83°, corresponding to the (176) plane of the anatase phase. In addition to this peak, several smaller peaks were also observed at 2θ values of 23.59°, 41.47°, 43.71°, and 51.80° corresponding to the (150), (70), (57), and (54) planes of the anatase phase. The NPs of fenoxaprop-P-ethyl showed an intense peak around the 2θ value of 30.55° corresponding to the (74) plane of the anatase phase, and several other peaks were also observed at 2θ values of 24,65°, 28.71, 38.33°, 53.53°, 47.19°, and 46.16° corresponding to the (64)-, (68)-, (78)-, (45)-, (42)-, and (33)-planes of the anatase phase, respectively, as reported in the literature [13,16,17]. The application of nanoherbicides resulted in a reduction in the number of weeds per unit area of both weeds under investigation. This could be because the nanoherbicides penetrate the weeds more due to the better charge-to-mass ratio, resulting in no weeds growing on a plot treated with nanoherbicide particles at the recommended dose of normal herbicides. Preisler et al. [18] reported that the application of nano-atrazine results in maximum mortality and a smaller number of weeds per unit area than commercial atrazine. Khan et al. [4] reported that the application of chitosan-based clodinofop-propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl nanoherbicides, even at 10-fold lower doses as compared to commercial herbicides resulted in a smaller number of P. minor weeds. In this study, both nanoherbicides at the suggested dose of standard herbicides cause toxic effects to P. minor and A. fatua weeds of wheat crop resulting in 100% weed control and no weed crop competition for applied resources and maximum growth, physiological and yield attributes of wheat crop. This lower number of spikes bearing tillers in weedy check compared to plots treated with NPs of herbicides under investigation at the recommended dose of commercial herbicides may be due to the greater weed density of initiating inaccessibility to a larger area, diminished nutrients, and moisture for the crop. The results are supported by Rizwan et al. [19], which demonstrated that applying herbicides significantly elevated the number of spike-bearing tillers (m2). The increment in number of grains per spike, 1,000-grain weight, and grain yield with the NPs of herbicides over control might be due to reduced competition between weeds and the crop for the accessible supplies and enhancing resources (water and nutrient) use efficiency in wheat [20,21,22]. The conclusion of this study is supported by Colbach et al. [23], who confirmed that post-emergence herbicide application influenced plant height and resulted in a trade-off between potential plant production driving parameters and minimizing yield losses caused by weeds. Shah et al. [24] depicted that the application of 50% clodinofop + 50% bromoxynil at the tillering stage enhanced both more growth and physiological traits as well as grain yield attributes and reduced weed biomass.

5 Conclusion

When coupled with herbicides, NPs can serve as efficient transporters and produce nanoformulations. The growth of plants resistant to herbicides, which is the main issue facing the herbicide industry, is helped by these nanoformulations. The simplicity of making chitosan-loaded herbicide complexes leads to their improved release characteristics, which can significantly change how herbicides are applied. Overall, the findings indicated that clodinofop-propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl are capable of 100% control of the weeds under investigation at the recommended dose of normal herbicide. The maximum weed control efficacy, wheat yield, and related parameters were observed with both chitosan-based nanoherbicides under investigation at the suggested dose of standard herbicide. The nanoparticles at a 10-fold lower dose of commercial herbicides and suggested dose produced comparable effects on weeds under study and yield-related parameters of wheat.

Acknowledgments

We are thankful to the University of Sargodha and NUST Islamabad for providing support and research facilities for this research work.

  1. Funding information: The author (Hesham Oraby) extends his appreciation to the Deputyship for Research & Innovation, Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia, for funding this research work through project number IFP22UQU4350043DSR107.

  2. Author contributions: Bilal Ahmad Khan: conceptualization, methodology, software, validation, formal analysis, investigation, resources, data curation, writing – original draft preparation, writing – review and editing, and visualization; Hussam F. Najeed Alawadi, Mudassar Iqbal, Muhammad Ather Nadeem: conceptualization, methodology, software, validation, formal analysis, investigation, resources, data curation, writing – original draft preparation, writing – review and editing, visualization, supervision, and project administration; Athar Mahmood, Rafi Qamar, Muhammad Mansoor Javaid: validation, writing – original draft preparation, writing – review and editing, and visualization; Rizwan Maqbool: validation, writing – original draft preparation, writing – review and editing, and visualization; Amina Mumtaz and Nehal Elnaggar: validation, writing – original draft preparation, writing – review and editing, and visualization; Hesham Oraby: conceptualization, methodology, validation, resources, writing – original draft preparation, writing – review and editing, and visualization.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2023-06-20
Accepted: 2023-10-01
Published Online: 2023-11-01

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2023-0105
Keywords for this article
clodinofop-propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl nanoherbicides; weed control; wheat and yield parameters
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  5. Removal efficiency of dibenzofuran using CuZn-zeolitic imidazole frameworks as a catalyst and adsorbent
  6. Rapid and efficient microwave-assisted extraction of Caesalpinia sappan Linn. heartwood and subsequent synthesis of gold nanoparticles
  7. The catalytic characteristics of 2-methylnaphthalene acylation with AlCl3 immobilized on Hβ as Lewis acid catalyst
  8. Biodegradation of synthetic PVP biofilms using natural materials and nanoparticles
  9. Rutin-loaded selenium nanoparticles modulated the redox status, inflammatory, and apoptotic pathways associated with pentylenetetrazole-induced epilepsy in mice
  10. Optimization of apigenin nanoparticles prepared by planetary ball milling: In vitro and in vivo studies
  11. Synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Origanum onites leaves: Cytotoxic, apoptotic, and necrotic effects on Capan-1, L929, and Caco-2 cell lines
  12. Exergy analysis of a conceptual CO2 capture process with an amine-based DES
  13. Construction of fluorescence system of felodipine–tetracyanovinyl–2,2′-bipyridine complex
  14. Excellent photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B over Bi2O3 supported on Zn-MOF nanocomposites under visible light
  15. Optimization-based control strategy for a large-scale polyhydroxyalkanoates production in a fed-batch bioreactor using a coupled PDE–ODE system
  16. Effectiveness of pH and amount of Artemia urumiana extract on physical, chemical, and biological attributes of UV-fabricated biogold nanoparticles
  17. Geranium leaf-mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their transcriptomic effects on Candida albicans
  18. Synthesis, characterization, anticancer, anti-inflammatory activities, and docking studies of 3,5-disubstituted thiadiazine-2-thiones
  19. Synthesis and stability of phospholipid-encapsulated nano-selenium
  20. Putative anti-proliferative effect of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) seed and its nano-formulation
  21. Enrichment of low-grade phosphorites by the selective leaching method
  22. Electrochemical analysis of the dissolution of gold in a copper–ethylenediamine–thiosulfate system
  23. Characterisation of carbonate lake sediments as a potential filler for polymer composites
  24. Evaluation of nano-selenium biofortification characteristics of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.)
  25. Quality of oil extracted by cold press from Nigella sativa seeds incorporated with rosemary extracts and pretreated by microwaves
  26. Heteropolyacid-loaded MOF-derived mesoporous zirconia catalyst for chemical degradation of rhodamine B
  27. Recovery of critical metals from carbonatite-type mineral wastes: Geochemical modeling investigation of (bio)hydrometallurgical leaching of REEs
  28. Photocatalytic properties of ZnFe-mixed oxides synthesized via a simple route for water remediation
  29. Attenuation of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate-induced hepatic and renal toxicity by naringin nanoparticles in a rat model
  30. Novel in situ synthesis of quaternary core–shell metallic sulfide nanocomposites for degradation of organic dyes and hydrogen production
  31. Microfluidic steam-based synthesis of luminescent carbon quantum dots as sensing probes for nitrite detection
  32. Transformation of eggshell waste to egg white protein solution, calcium chloride dihydrate, and eggshell membrane powder
  33. Preparation of Zr-MOFs for the adsorption of doxycycline hydrochloride from wastewater
  34. Green nanoarchitectonics of the silver nanocrystal potential for treating malaria and their cytotoxic effects on the kidney Vero cell line
  35. Carbon emissions analysis of producing modified asphalt with natural asphalt
  36. An efficient and green synthesis of 2-phenylquinazolin-4(3H)-ones via t-BuONa-mediated oxidative condensation of 2-aminobenzamides and benzyl alcohols under solvent- and transition metal-free conditions
  37. Chitosan nanoparticles loaded with mesosulfuron methyl and mesosulfuron methyl + florasulam + MCPA isooctyl to manage weeds of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
  38. Synergism between lignite and high-sulfur petroleum coke in CO2 gasification
  39. Facile aqueous synthesis of ZnCuInS/ZnS–ZnS QDs with enhanced photoluminescence lifetime for selective detection of Cu(ii) ions
  40. Rapid synthesis of copper nanoparticles using Nepeta cataria leaves: An eco-friendly management of disease-causing vectors and bacterial pathogens
  41. Study on the photoelectrocatalytic activity of reduced TiO2 nanotube films for removal of methyl orange
  42. Development of a fuzzy logic model for the prediction of spark-ignition engine performance and emission for gasoline–ethanol blends
  43. Micro-impact-induced mechano-chemical synthesis of organic precursors from FeC/FeN and carbonates/nitrates in water and its extension to nucleobases
  44. Green synthesis of strontium-doped tin dioxide (SrSnO2) nanoparticles using the Mahonia bealei leaf extract and evaluation of their anticancer and antimicrobial activities
  45. A study on the larvicidal and adulticidal potential of Cladostepus spongiosus macroalgae and green-fabricated silver nanoparticles against mosquito vectors
  46. Catalysts based on nickel salt heteropolytungstates for selective oxidation of diphenyl sulfide
  47. Powerful antibacterial nanocomposites from Corallina officinalis-mediated nanometals and chitosan nanoparticles against fish-borne pathogens
  48. Removal behavior of Zn and alkalis from blast furnace dust in pre-reduction sinter process
  49. Environmentally friendly synthesis and computational studies of novel class of acridinedione integrated spirothiopyrrolizidines/indolizidines
  50. The mechanisms of inhibition and lubrication of clean fracturing flowback fluids in water-based drilling fluids
  51. Adsorption/desorption performance of cellulose membrane for Pb(ii)
  52. A one-pot, multicomponent tandem synthesis of fused polycyclic pyrrolo[3,2-c]quinolinone/pyrrolizino[2,3-c]quinolinone hybrid heterocycles via environmentally benign solid state melt reaction
  53. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using durian rind extract and optical characteristics of surface plasmon resonance-based optical sensor for the detection of hydrogen peroxide
  54. Electrochemical analysis of copper-EDTA-ammonia-gold thiosulfate dissolution system
  55. Characterization of bio-oil production by microwave pyrolysis from cashew nut shells and Cassia fistula pods
  56. Green synthesis methods and characterization of bacterial cellulose/silver nanoparticle composites
  57. Photocatalytic research performance of zinc oxide/graphite phase carbon nitride catalyst and its application in environment
  58. Effect of phytogenic iron nanoparticles on the bio-fortification of wheat varieties
  59. In vitro anti-cancer and antimicrobial effects of manganese oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the Glycyrrhiza uralensis leaf extract on breast cancer cell lines
  60. Preparation of Pd/Ce(F)-MCM-48 catalysts and their catalytic performance of n-heptane isomerization
  61. Green “one-pot” fluorescent bis-indolizine synthesis with whole-cell plant biocatalysis
  62. Silica-titania mesoporous silicas of MCM-41 type as effective catalysts and photocatalysts for selective oxidation of diphenyl sulfide by H2O2
  63. Biosynthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles from molted feathers of Pavo cristatus and their antibiofilm and anticancer activities
  64. Clean preparation of rutile from Ti-containing mixed molten slag by CO2 oxidation
  65. Synthesis and characterization of Pluronic F-127-coated titanium dioxide nanoparticles synthesized from extracts of Atractylodes macrocephala leaf for antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties
  66. Effect of pretreatment with alkali on the anaerobic digestion characteristics of kitchen waste and analysis of microbial diversity
  67. Ameliorated antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer properties by Plectranthus vettiveroides root extract-mediated green synthesis of chitosan nanoparticles
  68. Microwave-accelerated pretreatment technique in green extraction of oil and bioactive compounds from camelina seeds: Effectiveness and characterization
  69. Studies on the extraction performance of phorate by aptamer-functionalized magnetic nanoparticles in plasma samples
  70. Investigation of structural properties and antibacterial activity of AgO nanoparticle extract from Solanum nigrum/Mentha leaf extracts by green synthesis method
  71. Green fabrication of chitosan from marine crustaceans and mushroom waste: Toward sustainable resource utilization
  72. Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
  73. The enhanced adsorption properties of phosphorus from aqueous solutions using lanthanum modified synthetic zeolites
  74. Separation of graphene oxides of different sizes by multi-layer dialysis and anti-friction and lubrication performance
  75. Visible-light-assisted base-catalyzed, one-pot synthesis of highly functionalized cinnolines
  76. The experimental study on the air oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid with Co–Mn–Br system
  77. Highly efficient removal of tetracycline and methyl violet 2B from aqueous solution using the bimetallic FeZn-ZIFs catalyst
  78. A thermo-tolerant cellulase enzyme produced by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens M7, an insight into synthesis, optimization, characterization, and bio-polishing activity
  79. Exploration of ketone derivatives of succinimide for their antidiabetic potential: In vitro and in vivo approaches
  80. Ultrasound-assisted green synthesis and in silico study of 6-(4-(butylamino)-6-(diethylamino)-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)oxypyridazine derivatives
  81. A study of the anticancer potential of Pluronic F-127 encapsulated Fe2O3 nanoparticles derived from Berberis vulgaris extract
  82. Biogenic synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Consolida orientalis flowers: Identification, catalytic degradation, and biological effect
  83. Initial assessment of the presence of plastic waste in some coastal mangrove forests in Vietnam
  84. Adsorption synergy electrocatalytic degradation of phenol by active oxygen-containing species generated in Co-coal based cathode and graphite anode
  85. Antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, and cytotoxicity activities of the aqueous extract of Syzygium aromaticum-mediated synthesized novel silver nanoparticles
  86. Synthesis of a silica matrix with ZnO nanoparticles for the fabrication of a recyclable photodegradation system to eliminate methylene blue dye
  87. Natural polymer fillers instead of dye and pigments: Pumice and scoria in PDMS fluid and elastomer composites
  88. Study on the preparation of glycerylphosphorylcholine by transesterification under supported sodium methoxide
  89. Wireless network handheld terminal-based green ecological sustainable design evaluation system: Improved data communication and reduced packet loss rate
  90. The optimization of hydrogel strength from cassava starch using oxidized sucrose as a crosslinking agent
  91. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Saccharum officinarum leaf extract for antiviral paint
  92. Study on the reliability of nano-silver-coated tin solder joints for flip chips
  93. Environmentally sustainable analytical quality by design aided RP-HPLC method for the estimation of brilliant blue in commercial food samples employing a green-ultrasound-assisted extraction technique
  94. Anticancer and antimicrobial potential of zinc/sodium alginate/polyethylene glycol/d-pinitol nanocomposites against osteosarcoma MG-63 cells
  95. Nanoporous carbon@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite as a green absorbent for the adsorptive removal of Hg(ii) from aqueous solutions
  96. Characterization of silver sulfide nanoparticles from actinobacterial strain (M10A62) and its toxicity against lepidopteran and dipterans insect species
  97. Phyto-fabrication and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Withania somnifera: Investigating antioxidant potential
  98. Effect of e-waste nanofillers on the mechanical, thermal, and wear properties of epoxy-blend sisal woven fiber-reinforced composites
  99. Magnesium nanohydroxide (2D brucite) as a host matrix for thymol and carvacrol: Synthesis, characterization, and inhibition of foodborne pathogens
  100. Synergistic inhibitive effect of a hybrid zinc oxide-benzalkonium chloride composite on the corrosion of carbon steel in a sulfuric acidic solution
  101. Review Articles
  102. Role and the importance of green approach in biosynthesis of nanopropolis and effectiveness of propolis in the treatment of COVID-19 pandemic
  103. Gum tragacanth-mediated synthesis of metal nanoparticles, characterization, and their applications as a bactericide, catalyst, antioxidant, and peroxidase mimic
  104. Green-processed nano-biocomposite (ZnO–TiO2): Potential candidates for biomedical applications
  105. Reaction mechanisms in microwave-assisted lignin depolymerisation in hydrogen-donating solvents
  106. Recent progress on non-noble metal catalysts for the deoxydehydration of biomass-derived oxygenates
  107. Rapid Communication
  108. Phosphorus removal by iron–carbon microelectrolysis: A new way to achieve phosphorus recovery
  109. Special Issue: Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications (Guest Editors: Arpita Roy and Fernanda Maria Policarpo Tonelli)
  110. Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications
  111. Nano-encapsulated tanshinone IIA in PLGA-PEG-COOH inhibits apoptosis and inflammation in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury
  112. Green fabrication of silver nanoparticles using Melia azedarach ripened fruit extract, their characterization, and biological properties
  113. Green-synthesized nanoparticles and their therapeutic applications: A review
  114. Antioxidant, antibacterial, and cytotoxicity potential of synthesized silver nanoparticles from the Cassia alata leaf aqueous extract
  115. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Callisia fragrans leaf extract and its anticancer activity against MCF-7, HepG2, KB, LU-1, and MKN-7 cell lines
  116. Algae-based green AgNPs, AuNPs, and FeNPs as potential nanoremediators
  117. Green synthesis of Kickxia elatine-induced silver nanoparticles and their role as anti-acetylcholinesterase in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease
  118. Phytocrystallization of silver nanoparticles using Cassia alata flower extract for effective control of fungal skin pathogens
  119. Antibacterial wound dressing with hydrogel from chitosan and polyvinyl alcohol from the red cabbage extract loaded with silver nanoparticles
  120. Leveraging of mycogenic copper oxide nanostructures for disease management of Alternaria blight of Brassica juncea
  121. Nanoscale molecular reactions in microbiological medicines in modern medical applications
  122. Synthesis and characterization of ZnO/β-cyclodextrin/nicotinic acid nanocomposite and its biological and environmental application
  123. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles via Taxus wallichiana Zucc. plant-derived Taxol: Novel utilization as anticancer, antioxidation, anti-inflammation, and antiurolithic potential
  124. Recyclability and catalytic characteristics of copper oxide nanoparticles derived from bougainvillea plant flower extract for biomedical application
  125. Phytofabrication, characterization, and evaluation of novel bioinspired selenium–iron (Se–Fe) nanocomposites using Allium sativum extract for bio-potential applications
  126. Erratum
  127. Erratum to “Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)”
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