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Investigation of structural properties and antibacterial activity of AgO nanoparticle extract from Solanum nigrum/Mentha leaf extracts by green synthesis method

  • Subramanian Mohanaparameswari , Manavalan Balachandramohan EMAIL logo , Ponnusamy Sasikumar EMAIL logo , Chinnaiyan Rajeevgandhi , Mark Vimalan EMAIL logo , Sanmugam Pugazhendhi , Krishnamurthy Ganesh Kumar , Salim Albukhaty EMAIL logo , Ghassan M. Sulaiman , Mosleh M. Abomughaid and Mohammed Abu-Alghayth
Published/Copyright: November 1, 2023
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Green Processing and Synthesis
From the journal Green Processing and Synthesis Volume 12 Issue 1

Abstract

Solanum nigrum and Mentha leaf extracts were used as reducing and stabilizing reagents in the green synthesis of silver oxide nanoparticles (AgO NPs), and their antibacterial efficacy was subsequently evaluated. The structure and morphology of AgO NPs were evaluated using X-ray diffraction and filed emission scanning electron microscope. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy images were used to analyze the characteristics of certain particles with clearly discernible atomic structures. The functional group and elemental composition of AgO NPs were investigated using fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy was used to determine the energy band gap (E g) of the sample. The dielectric constant of both samples was found to be inversely proportional to frequency, whereas the dielectric loss was found to be directly proportional to temperature but directly proportional to frequency. This suggests that the space charge has an effect on the mechanism of charge transfer as well as polarizability. AC conductivity rises and is inversely proportional to temperature increases. AgO NPs had a size range of around 56 nm and were mostly spherical. The antibacterial potential of the synthesized AgO NPs using both extracts was compared by the well-diffusion method. AgO NPs at 50–100 µg·mL−1 concentration significantly inhibited the bacterial growth of Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella pneumonia.

Keywords: silver nanoparticles; Solanum nigrum ; Mentha ; green synthesis; structural properties

1 Introduction

Herbal extract synthesis of metallic nanoparticles (NPs) generated considerable interest in the dynasty of nanotechnology due to its cost-effective method of producing NPs in lofty quality and quantity with minimal time use and a decrease in toxicity levels – in the case of drug delivery – compared to chemical synthesis, which uses harmful chemicals with high consumption and sensitive to the environment [1,2,3]. The field of nanotechnology has made amazing advances; however, researchers are turning to green metallic NPs to meet the need for ecologically friendly NP synthesis [4,5]. Metallic NPs from the green synthesis clan can act as a capping and reducing agent [6,7]. A considerable amount of studies have systematically investigated metal nanostructures because of their unique catalytic, electrical, and optical capabilities [8]. In the province of metallic NPs, silver NPs fascinated the thoughts of researchers because of their idiosyncratic complexion in sensing, optoelectronic, catalysis, and drug delivery [9,10], and because of this, it is deemed that the production of silver NPs is of 500 tons every year and it may upswing in upcoming years [11]. Additionally, its significant contributions to the fields of high-sensitivity biomolecular detection, catalysis, medicine, and biosensors have suggested that it has inhibitory and bactericidal effects in combination with anti-angiogenesis, anti-inflammatory, and anti-fungal activities [12,13]. Significantly, silver oxide NPs (AgO NPs) have unique physical and chemical properties that are claimed to have great potential in medical applications. It can be non-toxic and environmentally friendly and reduce their size. NPs made using green synthesis are easier, more affordable, and more easily repeatable than those made using conventional techniques [14]. The heterogeneous fashion of green synthesis includes microorganisms that give the formation of NPs but the pace of synthesis is sluggish collated to routes involving an herbal course of action and relatively reincarnated and habitually aggregates in more anchored materials [15]. A large number of disease-causing water and foodborne pathogenic bacteria are actively engaged in the antibacterial action of the silver NPs [16]. Solanum nigrum and Mentha are significant homeopathic plants. Solanum nigrum and Mentha contain leaves that have rich amounts of calcium and minerals. The alkaloids and carbohydrates of the plant have a potent immune-stimulating impact. This was used to synthesize AgO NPs because it has anti-inflammatory and antibacterial effects [17]. This herb is used to treat the common cold and cough and is used in the Siddha medicine system and treatment of liver diseases. This article is focused to study on the structural, optical, morphological, and dielectric characteristics of both AgO NPs synthesized using a simple and green synthesis method. The antimicrobial activity of the present samples is also examined for biological applications.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Chemicals and plant collection

The silver nitrate (AgNO3, manufactured by Merck with a high purity of 99%) was used to synthesize AgO NPs using a green manufacturing process. Solanum nigrum (black nightshade) and Mentha (mint) are the well-known herbal plants cultivated in good loam and black soil in Peramandapatti village, Karimangalam Taluk, Dharmapuri district, Tamil Nadu, India. Naturally, the soil of the district is relatively soft and fresh, varying in color from red to deep brown. Solanum nigrum plants were harvested for their tender, greenish-yellow leaves, which were then cleaned under running water, twice or three times, and then with distilled water. Each leaf was meticulously washed using a white Khadhi cloth before being dried for 3 hours at room temperature.

2.2 Synthesis of AgO NPs

Normal water, distilled water, and acetone were used to clean all glassware. In a 100 mL beaker, 10 g of Solanum nigrum and Mentha leaves was boiled with 50 mL of distilled water at 80°C for 20 min. To remove the particulate matter and obtain clear solutions, the various leaf extracts were filtered through the Whatman No. 1 filter paper in a 250 mL beaker, and 50 mL of 0.5 M AgNO3 was placed and stirred for 20 min. Then, at room temperature, 10 mL of plant extracts (Solanum nigrum, Mentha) was added separately to it. For 20 min, the solution was vigorously stirred. When the reaction is initiated, the color of the solution changes from light pale yellow to dark brown. The final AgO NP product was dried in a hot air oven for 2 h at 80°C. Dried samples were characterized to analyze the properties of the prepared nanomaterials [18,19,20]. The detailed flow chart of the synthesis method is given in Figure 1b.

Figure 1 (a) AgO NP synthesis process: a (0.5 M)AgNO3 solution, (b) and (c) 10 mL Mentha and Solanum nigrum leaf extracts; (d) and (e) show the synthesized AgONPs from Mentha and Solanum nigrum leaf extracts. (b) Schematic diagram of AgO NPs extract from Solanum nigrum/Mentha leaf by the green synthesis method.
Figure 1

(a) AgO NP synthesis process: a (0.5 M)AgNO3 solution, (b) and (c) 10 mL Mentha and Solanum nigrum leaf extracts; (d) and (e) show the synthesized AgONPs from Mentha and Solanum nigrum leaf extracts. (b) Schematic diagram of AgO NPs extract from Solanum nigrum/Mentha leaf by the green synthesis method.

As a multivalent element, silver interacts with oxygen to form a variety of phases, including Ag2O, AgO, Ag3O4, and Ag2O3. These phases include AgO NPs, a fascinating class of metal oxides. Due to the absence of annealing in the synthesis of silver oxide, Ag and AgO are the most observable phases in experiments. It has also been revealed that they decompose at temperatures lower than 250°C [21].

2.3 Characterization of AgO NPs

XRD is the most commonly used technique for investigating chemical compounds as well as determining the crystal structure and size of AgO NPs using Cu-K1 radiation with a wavelength of 1.5406 Å. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is an electron microscopy technique that provides the speed and high resolution of a direct surface image while also measuring dimensions (size and shape) at micro- and nanoscales. Filed emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) (Hitachi 6600, Tokyo) was used to examine the particle aggregation degree and purity. The morphology, size, and crystallinity of the AgO NPs were examined using high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM, JEOL-JEM-2100 PLUS, Japan) and a selected area electron diffraction (SAED) pattern. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is a reliable, simple, and widely used analytical technique for screening and determining whether or not biological molecules of NPs are involved in the synthesis. FTIR spectral analysis was used to identify the biomolecules that acted as reducing and capping agents during the AgONP synthesis process. UV–visible (UV–vis) absorption spectroscopy (Shimadzu instrument in diffuse reflectance spectra (DRS) mode) is a valuable technique for characterizing the absorbance bands and band gaps of NPs, particularly those of noble metals. Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy is a spectroscopic technique used to determine the elemental composition and purity of AgO NPs that have been synthesized.

2.4 Antimicrobial activity of AgO NPs

The given samples were tested for antimicrobial activity by the well-diffusion method. Liquid Mueller Hinton agar media and the Petri plates were sterilized by autoclaving at 121°C for about 30 min at 15 lbs pressure. Under aseptic conditions in the laminar airflow chamber, about 20 mL of the agar medium was dispensed into each Petri plate to yield a uniform depth of 4 mm. After solidification of the media, 18 h culture of Gram-positive microorganisms, such as Bacillus cereus (MTCC 430), Staphylococcus aureus (MTCC 3160), and Gram-negative microorganisms, such as Escherichia coli (MTCC 1698) and Klebsiella pneumoniae (MTCC10309), obtained from IMTECH, Chandigarh, were swabbed on the surface of the agar plates. The well was prepared by using a cork borer followed by loading of 50 and 100 µL of each sample to the distinct well with sterile distilled water as negative control and tetracycline (30 mcg·disk−1) as positive control. The sample-loaded plates were then incubated at 37°C for 24 h to observe the zone of inhibition.

3 Results

3.1 Crystal structure analysis

The powder XRD of AgO NPs is depicted in Figure 2. The XRD spectra of the synthesized NP revealed that the four main prominent diffraction peaks were observed at 2θ = 38.07, 44.24, 64.36, and 77.33 for Mentha and 38.06, 44.25, 64.35, and 77.32 for Solanum nigrum, which correspond to the (111), (200), (220), and (311) planes of silver and can be indexed as the cubic phase of Ag, and these results are well matching with JCPDS card No. 04-0783. The presence of strong peaks in the diffraction pattern confirms the high crystalline characteristics of the synthesized materials. There is a minor peak position at an angle of 27.76° (112), 32.17° (202), 46.17° (132), 54.74° (224), and 57.43° (402), 67.38° (206), and 76.71° (136) for Mentha. The same planes were seen in Solanum nigrum-mediated AgONPs, with a slight change in 2θ values of 27.68° (112), 32.18° (202), 46.16° (132), 54.79° (224), and 57.28° (402), respectively, for Solanum nigrum, which represents the presence of other phases in the synthesized AgO NPs because of the incorporation of leaf extract, which is well matched with the standard JCPDS data of AgO (JCPDS No. 84-1108). According to the low-intensity peaks for AgO, the synthesized Ag/AgO sample primarily contains Ag NPs with very little AgO present [21]. To determine the crystallite size of NPs, the Debye–Scherrer formula was applied and the results are shown in Table 1 [22,23].

(1) D = k λ β cos θ

where λ denotes the wavelength of X-ray in nm (Cu-Kα1, λ = 1.5406 Å), β is the full-width-at-half-maximum of the highest peak intensity, θ is the Bragg angle in degree, k indicates the shape factor (k = 0.9), and the lattice constant (4.085 Å) is calculated by using the following expression [24,25]:

(2) 1 d 2 = h 2 + k 2 + l 2 a 2

where hkl is the Miller index of the planes, d is the distance between the planes, and a is the lattice constant.

Figure 2 XRD spectra of AgO NPs from the extract of Solanum nigrum and Mentha leaf.
Figure 2

XRD spectra of AgO NPs from the extract of Solanum nigrum and Mentha leaf.

Table 1

XRD raw data and average crystalline size of AgO NPs

2θ Interplanar spacing (d) Ǻ FWHM (deg) Crystallite size (D) 10−9 Average crystallite size (D) 10−9
38.104 2.363 0.197 36.942 28.71
44.194 2.047 0.197 31.850
64.366 1.447 0.197 21.862
77.429 1.234 0.148 24.199

3.2 FTIR spectroscopy

The connection of the functional groups was examined by matching the FTIR spectra of AgO NPs from Solanum nigrum and Mentha leaf, as shown in Figure 3. The absorption peaks around 3,436 and 1,386 cm−1 correspond to COOH or OH groups. The peaks at the wave numbers 2,919 and 1,606 cm−1 are appropriate to the vibration of the C–H, C–C, and –C═C–stretching of covalent vibration bonds, respectively. The vibration absorption peak at 545 cm−1 is related to the Ag–O. Additionally, weak absorption peaks are observed in the spectra due to Ag ion bond [26,27].

Figure 3 FTIR spectra of AgO NPs from the extract of Solanum nigrum and Mentha leaf.
Figure 3

FTIR spectra of AgO NPs from the extract of Solanum nigrum and Mentha leaf.

3.3 EDX spectra

Figure 4 shows the EDX spectra of the green synthesized AgO NPs. In addition to Ag and O, images display the Cl peaks that originated from the synthesis route [28]. The corresponding weight and atomic percentage were also calculated, and the variation was observed in both samples [29]. The results showed that Solanum nigrum has a high weight and atomic percentage.

Figure 4 EDX images of AgO sample display the presence of Ag, oxygen, and chlorine (less percentage) in AgO NPs measured from EDX spectroscopy.
Figure 4

EDX images of AgO sample display the presence of Ag, oxygen, and chlorine (less percentage) in AgO NPs measured from EDX spectroscopy.

3.4 UV–vis absorbance spectroscopy

The optical property of a metal NP was investigated using UV–vis DRS analysis. Although the peak was missing, the absorbance band edge of AgO NPs was observed around 397.55 nm (Mentha) and 293.50 nm (Solanum nigrum), respectively [30]. Interestingly, the Solanum nigrum AgO NPs have very low absorbance when it is compared with Mentha AgO NPs. The expression for the Kubelka–Munk function is as follows:

(3) α = 4 л k λ

The optical band gap energy can be calculated by using the following equation [31].

(4) ( α h ν ) n = C ( h ν − E g )

where hν is the incident photon energy, C is the proportionality constant, E g is the band gap (eV), and n is the power factor representing allowed indirect and direct transitions for the n values of 0.5 and 2, respectively. The quantity [αhν]2 is plotted as a function of the incident photon energy hν to determine the optical band gap E g from the point of interception with the X-axis. Band gap energy (E g) of AgO NPs is calculated, using the Kubelka–Munk relationship [31], and the obtained band gap energy values are found to be 2.609 and 3.00 eV for Solanum nigrum and Mentha leaf extract, respectively (Figure 5).

Figure 5 Optical absorbance spectra of AgO NPs from the extract of Solanum nigrum and Mentha leaves.
Figure 5

Optical absorbance spectra of AgO NPs from the extract of Solanum nigrum and Mentha leaves.

3.5 Surface morphological studies

Figure 6(a) and (b) shows the FESEM image of 1 μm magnification for AgO NP synthesis from the extract of Solanum nigrum and Mentha leaves. It seems that AgO NPs from Solanum nigrum leaf extract have different kinds of structures such as a flower and small spherical ball shapes on top of the flower with more voids. However, AgO NPs from Mentha leaf extract show a similar kind of flower structure with minimal voids. The result of minimal voids in the sample gives better antibacterial activity than other species [32,33].

Figure 6 FESEM image for AgO NPs from the extract of (a) Solanum nigrum and (b) Mentha leaf.
Figure 6

FESEM image for AgO NPs from the extract of (a) Solanum nigrum and (b) Mentha leaf.

The structural morphology and particle size of AgO NPs were examined by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Figures 7 and 8 display different magnifications of TEM bright field images, HRTEM, and SAED patterns for AgO NPs. Sample preparation for TEM analysis consists of AgO NPs from leaf extract dispersed in 1 mL of ethanol and sonicated for half an hour to obtain a well-mixed solution. The mixed solution was dropped on a copper grid and then dried at 60°C in an open-air atmosphere. The results revealed the clouds of spherical ball structures in different scale sizes. The AgO NPs indicate a size of 7–56 nm with an average size of 30 nm. Figures 7(c) and (d) and 8(c) and (d) display the interplanar spacing (fringe width) values of 0.20 and 0.220 nm of Solanum nigrum and Mentha AgO NP samples, which clearly indicates the lattice spacing of plane (200) and (111), respectively. The results are well coordinated with XRD results.

Figure 7 TEM image for AgO NPs synthesized by Solanum nigrum leaf extract at different scale bars. (a: 50 nm; b: 20 nm; c: 2 nm; d: 1 nm), respectively.
Figure 7

TEM image for AgO NPs synthesized by Solanum nigrum leaf extract at different scale bars. (a: 50 nm; b: 20 nm; c: 2 nm; d: 1 nm), respectively.

Figure 8 TEM image for AgO NPs synthesized by Mentha leaf extract at different scale bars. (a: 50 nm; b: 20 nm; c: 2 nm; d: 1 nm), respectively.
Figure 8

TEM image for AgO NPs synthesized by Mentha leaf extract at different scale bars. (a: 50 nm; b: 20 nm; c: 2 nm; d: 1 nm), respectively.

3.6 Determination of antimicrobial activity by agar well diffusion method (AWDM)

The antibacterial activities of the synthesized AgO NPs were observed against Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus) and Gram-negative bacteria (Klebsiella pneumonia, Escherichia coli) by AWDM. The various sizes (in mm) of the zone of inhibition results were compared with two different leaf extracts. Antibacterial activities of the green synthesized AgO NPs solution from Solanum nigrum leaf extract were tested against Mentha leaf, which was studied using bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella pneumonia. In this, 0.4 molar concentration of AgO NP solution was used, since one molar of AgO NPs gives a vast-prevent diameter region, leading to an overlap in the regions. As a result, the microbial halo formed around the NP solution, which indicates that the green synthesized AgO NPs have excellent antimicrobial activity [34,35]. Particularly, the AgO NPs from Mentha leaves show an excellent antimicrobial prevention activity compared to Solanum nigrum leaf extract as shown in Figures 9 and 10 and Table 2. The AgO NPs react with the bacteria cell region and prevent the respiratory process by interacting with AgO NPs with the respiratory enzymes. As shown in Figures 9 and 10, Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli) show large prevention area diameters. In difference, Gram-positive (Bacillus cereus) and Gram-negative (Klebsiella pneumonia) bacteria show a lower prevention diameter as shown in Figures 9 and 10. The difference in the constrained diameter is assigned to the range of the bacteria cell zone [36]. Thus, the basic principle of antibacterial activity in this study is ascribed to the high surface area-to-volume ratio between AgO NPs and bacteria.

Figure 9 Antimicrobial activity of AgO NPs synthesized by Solanum nigrum leaf extract.
Figure 9

Antimicrobial activity of AgO NPs synthesized by Solanum nigrum leaf extract.

Figure 10 Antimicrobial activity of AgO NPs from Mentha leaf extract.
Figure 10

Antimicrobial activity of AgO NPs from Mentha leaf extract.

Table 2

Maximum zone of inhibition by AgO NPs synthesized by Solanum nigrum and Mentha leaf extract

S. no. Microorganisms Zone of inhibition in diameter (mm)
Control (100 µg·mL−1) Mentha Solanum nigrum
50 µg·mL−1 100 µg·mL−1 50 µg·mL−1 100 µg·mL−1 Std. antibiotic (tetracycline) 30 mcg·disk−1
1 Bacillus cereus Nil 10 12 7 12 24
2 Staphylococcus aureus Nil 14 20 6 8 26
3 Escherichia coli Nil 10 15 8 9 25
4 Klebsiella pneumoniae Nil 16 18 10 18 25

3.7 Electrical analysis

The dielectric analysis is a useful tool for understanding the grain boundaries, the microstructure of the compound, its transport properties, charge-storage capacity, etc [37]. At different temperatures, the dielectric properties, such as capacitance and the loss factor (or dissipation factor) of AgO NPs derived from leaf extract of Solanum nigrum/Mentha, were measured in the frequency range of 4 Hz to 8 MHz. Figure 11(a and b) illustrates the dielectric permittivity (ε r) and dielectric loss for both AgO NPs as a function of frequency at various temperatures. The value of εr decreases fast as frequency increases and approaches a constant limiting point at which εr essentially becomes frequency dependent, which is attributed to the reduction of domain walls, as can be seen from the frequency-dependent plot of ε r. In this case, the dipoles can simply align in the applied field direction. As a result of the dominance of space charge polarization in both samples, the dielectric constant of all samples has a greater value at low frequencies and practically reaches a constant value after 1 kHz. This distinctive behavior of polar dielectrics may be understood using the Koop and Maxwell Wagner theory, which makes the assumption that the dielectric medium is composed of conducting grains separated by relatively resistive grain boundaries [38,39]. The nanocrystal sizes of the generated samples are another factor in the behavior of the samples. Dislocations, defects, and voids create declination in the dielectric constant at the nanoscale, which results in constant values of ε r [40].

Figure 11 Illustrating Solanum nigrum/Mentha of leaf extract AgO NPs for 313, 323, 333, 343, and 353 K (various frequencies): (a) dielectric constant and (b) dielectric loss.
Figure 11

Illustrating Solanum nigrum/Mentha of leaf extract AgO NPs for 313, 323, 333, 343, and 353 K (various frequencies): (a) dielectric constant and (b) dielectric loss.

Figure 11(b) displays the variations in dielectric loss with frequency for both AgO NPs. The change in tan δ reached the constant value up to 10 kHz, and then the loss factor increases with increasing frequency. The synthesis process can have an impact on the behavior of leaf extract, sample homogeneity, structural stoichiometry, and other factors that might cause changes in dielectric loss [41].

Figure 12(a and b) indicates that both AgO NPs exhibit the greatest value of dielectric constant and δ, whereas the AgO NPs of Solanum nigrum leaf extract exhibit high values compared with the AgO NPs of Mentha leaf extract. Their resistance may play a part in the cause [42]. Therefore, the energy loss of both AgO NPs cannot be influenced by Ag+ ions. Previous studies have reported similar behaviors of ε r and tanδ for these samples. The tan δ curves of both samples showed some additional peaks. Particularly, the AgO NPs of Solanum nigrum leaf extract at 323 K explore the two peaks, which may be due to lack of resistance.

Figure 12 Difference of Solanum nigrum and Mentha of leaf extract AgO NPs for 313, 333, and 353 K (various frequencies): (a) dielectric constant and (b) dielectric loss.
Figure 12

Difference of Solanum nigrum and Mentha of leaf extract AgO NPs for 313, 333, and 353 K (various frequencies): (a) dielectric constant and (b) dielectric loss.

In order to distinguish between the effects of intrinsic dielectric polarization and space charge polarization, the ε r and tan δ were plotted as a function of temperature at chosen frequencies of 1 kHz, 100 kHz, and 1 MHz, which are shown in Figure 13(a and b). Figure 13(a) shows that at all specified frequencies, the values of the dielectric constants rise with rising temperature. The dielectric constant changes with temperature at different frequencies as shown by the following. Since the thermal energy at low temperatures is insufficient to liberate the localized electric dipoles, the dielectric constant initially rises a little with increasing temperature. These dipoles make an effort to realign themselves toward the electric field being delivered outside. The direction of the dipoles in the presence of an external electric field determines the dipole polarization [43,44]. The arrangement of the dipoles gets more challenging as the temperature rises due to an increase in entropy, which causes the dipole polarization to decrease as the temperature rises.

Figure 13 Difference of Solanum nigrum and Mentha of leaf extract AgO NPs for 1 kHz, 100 kHz, and 1 MHz (temperature dependence): (a) dielectric constant and (b) dielectric loss.
Figure 13

Difference of Solanum nigrum and Mentha of leaf extract AgO NPs for 1 kHz, 100 kHz, and 1 MHz (temperature dependence): (a) dielectric constant and (b) dielectric loss.

Figure 14(a and b) makes it very evident that the AgO NPs of Solanum nigrum leaf extract are high when compared to the AgO NPs of Mentha leaf extract and both the dielectric constant and dielectric loss rise. The study made on solids to characterize the resistance of the crystalline sample is AC conductivity, another significant attribute of the sample. The AC conductivity may be measured using a variety of techniques depending on the dielectric data [45,46]. In Figure 15, the variation in AC electrical conductivity is shown as a function of temperatures for both AgO NPs and their embedding with various leaf extracts at different frequencies. The conductivity spectrum exhibits a unique conductivity dispersion in the frequency range of 100 Hz, 1 kHz, 10 kHz, 100 kHz, and 1 MHz. This graph shows the relationship between conductivity and frequency. As frequency decreases, there is an increasing charge accumulation at the electrode–sample contact, which causes this to happen. As a result, there are fewer mobile ions present, which reduces the conductivity at low frequencies. The conductivity of materials increases as frequency increases because charge carriers are more mobile at higher frequencies [47]. Figure 16 depicts the ln σ ac versus 1/T graph, which follows the Arrhenius relationship. Electrical conductivity was improved by adding extract. The impurities in the material have an impact on the activation energy decrease for the AgO NPs of Solanum nigrum leaf extract and increase for AgO NPs of Mentha leaf extract, which is illustrated in Figure 17. A little portion of the activation energy produced from the AC conductance calculation is useful for the production of electro-optical devices.

Figure 14 Solanum nigrum/Mentha leaf extract AgO NPs for 100 Hz, 1 kHz, 10 kHz, 100 kHz, and 1 MHz (temperature dependence): (a) dielectric constant and (b) dielectric loss.
Figure 14

Solanum nigrum/Mentha leaf extract AgO NPs for 100 Hz, 1 kHz, 10 kHz, 100 kHz, and 1 MHz (temperature dependence): (a) dielectric constant and (b) dielectric loss.

Figure 15 Variation of AC electrical conductivities with temperatures at different frequencies for Solanum nigrum/Mentha of leaf extract AgO NPs.
Figure 15

Variation of AC electrical conductivities with temperatures at different frequencies for Solanum nigrum/Mentha of leaf extract AgO NPs.

Figure 16 Plot of ln(σ ac) T versus 1,000/T for Solanum nigrum/Mentha of leaf extract AgO NPs.
Figure 16

Plot of ln(σ ac) T versus 1,000/T for Solanum nigrum/Mentha of leaf extract AgO NPs.

Figure 17 Variation of AC activation energy with log frequency for Solanum nigrum/Mentha of leaf extract AgO NPs.
Figure 17

Variation of AC activation energy with log frequency for Solanum nigrum/Mentha of leaf extract AgO NPs.

4 Conclusions

Green synthesis of AgO NPs using biological agents is of ecologically low cost and capable of producing NPs at room temperature. The cubic structure of the synthesis product was confirmed by XRD results with an average particle size of 28.71 nm. From a Touc plot, the optical band gap of the products is found to be 2.609 and 3.00 eV for Solanum nigrum and Mentha leaf extract, respectively. The FTIR spectra show the existence of a functional group, absorbance peaks at 3,436, 2,919, 1,606, 1,386, 1,041, and 545 cm−1 corresponding to –OH, –CH2, –COOH, C–C, C–C, C–H, and Ag–O groups, respectively. The SEM and TEM results show that the structural morphology of AgO NPs, which consists of varied shapes such as flower kind of structure with a small spherical on top of the flower surface, gives more bacterial activity. AgO NPs prepared from Solanum nigrum leaf extract and their dielectric dispersion behavior demonstrate that thermal hopping of space charges occurs in all of the samples. In contrast, the AgO NPs of Solanum nigrum leaf extract show higher values when compared to the AgO NPs of Mentha leaf extract. The examination of the dielectric reveals that at high frequencies, both dielectric dispersion components diminish, preventing interface dipoles from swiftly traveling to the alternate zone. A low dielectric dispersion is frequently preferred for a variety of applications, including high-speed integrated packages and satellite communication applications. Furthermore, the conductivity of both samples remains virtually constant up to a certain frequency, before rapidly rising. As a result, it has been demonstrated that the material is a good candidate for optoelectronic applications. In addition, the silver NPs synthesized using Mentha leaf extract exhibited better antibacterial activity than Solanum nigrum. This may be used as a potential candidate for antibacterial microbes.

Acknowledgements

The authors are thankful to the Deanship of Scientific Research at the University of Bisha, Saudi Arabia. This work was supported by the Fast-Track Research Support Program.

  1. Funding information: Authors state no funding involved.

  2. Author contributions: Conceptualization and methodology – Subramanian Mohanaparameswari and Manavalan Balachandramohan; formal analysis – Ponnusamy Sasikumar and Mark Vimalan; investigation and data curation – Salim Albukhaty and Ghassan M. Sulaiman; validation – Mosleh M. Abomughaid and Mohammed Abu-Alghayth; visualization – Mosleh M. Abomughaid; original draft preparation– Krishnamurthy Ganesh Kumar, Chinnaiyan Rajeevgandhi, Sanmugam Pugazhendhi, and Manavalan Balachandramohan; supervision – Manavalan Balachandramohan, Mark Vimalan, Salim Albukhaty, and Ponnusamy Sasikumar; project administration – Manavalan Balachandramohan and Ponnusamy Sasikumar. All authors gave approval to the final version of this manuscript.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2023-05-28
Accepted: 2023-10-09
Published Online: 2023-11-01

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2023-0080
Keywords for this article
silver nanoparticles; Solanum nigrum; Mentha; green synthesis; structural properties
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Value-added utilization of coal fly ash and recycled polyvinyl chloride in door or window sub-frame composites
  3. High removal efficiency of volatile phenol from coking wastewater using coal gasification slag via optimized adsorption and multi-grade batch process
  4. Evolution of surface morphology and properties of diamond films by hydrogen plasma etching
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  10. Optimization of apigenin nanoparticles prepared by planetary ball milling: In vitro and in vivo studies
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  17. Geranium leaf-mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their transcriptomic effects on Candida albicans
  18. Synthesis, characterization, anticancer, anti-inflammatory activities, and docking studies of 3,5-disubstituted thiadiazine-2-thiones
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  24. Evaluation of nano-selenium biofortification characteristics of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.)
  25. Quality of oil extracted by cold press from Nigella sativa seeds incorporated with rosemary extracts and pretreated by microwaves
  26. Heteropolyacid-loaded MOF-derived mesoporous zirconia catalyst for chemical degradation of rhodamine B
  27. Recovery of critical metals from carbonatite-type mineral wastes: Geochemical modeling investigation of (bio)hydrometallurgical leaching of REEs
  28. Photocatalytic properties of ZnFe-mixed oxides synthesized via a simple route for water remediation
  29. Attenuation of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate-induced hepatic and renal toxicity by naringin nanoparticles in a rat model
  30. Novel in situ synthesis of quaternary core–shell metallic sulfide nanocomposites for degradation of organic dyes and hydrogen production
  31. Microfluidic steam-based synthesis of luminescent carbon quantum dots as sensing probes for nitrite detection
  32. Transformation of eggshell waste to egg white protein solution, calcium chloride dihydrate, and eggshell membrane powder
  33. Preparation of Zr-MOFs for the adsorption of doxycycline hydrochloride from wastewater
  34. Green nanoarchitectonics of the silver nanocrystal potential for treating malaria and their cytotoxic effects on the kidney Vero cell line
  35. Carbon emissions analysis of producing modified asphalt with natural asphalt
  36. An efficient and green synthesis of 2-phenylquinazolin-4(3H)-ones via t-BuONa-mediated oxidative condensation of 2-aminobenzamides and benzyl alcohols under solvent- and transition metal-free conditions
  37. Chitosan nanoparticles loaded with mesosulfuron methyl and mesosulfuron methyl + florasulam + MCPA isooctyl to manage weeds of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
  38. Synergism between lignite and high-sulfur petroleum coke in CO2 gasification
  39. Facile aqueous synthesis of ZnCuInS/ZnS–ZnS QDs with enhanced photoluminescence lifetime for selective detection of Cu(ii) ions
  40. Rapid synthesis of copper nanoparticles using Nepeta cataria leaves: An eco-friendly management of disease-causing vectors and bacterial pathogens
  41. Study on the photoelectrocatalytic activity of reduced TiO2 nanotube films for removal of methyl orange
  42. Development of a fuzzy logic model for the prediction of spark-ignition engine performance and emission for gasoline–ethanol blends
  43. Micro-impact-induced mechano-chemical synthesis of organic precursors from FeC/FeN and carbonates/nitrates in water and its extension to nucleobases
  44. Green synthesis of strontium-doped tin dioxide (SrSnO2) nanoparticles using the Mahonia bealei leaf extract and evaluation of their anticancer and antimicrobial activities
  45. A study on the larvicidal and adulticidal potential of Cladostepus spongiosus macroalgae and green-fabricated silver nanoparticles against mosquito vectors
  46. Catalysts based on nickel salt heteropolytungstates for selective oxidation of diphenyl sulfide
  47. Powerful antibacterial nanocomposites from Corallina officinalis-mediated nanometals and chitosan nanoparticles against fish-borne pathogens
  48. Removal behavior of Zn and alkalis from blast furnace dust in pre-reduction sinter process
  49. Environmentally friendly synthesis and computational studies of novel class of acridinedione integrated spirothiopyrrolizidines/indolizidines
  50. The mechanisms of inhibition and lubrication of clean fracturing flowback fluids in water-based drilling fluids
  51. Adsorption/desorption performance of cellulose membrane for Pb(ii)
  52. A one-pot, multicomponent tandem synthesis of fused polycyclic pyrrolo[3,2-c]quinolinone/pyrrolizino[2,3-c]quinolinone hybrid heterocycles via environmentally benign solid state melt reaction
  53. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using durian rind extract and optical characteristics of surface plasmon resonance-based optical sensor for the detection of hydrogen peroxide
  54. Electrochemical analysis of copper-EDTA-ammonia-gold thiosulfate dissolution system
  55. Characterization of bio-oil production by microwave pyrolysis from cashew nut shells and Cassia fistula pods
  56. Green synthesis methods and characterization of bacterial cellulose/silver nanoparticle composites
  57. Photocatalytic research performance of zinc oxide/graphite phase carbon nitride catalyst and its application in environment
  58. Effect of phytogenic iron nanoparticles on the bio-fortification of wheat varieties
  59. In vitro anti-cancer and antimicrobial effects of manganese oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the Glycyrrhiza uralensis leaf extract on breast cancer cell lines
  60. Preparation of Pd/Ce(F)-MCM-48 catalysts and their catalytic performance of n-heptane isomerization
  61. Green “one-pot” fluorescent bis-indolizine synthesis with whole-cell plant biocatalysis
  62. Silica-titania mesoporous silicas of MCM-41 type as effective catalysts and photocatalysts for selective oxidation of diphenyl sulfide by H2O2
  63. Biosynthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles from molted feathers of Pavo cristatus and their antibiofilm and anticancer activities
  64. Clean preparation of rutile from Ti-containing mixed molten slag by CO2 oxidation
  65. Synthesis and characterization of Pluronic F-127-coated titanium dioxide nanoparticles synthesized from extracts of Atractylodes macrocephala leaf for antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties
  66. Effect of pretreatment with alkali on the anaerobic digestion characteristics of kitchen waste and analysis of microbial diversity
  67. Ameliorated antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer properties by Plectranthus vettiveroides root extract-mediated green synthesis of chitosan nanoparticles
  68. Microwave-accelerated pretreatment technique in green extraction of oil and bioactive compounds from camelina seeds: Effectiveness and characterization
  69. Studies on the extraction performance of phorate by aptamer-functionalized magnetic nanoparticles in plasma samples
  70. Investigation of structural properties and antibacterial activity of AgO nanoparticle extract from Solanum nigrum/Mentha leaf extracts by green synthesis method
  71. Green fabrication of chitosan from marine crustaceans and mushroom waste: Toward sustainable resource utilization
  72. Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
  73. The enhanced adsorption properties of phosphorus from aqueous solutions using lanthanum modified synthetic zeolites
  74. Separation of graphene oxides of different sizes by multi-layer dialysis and anti-friction and lubrication performance
  75. Visible-light-assisted base-catalyzed, one-pot synthesis of highly functionalized cinnolines
  76. The experimental study on the air oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid with Co–Mn–Br system
  77. Highly efficient removal of tetracycline and methyl violet 2B from aqueous solution using the bimetallic FeZn-ZIFs catalyst
  78. A thermo-tolerant cellulase enzyme produced by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens M7, an insight into synthesis, optimization, characterization, and bio-polishing activity
  79. Exploration of ketone derivatives of succinimide for their antidiabetic potential: In vitro and in vivo approaches
  80. Ultrasound-assisted green synthesis and in silico study of 6-(4-(butylamino)-6-(diethylamino)-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)oxypyridazine derivatives
  81. A study of the anticancer potential of Pluronic F-127 encapsulated Fe2O3 nanoparticles derived from Berberis vulgaris extract
  82. Biogenic synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Consolida orientalis flowers: Identification, catalytic degradation, and biological effect
  83. Initial assessment of the presence of plastic waste in some coastal mangrove forests in Vietnam
  84. Adsorption synergy electrocatalytic degradation of phenol by active oxygen-containing species generated in Co-coal based cathode and graphite anode
  85. Antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, and cytotoxicity activities of the aqueous extract of Syzygium aromaticum-mediated synthesized novel silver nanoparticles
  86. Synthesis of a silica matrix with ZnO nanoparticles for the fabrication of a recyclable photodegradation system to eliminate methylene blue dye
  87. Natural polymer fillers instead of dye and pigments: Pumice and scoria in PDMS fluid and elastomer composites
  88. Study on the preparation of glycerylphosphorylcholine by transesterification under supported sodium methoxide
  89. Wireless network handheld terminal-based green ecological sustainable design evaluation system: Improved data communication and reduced packet loss rate
  90. The optimization of hydrogel strength from cassava starch using oxidized sucrose as a crosslinking agent
  91. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Saccharum officinarum leaf extract for antiviral paint
  92. Study on the reliability of nano-silver-coated tin solder joints for flip chips
  93. Environmentally sustainable analytical quality by design aided RP-HPLC method for the estimation of brilliant blue in commercial food samples employing a green-ultrasound-assisted extraction technique
  94. Anticancer and antimicrobial potential of zinc/sodium alginate/polyethylene glycol/d-pinitol nanocomposites against osteosarcoma MG-63 cells
  95. Nanoporous carbon@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite as a green absorbent for the adsorptive removal of Hg(ii) from aqueous solutions
  96. Characterization of silver sulfide nanoparticles from actinobacterial strain (M10A62) and its toxicity against lepidopteran and dipterans insect species
  97. Phyto-fabrication and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Withania somnifera: Investigating antioxidant potential
  98. Effect of e-waste nanofillers on the mechanical, thermal, and wear properties of epoxy-blend sisal woven fiber-reinforced composites
  99. Magnesium nanohydroxide (2D brucite) as a host matrix for thymol and carvacrol: Synthesis, characterization, and inhibition of foodborne pathogens
  100. Synergistic inhibitive effect of a hybrid zinc oxide-benzalkonium chloride composite on the corrosion of carbon steel in a sulfuric acidic solution
  101. Review Articles
  102. Role and the importance of green approach in biosynthesis of nanopropolis and effectiveness of propolis in the treatment of COVID-19 pandemic
  103. Gum tragacanth-mediated synthesis of metal nanoparticles, characterization, and their applications as a bactericide, catalyst, antioxidant, and peroxidase mimic
  104. Green-processed nano-biocomposite (ZnO–TiO2): Potential candidates for biomedical applications
  105. Reaction mechanisms in microwave-assisted lignin depolymerisation in hydrogen-donating solvents
  106. Recent progress on non-noble metal catalysts for the deoxydehydration of biomass-derived oxygenates
  107. Rapid Communication
  108. Phosphorus removal by iron–carbon microelectrolysis: A new way to achieve phosphorus recovery
  109. Special Issue: Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications (Guest Editors: Arpita Roy and Fernanda Maria Policarpo Tonelli)
  110. Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications
  111. Nano-encapsulated tanshinone IIA in PLGA-PEG-COOH inhibits apoptosis and inflammation in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury
  112. Green fabrication of silver nanoparticles using Melia azedarach ripened fruit extract, their characterization, and biological properties
  113. Green-synthesized nanoparticles and their therapeutic applications: A review
  114. Antioxidant, antibacterial, and cytotoxicity potential of synthesized silver nanoparticles from the Cassia alata leaf aqueous extract
  115. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Callisia fragrans leaf extract and its anticancer activity against MCF-7, HepG2, KB, LU-1, and MKN-7 cell lines
  116. Algae-based green AgNPs, AuNPs, and FeNPs as potential nanoremediators
  117. Green synthesis of Kickxia elatine-induced silver nanoparticles and their role as anti-acetylcholinesterase in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease
  118. Phytocrystallization of silver nanoparticles using Cassia alata flower extract for effective control of fungal skin pathogens
  119. Antibacterial wound dressing with hydrogel from chitosan and polyvinyl alcohol from the red cabbage extract loaded with silver nanoparticles
  120. Leveraging of mycogenic copper oxide nanostructures for disease management of Alternaria blight of Brassica juncea
  121. Nanoscale molecular reactions in microbiological medicines in modern medical applications
  122. Synthesis and characterization of ZnO/β-cyclodextrin/nicotinic acid nanocomposite and its biological and environmental application
  123. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles via Taxus wallichiana Zucc. plant-derived Taxol: Novel utilization as anticancer, antioxidation, anti-inflammation, and antiurolithic potential
  124. Recyclability and catalytic characteristics of copper oxide nanoparticles derived from bougainvillea plant flower extract for biomedical application
  125. Phytofabrication, characterization, and evaluation of novel bioinspired selenium–iron (Se–Fe) nanocomposites using Allium sativum extract for bio-potential applications
  126. Erratum
  127. Erratum to “Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)”
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