Startseite Green fabrication of chitosan from marine crustaceans and mushroom waste: Toward sustainable resource utilization
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Green fabrication of chitosan from marine crustaceans and mushroom waste: Toward sustainable resource utilization

  • Kiruthiga Periyannan EMAIL logo , Hemamala Selvaraj , Balachandar Subbu , Muthukrishnan Pallikondaperumal , Ponmurugan Karuppiah EMAIL logo , Jothi Ramalingam Rajabathar , Hamad Al-Lohedan und Sadhasivam Thangarasu
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 1. November 2023
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Green Processing and Synthesis
Aus der Zeitschrift Green Processing and Synthesis Band 12 Heft 1

Abstract

The exoskeletons of crabs, shrimp, and fish are major waste. These wastes contain chitin, an abundant natural polymer found next to cellulose. Thus, disposal of this waste becomes a huge problem for the environment; besides this, reutilization boosts the circular economy. Chitin is partially deacetylated to yield the economically useful product of chitosan and is a heteropolymer. The current study isolated chitosan from mushrooms and various marine crustaceans, i.e., crabs, shrimp, and fish. Chitosan was extracted from marine crustaceans by demineralization, deproteination, and deacetylation. Later, extracted chitosan was characterized by physicochemical characteristics like deacetylation degree, ash content, protein, color, fat-binding capacity (FBC), water-binding capacity (WBC), pH, and moisture content. The result showed that chitosan yield ranges from 13.0% to 17.0%, the degree of deacetylation range from 82.0% to 85.0%, ash content range from 0.8% to 3.0%, and protein content is below 1.0%. The FBC and WBC range between 320% and 444% and 535% and 602%, respectively. The pH and moisture content range from 7.4 to 8.0 and from 2.0% to 4.0%, respectively. Overall, results specified that crustacean waste was an exceptional chitosan source with availability and production consistency.

Keywords: chitin; chitosan; demineralization; deproteination; deacetylation

1 Introduction

Shrimp is an important worldwide fishery product. About 1,377,244 metric tonnes of marine products were exported from 2017 to 2018, of which 65,980 were frozen shrimp. Shrimp processing industries produce 40–50% of their waste in the form of heads and shells. One lakh metric tonnes of shrimp waste are produced in India annually [1]. The shrimp contains 34% to 45% of the head and 10–15% of the body shell. In this waste, there are 35–40% proteins, 10–15% chitin, 10–15% minerals, and 10–15% carotenoids [2]. The shrimp head and shell material are considered bio-waste and have low economic value as it was sold as animal feed [3]. Similarly, crab is considered an important commodity in Indonesia, producing 40–60% of shell waste [4]. In 2014, the amount of canned crab food products exported rose to 28,091 tons, resulting in the yearly creation of one thousand metric tonnes of crab shell waste. If these crab shells are left unchecked, they will create major economic and environmental problems in developing countries.

Fish scales are discarded daily; they are considered important worldwide fishery waste. These fish scales contain 30–40% protein, 20–30% chitosan, and 30–50% calcium carbonate [5]. The enormous amount of fish scales is disposed of as waste. Conversion of these wastes into valuable products is essential. However, the conversion of these scales is rare. In 2017, it was recorded that 15.2 million metric tonnes of crustaceans are produced every year [6]. About 130 million metric tonnes of fish scale waste are discarded as waste every year around the world; degradation of these scales is very slow [7]. Little is used as animal feed, and the fertilizers remaining are discarded as waste in the sea, causing global sea pollution. This problem can be solved quickly by recycling this crustacean into commercially important products so that it has prospects. These crustacean shells contain chitin, calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate, proteins, and nitrogen pigments called carotenoids. The concentration of these compounds varies with climatic conditions and species [8]. It is essential to convert this crustacean waste into an economically important product such as chitosan by recycling.

Chitin is an abundant natural polymer found next to cellulose, present in the exoskeleton of crabs, shrimp, mushrooms, fish, worms, insects, and diatoms. Chitosan is partially deacetylated to yield the chitin derivative, chitosan. Chitosan is a heteropolymer of N-acetyl d-glucosamine and d glucosamine joined by beta (1–4) linkage. Demineralization, deproteination, and deacetylation are the three steps in the chemical extraction of chitosan from crustacean shells. Demineralization is done to dissolve calcium carbonate using acid as a solvent followed by alkaline treatment to dissolve the protein in the shells. Chitin separated during deproteinization can be deacetylated by subjecting it to a high sodium hydroxide concentration of between 50% and 60% and high temperatures between 130°C and 150°C. The degree of acetylation is calculated by the ratio of the above two compounds. Good quality chitosan has a degree of deacetylation (DDA) between 80% and 85%. Chitosan is insoluble in water and is soluble in mild acid [9]. The functional properties of chitosan are antioxidant, antibacterial, flocculant, and filmmaking. Biodegradability, bioactivity, chelating ability, absorption capacity, and environmental friendliness are just a few of chitosan’s unique qualities [10]. These properties made chitosan an important compound in aquatic, medical, pharmaceutical, food, agriculture, cosmetic, pulp, and paper industries [11].

Chitosan can be extracted from various sources, such as marine crustaceans, which are mainly found as waste by-products that remain after the processing of marine food products. Recently, chitosan has been extracted from edible mushrooms such as Agaricus bisporus stipes with good quality and excellent purity [12]. This study focuses on instead of dumping biowastes such as crab shells, shrimp shells, and fish scales into landfills producing sheer volume to create a nuisance and emitting a bad odor and causing major pollution. It is essential to find alternative methods for its disposal, or it has to be converted to an environmentally important product, chitosan, and also produces chitosan from mushrooms. Extracted chitosan from different sources was characterized by checking its physiological characteristics, such as color, chitosan yield, DDA, ash content, protein percentage, solubility in 1% acetic acid, fat-binding capacity (FBC), water-binding capacity (WBC), pH, and moisture.

2 Experimental

2.1 Sample collection

Shrimps, crabs, and fish scales were procured from the Sulur local fish market in Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu. The scales and shells were separated, cleaned in tap water, and dried for 24 h in an oven at 70°C. The dried shells and scales were crushed, sieved, and then baked for 12 h at 60–70°C to completely dry them out. Mushrooms were purchased from the Sulur vegetable market, Coimbatore. Mushrooms were rinsed in water and dried in an oven for 10 days at 50°C. The dried sample was pulverized into a powder and kept aside for later use [13].

2.2 Extraction of chitosan

The chitosan was extracted from crustaceous substance and mushroom using three steps as follows: demineralization, deproteinization, and demineralization.

2.2.1 Deproteinization

Crab shell powder, shrimp shell powder, fish scales, and mushroom powder were deproteinized using 6% NaOH, 4% NaOH, 1% NaOH, and 6.3% NaOH for 2 h at 70°C, 8 h at 80°C, 24 h at 24°C, and 30 min at 95°C, respectively. Deproteinized samples were isolated using filtration and washed using distilled water to neutral pH [14].

2.2.2 Demineralization

Crab shells, shrimp shells, fish scales, and mushrooms were treated with 7.7% HCl for 5 h at 80°C 4% HCl for 12 h at 37°C, 1% HCl for 24 h at 37°C, and 1% acetic acid for 6 h at 95°C, respectively. After demineralization separated fractions were washed with distilled water to neutral pH. Neutralized samples were dried in an oven at 80°C for 45 h [15].

2.2.3 Deacetylation

Chitin from crab, shrimp, fish, and mushroom shells was treated with 50% NaOH at 100°C for 6 h. In order to obtain chitosan, the deacetylated sample was then neutralized with distilled water and dried in an oven for 12 h at 40°C [14].

2.2.4 Decolorization

1% potassium permanganate solution was used to decolorize isolated chitin for 1 h, followed by 1% oxalic acid for 30 min. The decolorized sample was rinsed in water to achieve a pH of 7 and then dried for 24 h at 60°C in an oven [16].

2.3 Characterization of chitosan

2.3.1 Chitosan yield

The yield of isolated chitosan was estimated by dividing the dry weight of the chitosan by the actual wet weight of the shell waste [17].

(1) Yield of chitosan ( % ) = dry chitosan / sample ( g ) × 100

2.3.2 DDA

The DDA was determined using the potentiometric titration method. About 0.5 g was dissolved in 10 mL of 0.1 M HCl solution and was mixed continuously for 30 min. About two drops of phenolphthalein were added to the dissolved chitosan and titrated using 0.1 M sodium hydroxide until the color changed. The deacetylation of the extracted chitosan was determined using the following formula [1]:

(2) DD ( % ) = 2.03 V 2 − V 1 M + 0.0042 ( V 2 − V 1 )

where M is the mass of the sample, V2, V1 is the volume of 0.1 M sodium hydroxide solution based on deflection points, 2.03 is the coefficient of chitin monomer (weight), and 0.0042 is the efficient difference in molecular weight of chitin and chitosan.

2.3.3 Ash content of isolated chitosan

The ash content of the isolated chitosan was identified by heating 5 g of chitosan until no fumes were produced and again heated at 550°C for 12 h [18].

(3) Ash content ( % ) b = Weight of ash / Weight of chitosan × 100

2.3.4 Protein present in isolated chitosan

The protein present in the isolated chitosan was determined using the Kjeldahl method [18].

2.3.5 pH of chitosan

About 1 g of isolated chitosan was taken in a 100 mL beaker and 30 mL of distilled water was added and adjusted to neutral pH. Chitosan and water were heated to boiling point for 10 min. The heated chitosan solution was filtered and the filtrate was cooled to room temperature and then pH of the isolated chitosan was estimated using a digital pH meter.

2.3.6 Solubility of chitosan

The solubility of chitosan was measured by dissolving chitosan in 1% of acetic acid solution [19]. Complete mixing can be achieved by stirring the chitosan solution using a magnetic stirrer for 2 h at room temperature. The solution was filtered using Whatman No. 1 filter paper. The filter paper was dried at ambient temperature and re-weighed. The filter paper was weighed before (W i) and after (W f) filtration. The percentage of solubility is calculated using the formula:

(4) Solubility = 100 − W f − W i W s × 100

where W f is the final weight of filter paper (g), W i is the initial weight of filter paper (g), and W s is the chitosan weight (g).

2.3.7 FBC of isolated chitosan

One gram of chitosan was mixed with 20 mL of soybean oil and incubated for 1 h with periodic shaking for every 10 min for proper mixing. Before incubation, both chitosan and centrifuge tube were weighed separately. After incubation, the chitosan solution was centrifuged at 3,200g for 25 min. The supernatant was discarded, and the pellet weight was calculated by weighing the centrifuge tube with the pellet and subtracting the weight of the centrifuge tube which gives the fat-bound sample weight (pellet weight) [20].

(5) Fat binding capacity ( % ) = Fat bound sample ( g ) / Initial weight of the sample × 100

2.3.8 WBC of isolated chitosan

About 1 g of chitosan was taken in a centrifuge tube. Both the centrifuge tube and chitosan were weighed separately. Chitosan (1 g) was added to 20 mL of distilled water and the solution was mixed and incubated for 1 h which was periodically shaken for proper mixing for every 10 min. After incubation, the chitosan solution was centrifuged at 3,200 rpm for 25 min. The supernatant was discarded and the tube with pellet was weighed [20].

(6) Water binding capacity ( % ) = Water bound sample ( g ) / Initial weight of the sample × 100

2.3.9 Moisture content of chitosan

About 0.5 g of isolated chitosan was placed in a porcelain boat and heated at 105°C for 3 h in the oven and heated chitosan was weighed after 3 h. The moisture content of the chitosan is calculated using the following formula [18]:

(7) % of moisture content = w b − w a w b × 100

where W b is the weight of chitosan before heating and W a is the weight of chitosan after heating.

2.3.10 Purification of chitosan

The isolated chitosan was dissolved in 1% of acetic acid and the dissolved chitosan was precipitated by treating with 4% of NaOH at pH 10. The chitosan purified was stored at room temperature [21].

3 Results and discussion

The chitosan was prepared using biowastes such as crab, shrimp shells, fish scales, and edible mushrooms using three steps: demineralization, deproteinization, and deacetylation (Table 1). In this study, it was found that the color of the crab chitosan is slightly brown which is similar to the results of Sumaila et al. [15], that chitosan is off-white in color, odorless, and in the form of semi-crystalline powder. The color of the obtained shrimp chitosan was observed to be off-white which was in congruence, as reported by Mohan et al. [22]. The fish scale chitosan color is creamy white which coincides with the results of Muslim et al. [23], that white color chitosan obtained from fish scales is similar to chitosan from mushrooms also creamy white (Figure 1). The color of chitosan depends on the sources and effective decoloration.

Table 1

Extraction of chitosan from mushroom and different marine crustaceans

Characters Crab Shrimp Fish scales Mushroom
Deproteinization 1.25 M (6%) NaOH for 2 h at 70°C 4% NaOH 8 h at 80°C 1% NaOH 24 h at 25°C 1 M (6.25%) NaOH 30 min at 95°C
Washed to neutral Water Water Water Water
Demineralization 1.25 M (7.7%) HCl for 5 h at 80°C 4% HCl for 12 h at 37°C 1% HCl for 24 h at 37°C 2% acetic acid for 6 h at 95°C
Washed to neutral Water Water Water Water
Deacetylation 50% NaOH for 6 h at 80°C 50% NaOH for 6 h at 80°C 50% NaOH for 6 h at 80°C 50% NaOH for 6 h at 80°C
Washed to neutral Water Water Water Water
Decolorization 1% potassium permanganate for 1 h and 1% oxalic acid 1% potassium permanganate for 1 h and 1% oxalic acid 1% potassium permanganate for 1 h and 1% oxalic acid 1% potassium permanganate for 1 h and 1% oxalic acid
Figure 1 Chitosan from different sources: (a) crab, (b) shrimp, (c) fish, and (d) mushroom.
Figure 1

Chitosan from different sources: (a) crab, (b) shrimp, (c) fish, and (d) mushroom.

The yield of chitosan from crab shells is 15.5%, similar to that obtained by Sumaila et al. [15], which was 15.4% off-white and odorless from crab shells. Narudin et al. [24] reported that chitosan yield from mud crab shells was 16.5%. The yield of chitosan (13%) obtained from mushrooms was similar to that of Margret et al. [25]. The chitosan yield from fish scales (17%) result coincides with the result obtained by Srivastav et al. [26]. The rate of chitosan extraction depends on the demineralization process. Effective demineralization increases the yield. It was found that the yield of chitosan from fish scales was superior to other sources used in this study (Figure 2).

Figure 2 Percentage of yield from different materials source.
Figure 2

Percentage of yield from different materials source.

The DDA is the main parameter in the characterization of chitosan. The process of deacetylation involves the removal of an acetyl group from the chitin molecule. Removal of the acetyl group is difficult therefore deacetylation process needs a high concentration of NaOH. The DDA affects the physicochemical property of chitosan. The commercial chitosan DDA ranges from 66% to 95% [11]. The deacetylated chitosan used to be soluble in low concentrations of acid. The DDA of chitosan from crab is 85%; this obtained result is similar to the DDA of crab (82%) by Pambudi et al. [27]. DDA of fish scales chitosan is higher than the result obtained by Molina-Ramírez et al. [28]. DDA chitosan isolated from the mushroom is 79% higher than Fadhil and Mous’s results [14]. The obtained results were in the standard range of deacetylation of chitosan (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Percentage of DDA.
Figure 3

Percentage of DDA.

The ash content of chitosan is an important parameter to determine the quality of chitosan. Ash content depends on effective demineralization. Demineralization removes calcium carbonate from crustaceans. Good quality chitosan must have an ash content less than 1%. The ash content of chitosan isolated from crab, shrimp, fish scales, and mushroom range from 1% to 3% (Figure 4). It shows that minerals in the crustaceans’ sample are partially recovered, and the demineralization process could be better. The results of Karnila et al. [29] coincide with the obtained results. It states that ash content can be high, up to 17%. The obtained ash content of chitosan from fish scales (Table 2) is similar to the results of Ooi et al. [30], showing that the ash content of chitosan obtained from crab samples is 1.8–3.2%; this result coincides with the present study result, showing that chitosan from crab sample is 2%. The ash content of shrimp chitosan is 0.80% which is similar to the result reported by Renuka et al. [31]. High ash content is due to inefficient washing and demineralization steps. High ash content will affect the solubility and viscosity. In this study, ash content was in the optimum range; hence, proper demineralization and washing were evident.

Figure 4 Percentage of ash and protein content.
Figure 4

Percentage of ash and protein content.

Table 2

The physiological characteristics of chitosan isolated from different samples

Parameters Crab Shrimp Fish scales Mushroom
Color Slight browny white White Creamy white Creamy white
Chitosan yield (%) 15.5 15.20 17 13
DDA (%) 84 85 82 79
Ash content (%) 2.1 0.80 3 1.4
Protein (%) 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.4
Solubility in 1% acetic acid Soluble 97% Soluble 98% Soluble 95% Soluble 91%
FBC 333.4 444.1 325 320
WBC 554 602.2 535 635
pH 7.5 8 7.7 7.4
Moisture content 3 2.01 3 4

The protein in the shrimp chitosan is 0.4%, lower than the result (1.99%) reported by Mohan et al. [22]. The protein in the crab chitosan is 0.4% and the obtained results coincide with the results of Jabeur et al. [32]. The protein in the fish scale chitosan is 0.5%, which is lower than Caudhry et al.’s results [33]. The protein present in the mushroom sample is 0.4% (Figure 4). Lower protein content indicates effective demineralization.

The solubility of chitosan depends on the quality of chitosan. Good quality chitosan has higher solubility. The solubility of chitosan depends on the DDA because solubility is related to the removal of an acetyl group from chitin (Table 2). Lower solubility value shows incomplete removal of protein and acetyl group. Chitosan is soluble in inorganic acids because it is a highly protonated free amino group that attracts ionic compounds. Obtained shrimp chitosan is 98% soluble which is similar to results reported by Renuka et al. [31]. Solubility indicates the purity of isolated chitosan. The solubility of chitosan from crab is 97%, similar to the results of Demir et al. [34]. Lower solubility is due to the incomplete removal of protein and acetyl group in the chitosan.

The FBC of chitosan depends on the viscosity of the chitosan. If the chitosan has a lower viscosity, it will also have a lower FBC. FBC of chitosan from fish scales, crab, shrimp, and mushroom ranges from 320 to 444. The FBC of chitosan from crab sample is 333.4%, which is similar to the result reported by Demir et al. [34]. Various steps involved in the extraction may affect the chitosan FBC. High fat binding was observed when demineralization was observed by deproteinization and deacetylation, while FBC decreased when deproteinization was followed by demineralization and deacetylation. The FBC of shrimp chitosan is 444%, which is similar to the result reported by Abirami et al. [35]. The FBC of fish scale chitosan is 325%, which is slightly lower than the result observed by Srivastava et al. [26], and the FBC of mushroom chitosan is 320%, which is slightly higher than the result reported by Fadhil and Mous [14]. FBC of the commercially available chitosan is in the range of 314–535% and the chitosan produced in the present study coincides with commercially available chitosan (Figure 5).

Figure 5 Percentage of fat binding and water binding properties.
Figure 5

Percentage of fat binding and water binding properties.

WBC depends on salt-forming groups’ availability, crystallinity dissimilarities, and residual protein WBC of fish scales, crab, shrimp, and mushrooms ranging from 535% to 602% (Table 1). The WBC of crab sample is identified as 554%, which is similar to the result reported by Demir et al. [34], and the WBC of shrimp chitosan is 602.2%, which coincides with the result observed by Reunka et al. [31]. The WBC of fish scale chitosan is 535% observed result coincides with the result of Srivastav et al. [26], and the WBC of mushroom chitosan (635%) was reported by Fadhil and Mouis [14]. Commercially available chitosan has WBC in the range of 458–805%. The WBC of obtained chitosan was also in the similar range of commercially available chitosan (Figure 5).

The pH of the extracted chitosan ranges from 7.4 to 8.0 pH of the crab chitosan is 7.5, as reported by the results of Olafadehan et al. [36], was 6.8 to 7.5 pH of shrimp chitosan is 8.0 this is similar to the results of observed by Reunka et al. [31] (7.9), pH of fish scale chitosan is 7.7 obtained result coincides with the results of Gokulalakshmi et al. [7] (pH 7.0), and the pH of mushroom chitosan is 7.4 which is slightly lower than the result obtained by Mythil and Aysha [37] (Figure 6).

Figure 6 pH of the extracted chitosan from different materials.
Figure 6

pH of the extracted chitosan from different materials.

The moisture content of chitosan isolated from crustaceans ranges from 2% to 4% (Figure 7). Generally, good quality chitosan must have a moisture content of at most 5% [38]. The moisture content of crab chitosan is 3% and the obtained result coincides with the results of Gaikwad et al. [39], reporting that the moisture content of crab is 2.37 and 5.4% and similar to the results of Sumaila et al. [15]. The moisture content of shrimp chitosan is 2.01%. It is similar to the results of Hossain and Iqbal [40] (1.5% and 1.8%). The moisture content of fish scale chitosan is 3%, which coincides with the results of Takarina and Fanani [41]. The moisture content of mushroom chitosan is 4% which is lower than the moisture content reported by Hassainia et al. [12]. Commercial chitosan showed less than 10% of moisture [42]. The high-water content will damage the polymer structure of chitosan through hydrolysis. The moisture content of chitosan also depends on the surrounding sunlight intensity and relative humidity. Chitosan can observe more water during storage due to its hygroscopic nature.

Figure 7 Percentage of moisture content of extracted chitosan from different materials.
Figure 7

Percentage of moisture content of extracted chitosan from different materials.

4 Conclusion

This study presents a green and sustainable fabrication method for producing high-value chitosan from fishery wastes, such as crab, prawns, fish scales, and mushrooms. The deacetylation technique successfully transformed chitin extracted from these waste sources into chitosan, a versatile biopolymer with numerous applications.

The results revealed that fish scales exhibited the highest chitosan yield among all the sources investigated. Additionally, shrimp shells proved to be an effective and promising resource for obtaining high levels of deacetylated chitosan. These findings underscore the potential of utilizing these abundant seafood by-products for chitosan production, thereby contributing to waste reduction and promoting a more sustainable approach in the seafood industry. Furthermore, assessing chitosan’s quality, considering its proximate composition including ash content, protein content, solubility, FBC, WBC, pH, and moisture content, yielded promising results. The chitosan derived from shrimp shells demonstrated high solubility and exhibited comparable FBC, WBC, and pH characteristics to other high-quality chitosan samples.

This research validates the viability of the proposed green fabrication method and highlights the potential of specific waste sources, such as fish scales and shrimp shells, for obtaining superior chitosan yields with desirable properties. The findings pave the way for developing more sustainable and economically viable processes to produce high-value chitosan, offering diverse applications in various industries, including pharmaceuticals, food, agriculture, and wastewater treatment. Nevertheless, further studies and optimization of the deacetylation process are recommended to continuously enhance chitosan yield and quality. Additionally, exploring novel applications for chitosan and evaluating its performance in various practical scenarios would provide valuable insights for commercial-scale utilization.

Overall, this research contributes significantly to the advancement of green synthesis methods for chitosan production and highlights the importance of valorizing fishery waste as a valuable resource for generating high-value products, thus promoting the principles of a circular and sustainable economy.

Acknowledgments

The authors (H.A.) acknowledge the financial support through Researchers Supporting Project number (RSP2023R54), King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia. The authors are also thankful to the RVS College of Arts and Science management and DBT Star College Scheme, India, for this immense support for this study.

  1. Author contributions: Kiruthiga Periyannan: conceptualization, writing – original draft; Hemamala Selvaraj: validation, methodology; Balachandar Subbu: investigation, data curation; Muthukrishnan Pallikondaperumal: visualization, supervision; Ponmurugan Karuppiah: formal analysis, writing – review and editing; Jothi Ramalingam Rajabathar: writing – review and editing, validation; Hamad Al-Lohedan: writing – review and editing, supervision; Sadhasivam Thangarasu: software, visualization.

  2. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  3. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2023-06-09
Accepted: 2023-08-14
Published Online: 2023-11-01

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Research Articles
  2. Value-added utilization of coal fly ash and recycled polyvinyl chloride in door or window sub-frame composites
  3. High removal efficiency of volatile phenol from coking wastewater using coal gasification slag via optimized adsorption and multi-grade batch process
  4. Evolution of surface morphology and properties of diamond films by hydrogen plasma etching
  5. Removal efficiency of dibenzofuran using CuZn-zeolitic imidazole frameworks as a catalyst and adsorbent
  6. Rapid and efficient microwave-assisted extraction of Caesalpinia sappan Linn. heartwood and subsequent synthesis of gold nanoparticles
  7. The catalytic characteristics of 2-methylnaphthalene acylation with AlCl3 immobilized on Hβ as Lewis acid catalyst
  8. Biodegradation of synthetic PVP biofilms using natural materials and nanoparticles
  9. Rutin-loaded selenium nanoparticles modulated the redox status, inflammatory, and apoptotic pathways associated with pentylenetetrazole-induced epilepsy in mice
  10. Optimization of apigenin nanoparticles prepared by planetary ball milling: In vitro and in vivo studies
  11. Synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Origanum onites leaves: Cytotoxic, apoptotic, and necrotic effects on Capan-1, L929, and Caco-2 cell lines
  12. Exergy analysis of a conceptual CO2 capture process with an amine-based DES
  13. Construction of fluorescence system of felodipine–tetracyanovinyl–2,2′-bipyridine complex
  14. Excellent photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B over Bi2O3 supported on Zn-MOF nanocomposites under visible light
  15. Optimization-based control strategy for a large-scale polyhydroxyalkanoates production in a fed-batch bioreactor using a coupled PDE–ODE system
  16. Effectiveness of pH and amount of Artemia urumiana extract on physical, chemical, and biological attributes of UV-fabricated biogold nanoparticles
  17. Geranium leaf-mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their transcriptomic effects on Candida albicans
  18. Synthesis, characterization, anticancer, anti-inflammatory activities, and docking studies of 3,5-disubstituted thiadiazine-2-thiones
  19. Synthesis and stability of phospholipid-encapsulated nano-selenium
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  21. Enrichment of low-grade phosphorites by the selective leaching method
  22. Electrochemical analysis of the dissolution of gold in a copper–ethylenediamine–thiosulfate system
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  24. Evaluation of nano-selenium biofortification characteristics of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.)
  25. Quality of oil extracted by cold press from Nigella sativa seeds incorporated with rosemary extracts and pretreated by microwaves
  26. Heteropolyacid-loaded MOF-derived mesoporous zirconia catalyst for chemical degradation of rhodamine B
  27. Recovery of critical metals from carbonatite-type mineral wastes: Geochemical modeling investigation of (bio)hydrometallurgical leaching of REEs
  28. Photocatalytic properties of ZnFe-mixed oxides synthesized via a simple route for water remediation
  29. Attenuation of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate-induced hepatic and renal toxicity by naringin nanoparticles in a rat model
  30. Novel in situ synthesis of quaternary core–shell metallic sulfide nanocomposites for degradation of organic dyes and hydrogen production
  31. Microfluidic steam-based synthesis of luminescent carbon quantum dots as sensing probes for nitrite detection
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  56. Green synthesis methods and characterization of bacterial cellulose/silver nanoparticle composites
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  59. In vitro anti-cancer and antimicrobial effects of manganese oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the Glycyrrhiza uralensis leaf extract on breast cancer cell lines
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  61. Green “one-pot” fluorescent bis-indolizine synthesis with whole-cell plant biocatalysis
  62. Silica-titania mesoporous silicas of MCM-41 type as effective catalysts and photocatalysts for selective oxidation of diphenyl sulfide by H2O2
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  65. Synthesis and characterization of Pluronic F-127-coated titanium dioxide nanoparticles synthesized from extracts of Atractylodes macrocephala leaf for antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties
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  67. Ameliorated antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer properties by Plectranthus vettiveroides root extract-mediated green synthesis of chitosan nanoparticles
  68. Microwave-accelerated pretreatment technique in green extraction of oil and bioactive compounds from camelina seeds: Effectiveness and characterization
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  75. Visible-light-assisted base-catalyzed, one-pot synthesis of highly functionalized cinnolines
  76. The experimental study on the air oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid with Co–Mn–Br system
  77. Highly efficient removal of tetracycline and methyl violet 2B from aqueous solution using the bimetallic FeZn-ZIFs catalyst
  78. A thermo-tolerant cellulase enzyme produced by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens M7, an insight into synthesis, optimization, characterization, and bio-polishing activity
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  80. Ultrasound-assisted green synthesis and in silico study of 6-(4-(butylamino)-6-(diethylamino)-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)oxypyridazine derivatives
  81. A study of the anticancer potential of Pluronic F-127 encapsulated Fe2O3 nanoparticles derived from Berberis vulgaris extract
  82. Biogenic synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Consolida orientalis flowers: Identification, catalytic degradation, and biological effect
  83. Initial assessment of the presence of plastic waste in some coastal mangrove forests in Vietnam
  84. Adsorption synergy electrocatalytic degradation of phenol by active oxygen-containing species generated in Co-coal based cathode and graphite anode
  85. Antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, and cytotoxicity activities of the aqueous extract of Syzygium aromaticum-mediated synthesized novel silver nanoparticles
  86. Synthesis of a silica matrix with ZnO nanoparticles for the fabrication of a recyclable photodegradation system to eliminate methylene blue dye
  87. Natural polymer fillers instead of dye and pigments: Pumice and scoria in PDMS fluid and elastomer composites
  88. Study on the preparation of glycerylphosphorylcholine by transesterification under supported sodium methoxide
  89. Wireless network handheld terminal-based green ecological sustainable design evaluation system: Improved data communication and reduced packet loss rate
  90. The optimization of hydrogel strength from cassava starch using oxidized sucrose as a crosslinking agent
  91. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Saccharum officinarum leaf extract for antiviral paint
  92. Study on the reliability of nano-silver-coated tin solder joints for flip chips
  93. Environmentally sustainable analytical quality by design aided RP-HPLC method for the estimation of brilliant blue in commercial food samples employing a green-ultrasound-assisted extraction technique
  94. Anticancer and antimicrobial potential of zinc/sodium alginate/polyethylene glycol/d-pinitol nanocomposites against osteosarcoma MG-63 cells
  95. Nanoporous carbon@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite as a green absorbent for the adsorptive removal of Hg(ii) from aqueous solutions
  96. Characterization of silver sulfide nanoparticles from actinobacterial strain (M10A62) and its toxicity against lepidopteran and dipterans insect species
  97. Phyto-fabrication and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Withania somnifera: Investigating antioxidant potential
  98. Effect of e-waste nanofillers on the mechanical, thermal, and wear properties of epoxy-blend sisal woven fiber-reinforced composites
  99. Magnesium nanohydroxide (2D brucite) as a host matrix for thymol and carvacrol: Synthesis, characterization, and inhibition of foodborne pathogens
  100. Synergistic inhibitive effect of a hybrid zinc oxide-benzalkonium chloride composite on the corrosion of carbon steel in a sulfuric acidic solution
  101. Review Articles
  102. Role and the importance of green approach in biosynthesis of nanopropolis and effectiveness of propolis in the treatment of COVID-19 pandemic
  103. Gum tragacanth-mediated synthesis of metal nanoparticles, characterization, and their applications as a bactericide, catalyst, antioxidant, and peroxidase mimic
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  108. Phosphorus removal by iron–carbon microelectrolysis: A new way to achieve phosphorus recovery
  109. Special Issue: Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications (Guest Editors: Arpita Roy and Fernanda Maria Policarpo Tonelli)
  110. Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications
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  112. Green fabrication of silver nanoparticles using Melia azedarach ripened fruit extract, their characterization, and biological properties
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  116. Algae-based green AgNPs, AuNPs, and FeNPs as potential nanoremediators
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  125. Phytofabrication, characterization, and evaluation of novel bioinspired selenium–iron (Se–Fe) nanocomposites using Allium sativum extract for bio-potential applications
  126. Erratum
  127. Erratum to “Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)”
https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2023-0093
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
chitin; chitosan; demineralization; deproteination; deacetylation
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Research Articles
  2. Value-added utilization of coal fly ash and recycled polyvinyl chloride in door or window sub-frame composites
  3. High removal efficiency of volatile phenol from coking wastewater using coal gasification slag via optimized adsorption and multi-grade batch process
  4. Evolution of surface morphology and properties of diamond films by hydrogen plasma etching
  5. Removal efficiency of dibenzofuran using CuZn-zeolitic imidazole frameworks as a catalyst and adsorbent
  6. Rapid and efficient microwave-assisted extraction of Caesalpinia sappan Linn. heartwood and subsequent synthesis of gold nanoparticles
  7. The catalytic characteristics of 2-methylnaphthalene acylation with AlCl3 immobilized on Hβ as Lewis acid catalyst
  8. Biodegradation of synthetic PVP biofilms using natural materials and nanoparticles
  9. Rutin-loaded selenium nanoparticles modulated the redox status, inflammatory, and apoptotic pathways associated with pentylenetetrazole-induced epilepsy in mice
  10. Optimization of apigenin nanoparticles prepared by planetary ball milling: In vitro and in vivo studies
  11. Synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Origanum onites leaves: Cytotoxic, apoptotic, and necrotic effects on Capan-1, L929, and Caco-2 cell lines
  12. Exergy analysis of a conceptual CO2 capture process with an amine-based DES
  13. Construction of fluorescence system of felodipine–tetracyanovinyl–2,2′-bipyridine complex
  14. Excellent photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B over Bi2O3 supported on Zn-MOF nanocomposites under visible light
  15. Optimization-based control strategy for a large-scale polyhydroxyalkanoates production in a fed-batch bioreactor using a coupled PDE–ODE system
  16. Effectiveness of pH and amount of Artemia urumiana extract on physical, chemical, and biological attributes of UV-fabricated biogold nanoparticles
  17. Geranium leaf-mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their transcriptomic effects on Candida albicans
  18. Synthesis, characterization, anticancer, anti-inflammatory activities, and docking studies of 3,5-disubstituted thiadiazine-2-thiones
  19. Synthesis and stability of phospholipid-encapsulated nano-selenium
  20. Putative anti-proliferative effect of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) seed and its nano-formulation
  21. Enrichment of low-grade phosphorites by the selective leaching method
  22. Electrochemical analysis of the dissolution of gold in a copper–ethylenediamine–thiosulfate system
  23. Characterisation of carbonate lake sediments as a potential filler for polymer composites
  24. Evaluation of nano-selenium biofortification characteristics of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.)
  25. Quality of oil extracted by cold press from Nigella sativa seeds incorporated with rosemary extracts and pretreated by microwaves
  26. Heteropolyacid-loaded MOF-derived mesoporous zirconia catalyst for chemical degradation of rhodamine B
  27. Recovery of critical metals from carbonatite-type mineral wastes: Geochemical modeling investigation of (bio)hydrometallurgical leaching of REEs
  28. Photocatalytic properties of ZnFe-mixed oxides synthesized via a simple route for water remediation
  29. Attenuation of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate-induced hepatic and renal toxicity by naringin nanoparticles in a rat model
  30. Novel in situ synthesis of quaternary core–shell metallic sulfide nanocomposites for degradation of organic dyes and hydrogen production
  31. Microfluidic steam-based synthesis of luminescent carbon quantum dots as sensing probes for nitrite detection
  32. Transformation of eggshell waste to egg white protein solution, calcium chloride dihydrate, and eggshell membrane powder
  33. Preparation of Zr-MOFs for the adsorption of doxycycline hydrochloride from wastewater
  34. Green nanoarchitectonics of the silver nanocrystal potential for treating malaria and their cytotoxic effects on the kidney Vero cell line
  35. Carbon emissions analysis of producing modified asphalt with natural asphalt
  36. An efficient and green synthesis of 2-phenylquinazolin-4(3H)-ones via t-BuONa-mediated oxidative condensation of 2-aminobenzamides and benzyl alcohols under solvent- and transition metal-free conditions
  37. Chitosan nanoparticles loaded with mesosulfuron methyl and mesosulfuron methyl + florasulam + MCPA isooctyl to manage weeds of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
  38. Synergism between lignite and high-sulfur petroleum coke in CO2 gasification
  39. Facile aqueous synthesis of ZnCuInS/ZnS–ZnS QDs with enhanced photoluminescence lifetime for selective detection of Cu(ii) ions
  40. Rapid synthesis of copper nanoparticles using Nepeta cataria leaves: An eco-friendly management of disease-causing vectors and bacterial pathogens
  41. Study on the photoelectrocatalytic activity of reduced TiO2 nanotube films for removal of methyl orange
  42. Development of a fuzzy logic model for the prediction of spark-ignition engine performance and emission for gasoline–ethanol blends
  43. Micro-impact-induced mechano-chemical synthesis of organic precursors from FeC/FeN and carbonates/nitrates in water and its extension to nucleobases
  44. Green synthesis of strontium-doped tin dioxide (SrSnO2) nanoparticles using the Mahonia bealei leaf extract and evaluation of their anticancer and antimicrobial activities
  45. A study on the larvicidal and adulticidal potential of Cladostepus spongiosus macroalgae and green-fabricated silver nanoparticles against mosquito vectors
  46. Catalysts based on nickel salt heteropolytungstates for selective oxidation of diphenyl sulfide
  47. Powerful antibacterial nanocomposites from Corallina officinalis-mediated nanometals and chitosan nanoparticles against fish-borne pathogens
  48. Removal behavior of Zn and alkalis from blast furnace dust in pre-reduction sinter process
  49. Environmentally friendly synthesis and computational studies of novel class of acridinedione integrated spirothiopyrrolizidines/indolizidines
  50. The mechanisms of inhibition and lubrication of clean fracturing flowback fluids in water-based drilling fluids
  51. Adsorption/desorption performance of cellulose membrane for Pb(ii)
  52. A one-pot, multicomponent tandem synthesis of fused polycyclic pyrrolo[3,2-c]quinolinone/pyrrolizino[2,3-c]quinolinone hybrid heterocycles via environmentally benign solid state melt reaction
  53. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using durian rind extract and optical characteristics of surface plasmon resonance-based optical sensor for the detection of hydrogen peroxide
  54. Electrochemical analysis of copper-EDTA-ammonia-gold thiosulfate dissolution system
  55. Characterization of bio-oil production by microwave pyrolysis from cashew nut shells and Cassia fistula pods
  56. Green synthesis methods and characterization of bacterial cellulose/silver nanoparticle composites
  57. Photocatalytic research performance of zinc oxide/graphite phase carbon nitride catalyst and its application in environment
  58. Effect of phytogenic iron nanoparticles on the bio-fortification of wheat varieties
  59. In vitro anti-cancer and antimicrobial effects of manganese oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the Glycyrrhiza uralensis leaf extract on breast cancer cell lines
  60. Preparation of Pd/Ce(F)-MCM-48 catalysts and their catalytic performance of n-heptane isomerization
  61. Green “one-pot” fluorescent bis-indolizine synthesis with whole-cell plant biocatalysis
  62. Silica-titania mesoporous silicas of MCM-41 type as effective catalysts and photocatalysts for selective oxidation of diphenyl sulfide by H2O2
  63. Biosynthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles from molted feathers of Pavo cristatus and their antibiofilm and anticancer activities
  64. Clean preparation of rutile from Ti-containing mixed molten slag by CO2 oxidation
  65. Synthesis and characterization of Pluronic F-127-coated titanium dioxide nanoparticles synthesized from extracts of Atractylodes macrocephala leaf for antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties
  66. Effect of pretreatment with alkali on the anaerobic digestion characteristics of kitchen waste and analysis of microbial diversity
  67. Ameliorated antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer properties by Plectranthus vettiveroides root extract-mediated green synthesis of chitosan nanoparticles
  68. Microwave-accelerated pretreatment technique in green extraction of oil and bioactive compounds from camelina seeds: Effectiveness and characterization
  69. Studies on the extraction performance of phorate by aptamer-functionalized magnetic nanoparticles in plasma samples
  70. Investigation of structural properties and antibacterial activity of AgO nanoparticle extract from Solanum nigrum/Mentha leaf extracts by green synthesis method
  71. Green fabrication of chitosan from marine crustaceans and mushroom waste: Toward sustainable resource utilization
  72. Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
  73. The enhanced adsorption properties of phosphorus from aqueous solutions using lanthanum modified synthetic zeolites
  74. Separation of graphene oxides of different sizes by multi-layer dialysis and anti-friction and lubrication performance
  75. Visible-light-assisted base-catalyzed, one-pot synthesis of highly functionalized cinnolines
  76. The experimental study on the air oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid with Co–Mn–Br system
  77. Highly efficient removal of tetracycline and methyl violet 2B from aqueous solution using the bimetallic FeZn-ZIFs catalyst
  78. A thermo-tolerant cellulase enzyme produced by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens M7, an insight into synthesis, optimization, characterization, and bio-polishing activity
  79. Exploration of ketone derivatives of succinimide for their antidiabetic potential: In vitro and in vivo approaches
  80. Ultrasound-assisted green synthesis and in silico study of 6-(4-(butylamino)-6-(diethylamino)-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)oxypyridazine derivatives
  81. A study of the anticancer potential of Pluronic F-127 encapsulated Fe2O3 nanoparticles derived from Berberis vulgaris extract
  82. Biogenic synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Consolida orientalis flowers: Identification, catalytic degradation, and biological effect
  83. Initial assessment of the presence of plastic waste in some coastal mangrove forests in Vietnam
  84. Adsorption synergy electrocatalytic degradation of phenol by active oxygen-containing species generated in Co-coal based cathode and graphite anode
  85. Antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, and cytotoxicity activities of the aqueous extract of Syzygium aromaticum-mediated synthesized novel silver nanoparticles
  86. Synthesis of a silica matrix with ZnO nanoparticles for the fabrication of a recyclable photodegradation system to eliminate methylene blue dye
  87. Natural polymer fillers instead of dye and pigments: Pumice and scoria in PDMS fluid and elastomer composites
  88. Study on the preparation of glycerylphosphorylcholine by transesterification under supported sodium methoxide
  89. Wireless network handheld terminal-based green ecological sustainable design evaluation system: Improved data communication and reduced packet loss rate
  90. The optimization of hydrogel strength from cassava starch using oxidized sucrose as a crosslinking agent
  91. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Saccharum officinarum leaf extract for antiviral paint
  92. Study on the reliability of nano-silver-coated tin solder joints for flip chips
  93. Environmentally sustainable analytical quality by design aided RP-HPLC method for the estimation of brilliant blue in commercial food samples employing a green-ultrasound-assisted extraction technique
  94. Anticancer and antimicrobial potential of zinc/sodium alginate/polyethylene glycol/d-pinitol nanocomposites against osteosarcoma MG-63 cells
  95. Nanoporous carbon@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite as a green absorbent for the adsorptive removal of Hg(ii) from aqueous solutions
  96. Characterization of silver sulfide nanoparticles from actinobacterial strain (M10A62) and its toxicity against lepidopteran and dipterans insect species
  97. Phyto-fabrication and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Withania somnifera: Investigating antioxidant potential
  98. Effect of e-waste nanofillers on the mechanical, thermal, and wear properties of epoxy-blend sisal woven fiber-reinforced composites
  99. Magnesium nanohydroxide (2D brucite) as a host matrix for thymol and carvacrol: Synthesis, characterization, and inhibition of foodborne pathogens
  100. Synergistic inhibitive effect of a hybrid zinc oxide-benzalkonium chloride composite on the corrosion of carbon steel in a sulfuric acidic solution
  101. Review Articles
  102. Role and the importance of green approach in biosynthesis of nanopropolis and effectiveness of propolis in the treatment of COVID-19 pandemic
  103. Gum tragacanth-mediated synthesis of metal nanoparticles, characterization, and their applications as a bactericide, catalyst, antioxidant, and peroxidase mimic
  104. Green-processed nano-biocomposite (ZnO–TiO2): Potential candidates for biomedical applications
  105. Reaction mechanisms in microwave-assisted lignin depolymerisation in hydrogen-donating solvents
  106. Recent progress on non-noble metal catalysts for the deoxydehydration of biomass-derived oxygenates
  107. Rapid Communication
  108. Phosphorus removal by iron–carbon microelectrolysis: A new way to achieve phosphorus recovery
  109. Special Issue: Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications (Guest Editors: Arpita Roy and Fernanda Maria Policarpo Tonelli)
  110. Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications
  111. Nano-encapsulated tanshinone IIA in PLGA-PEG-COOH inhibits apoptosis and inflammation in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury
  112. Green fabrication of silver nanoparticles using Melia azedarach ripened fruit extract, their characterization, and biological properties
  113. Green-synthesized nanoparticles and their therapeutic applications: A review
  114. Antioxidant, antibacterial, and cytotoxicity potential of synthesized silver nanoparticles from the Cassia alata leaf aqueous extract
  115. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Callisia fragrans leaf extract and its anticancer activity against MCF-7, HepG2, KB, LU-1, and MKN-7 cell lines
  116. Algae-based green AgNPs, AuNPs, and FeNPs as potential nanoremediators
  117. Green synthesis of Kickxia elatine-induced silver nanoparticles and their role as anti-acetylcholinesterase in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease
  118. Phytocrystallization of silver nanoparticles using Cassia alata flower extract for effective control of fungal skin pathogens
  119. Antibacterial wound dressing with hydrogel from chitosan and polyvinyl alcohol from the red cabbage extract loaded with silver nanoparticles
  120. Leveraging of mycogenic copper oxide nanostructures for disease management of Alternaria blight of Brassica juncea
  121. Nanoscale molecular reactions in microbiological medicines in modern medical applications
  122. Synthesis and characterization of ZnO/β-cyclodextrin/nicotinic acid nanocomposite and its biological and environmental application
  123. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles via Taxus wallichiana Zucc. plant-derived Taxol: Novel utilization as anticancer, antioxidation, anti-inflammation, and antiurolithic potential
  124. Recyclability and catalytic characteristics of copper oxide nanoparticles derived from bougainvillea plant flower extract for biomedical application
  125. Phytofabrication, characterization, and evaluation of novel bioinspired selenium–iron (Se–Fe) nanocomposites using Allium sativum extract for bio-potential applications
  126. Erratum
  127. Erratum to “Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)”
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Heruntergeladen am 3.12.2025 von https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/gps-2023-0093/html?lang=de
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