Startseite Green synthesis and effective genistein production by fungal β-glucosidase immobilized on Al2O3 nanocrystals synthesized in Cajanus cajan L. (Millsp.) leaf extracts
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Green synthesis and effective genistein production by fungal β-glucosidase immobilized on Al2O3 nanocrystals synthesized in Cajanus cajan L. (Millsp.) leaf extracts

  • Sikander Ali EMAIL logo , Afra Ejaz , Rukhma , M. Usman Ahmad , Najeeb Ullah , Abid Sarwar , Tariq Aziz EMAIL logo , Thamer H. Albekairi und Abdulrahman Alshammari
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 27. September 2024
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Green Processing and Synthesis
Aus der Zeitschrift Green Processing and Synthesis Band 13 Heft 1

Abstract

The research deals with the isoflavone genistein production, followed by the β-glucosidase production from Aspergillus oryzae. The Cajanus cajan leaf extract was prepared and the optimized extraction parameters were leaf powder weight (1 g), agitation time (75 min), and temperature (60°C). The optimal conditions for β-glucosidase production by submerged fermentation were 0.4% (w/v) (NH4)2SO4 as nitrogen source, 0.05% (w/v) MgSO4 as magnesium source, 2 ml (v/v) size of inoculum, and 60 min incubation time. The Al2O3 nanocrystals (NCs) were synthesized by optimal volume of leaf extract (25 ml) and procurement period (50 min) along with Al2NO3 and NaOH. The β-glucosidase immobilization on Al2O3 NCs improved the specific activity from 2.38 ± 0.002 to 5.64 ± 0.07 U·mg−1. The maximum genistein production was achieved with the rate of biotransformation (48 h) and enzyme concentration (1% (v/v)) along with the substrate level. In fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis, the difference between both β-glucosidases free and Al2O3 immobilized was obtained with peaks at 1,120 and 2,150 cm−1. The X-ray diffraction analysis for the NCs was obtained from 10° to 80° with several intensities. and zeta potential size distribution was recorded at 16.2% of intensity with 206.4 d nm. After immobilization, the stability of the β-glucosidase was increased, thereby increasing its potential in the pharmaceutical, biofuel, food, and beverage industries.

Keywords: genistein; biotransformation; Cajanus cajan ; submerged fermentation; UV–visible spectra; Fourier transform infrared spectra

1 Introduction

Enzymes are involved in several current industries because of their proficiency and their particular characteristics [1]. β-Glucosidase enzyme is a diverse of several proteins, broadly distributed among animals, plants, fungi, as well as bacteria [2,3]. The enzyme β-d-glucoside glucohydrolase is the systematic name of β-glucosidase; the name indicates involvement in the hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds and hydrolysis of isoflavones [4]. The β-glucosidase is the group of enzymes disturbed into other subgroups depending on the basis of origin for substrate specificity. There are probable chances for the utilization of enzymes in a diversity of applications as in biotechnology processes, biofuel production, hydrolysis of isoflavones, production of oligosaccharides, as well as taste enhancement [1,2]. The efficiency for β-glucosidase production presented at a low rate by Aspergillus carbonarius. The heterologous nature of β-glucosidase has been investigated by intracellular (Escherichia coli, Tillandsioideae plastome) and extracellular (Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Pichia pastoris) by Modrackova et al. and Khadye et al. [5,6]. In Aspergillus oryzae, the structure developed by the conidiospores attached sturdily with one another and shaped as a chain of streptococcus, and A. oryzae is a filamentous fungus that is extensively functional in conventional fermentation [7,8]. Mandels and Weber’s media was used for enzyme production as an important constituent [9]. Bacterial and fungal strains are well recognized for extraction of β-glucosidase [3].

For the production of enzyme, submerged fermentation was carried out with media containing different ingredients in an Erlenmeyer flask and soybean flour, and wheat bran was used in the media for solid-state fermentation [10,11]. The pH of the media was attuneded from 5.0 to 10.0 [12]. Penicillium verruculosum was also used for the production of enzyme by response surface methodology to increase the production rate by fermentation. The effect of metallic ions was calculated with the other compounds to check the β-glucosidase activity [13,10]. Nanoparticles (NPs) have a lot of remarkable properties like as biocompatibility to control the enzyme [14]. NPs are utilized in the administration of diverse cancers throughout vigorous growth for in vivo treatment for cancers, exposure of tumor cell biomarkers, and practice in embattled drug release and catalyzers, adsorbents, ceramic manufacture, cosmetics, textile, and microelectronics [15,16]. The Al2O3 nanocrystals (NCs) have been used for antimicrobial and treat other diseases as well as have therapeutic effects for cancer and immunotherapy. The Al2O3 NC is also used for drug delivery and has higher thermal conductivity to water [17,18]. The metal salt when combined with oxide has great adsorption effects so can be used for the immobilization of enzymes [19]. The technique of particle swarm optimization was employed on Al2O3 NCs [20]. β-Glucosidase produced from Aspergillus flavus has an optimal pH of 4.5, and the reusability of the immobilized enzyme was checked under optimized conditions [21,22]. The enzyme β-glucosidase converts glycoside to isoflavone (sophoricoside to genistein) at optimum temperature [23]. The biotechnological process increases by incubating “pigeon pea” extract through immobilized β-glucosidase for the conversion of glycoside to isoflavone (genistin to genistein) [24,25,9]. Genistein has pre-emptive medicine and physiological functions, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiosteoclastic, anti-cancer, and anti-obesity actions [26,27]. The produced isoflavones from diverse sources have influential estrogenic effects and lessening of menopausal symptoms [28,29].

The main objectives of the present investigation were an assortment of leaves from Cajanus cajan, the extracellular β-glucosidase enzyme production through wild-type A. oryzae (strain Isl-9), then the immobilization process of this β-glucosidase by Al2O3 along with their characterization, as well as biotransformation from natural sophoricoside to genistein by both free β-glucosidase and Al2O3-immobilized fungal β-glucosidase with their optimization. These objectives are highly important for the genistein high yield when enzymes get immobilized on NCs which are metal oxide and have chemical stability. Then, the lower amount of genistein can be very effective for the treatment of several diseases as for biomedical and biotechnological purposes. The products from the research β-glucosidase, Al2O3 NCs, and genistein can be reusable.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Chemicals

The chemicals used to transfigure this study were different purveyors of Acros Organics, Fisher Scientific, Daejung Chemicals, and Sigma-Aldrich from Belgium, the United States, South Korea, and Germany, respectively. The premium-grade chemicals were also employed by Dr. Ikram Ul Haq Institute of Industrial Biotechnology at GCUL.

2.2 Pretreatment and extraction of C. cajan L. Millsp. leaves

The cleaned C. cajan leaves were attained from the Botany Department of Government College University, Lahore. The leaves were suitably cleansed, air-dried for 3 h, and shade-dried for 4 days. About 25 ml of distilled water was added in 0.5 g of dried leaf powder and the resulting solution was agitated at 30°C and 80–120 rpm for 30 min. After agitation, the extract was centrifuged at 3,500 rpm for 20 min and the absorbance of leaf extract was measured at 225 and 250 nm using a UV–VIS spectrophotometer (Shimadzu UV–VIS spectrophotometer PharmaSpec-1700, China).

2.3 Optimization of the extraction process

For the optimal extraction process, various parameters were monitored employing the one-factor-at-a-time (OFAT) method. Using a UV–VIS spectrophotometer, optimal extraction conditions were determined by varying the concentration of leaf powder (from 0.25 to 1.5 g), time of incubation (from 15 to 90 min), and incubation temperature (from 40 to 70°C). All the experiments were run in triplicates and the absorbance was measured at 225 and 250 nm.

2.4 Production and optimization of extracellular β-glucosidase from A. oryzae Isl-9 (A. oryzae Isl-9)

A. oryzae Isl-9 stock culture was procured from the culture collection center of the Dr. Ikram-ul-Haq Institute of Industrial Biotechnology (IIIB), GCUL, and maintained on potato dextrose agar slants. A homogeneous suspension containing conidial spores was prepared by adding 10 ml of sterilized 0.05% (w/v) Monoxal OT in 72 h old culture of A. oryzae Isl-09 for enzyme production.

Fungal β-glucosidase was produced aseptically in a 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask containing sucrose mineral salt medium using the submerged fermentation technique. The fermentation medium containing g·L−1 composition of sucrose (0.3), NH4Cl (0.4), NaCl (0.5), KH2PO4 (0.1), and MgSO4 (0.05), was autoclaved for 15 min at 15 psi (121°C). The sterile flasks were seeded with 1 ml of conidial spores for incubation in a shaking incubator at 30°C and 160 rpm for 3 days [30,31]. Following the incubation process, the broth was filtered and centrifuged to collect the fungal mycelia and enzyme supernatant, respectively. The fungal biomass was washed 2–3 times with ice-cold water. After washing, the biomass was oven-dried at 95°C for 1–2 h to make it 90% moisture-free. The dried fungal mycelium and enzyme-containing supernatant were stored at 4°C till further use.

The β-glucosidase production parameters were monitored by following the OFAT method. The optimal conditions were determined by varying the nitrogen source (NH4Cl and (NH4)2SO4) concentrations (from 0.1 to 0.6% w/v), magnesium source (MgO, MgSO4, and MgCl2) concentrations (from 0.025 to 0.15), and inoculum size (from 0.5–3 ml). Moreover, enzyme activity assay was performed after 30 and 60 min incubation period and the absorbance was measured at 400–460 nm to calculate the specific activity of the enzyme.

Specific enzyme activity ( U· mg − 1 ) = enzyme activity ( U· ml − 1 ) × dilution factor protein content ( mg· ml − 1 )

2.5 In situ biotransformation reaction for genistein production from natural sophoricoside

The aerobic biotransformation reactions for the production of genistein from natural sophoricoside were carried out using enzyme broth and the yield (%) of genistein was calculated. The enzyme supernatant (2.5 ml) was mixed with an equivalent volume of natural sophoricoside containing leaf extract in a 1:1 ratio at slightly basic conditions and incubated at 35°C and 160 rpm for 3 days:

Genistein yield ( % ) = weight of genistein / MW of genistein weight of sophoricoside / MW of sophoricoside

2.6 Optimization of genistein production process

Using UV–VIS spectrophotometry, genistein production parameters were monitored by the OFAT method. The optimal rate of biotransformation was determined by varying the time of incubation (from 24 to 96 h) and the volume of enzyme supernatant (from 0.5 to 3.0 ml).

2.7 Green synthesis of Al2O3 NCs

The green synthesis of NCs was achieved by using leaf extract of C. cajan to make the synthesis process toxicants free and less expensive [32]. For this purpose, 50 ml of Al2NO3 (5 mM) concentration was first heated for 10 min at room temperature. The dried leaf extract (10 ml) was added gradually at room temperature, while constantly stirring. The pH of the reaction mixture was adjusted to 11 by gradually adding 1 M NaOH. After 30 min, the color of the reaction mix transitioned from being translucent to a bright yellow, and then to a dark yellow shade, indicating the formation of Al2O3 NCs. The NCs obtained were subjected to centrifugation at 6,000 rev·min−1 for 20 min to separate them from the reaction mix. The collected NCs were dried at 37°C overnight [33].

2.8 Immobilization of fungal β-glucosidase

For enzyme immobilization, the β-glucosidase (0.14 U·ml−1) was added to 0.1 g of Al2O3 NCs in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) under neutral conditions and kept at 4°C for 20 h. After incubation, Al2O3-bound β-glucosidase was washed and centrifuged for the successful removal of the unbound enzyme. The immobilized β-glucosidase was stored in PBS of 50 mM (pH 7.0) at 4°C. The total yield (Ya) of immobilized β-glucosidase was measured by:

Ya = total activity of free β − glucosidase ( Ai ) total activity of Al 2 O 3 immobilized β − glucosidase enzyme ( Ac )

2.9 Characterization of Al2O3 NCs

Different techniques were used for the characterization analysis of free and immobilized Al2O3 NCs. The UV/VIS spectroscopic analysis was achieved by diluting the sample and the spectra were recorded from 200 to 800 nm [34]. The fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) chemical analysis was carried out to examine the functional groups of the compounds plus to determine their nature. A small amount of diluted sample was placed on the sample holder on an FTIR spectroscope (Spectrum-100, Perkin-Elmer, USA), and the transmittance (%) was recorded from 4,000 to 400 cm−1 [35]. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was carried out for the confirmation of the crystalline nature of NCs. The sample was prepared in powdered form by lyophilization. Different peaks were obtained in the range of 10°–80° at angle 2θ. The diffractometer by means of copper anode (CuKα) is used for the detection of the surface of the NCs [36]. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis was employed for the confirmation of the size and surface of the NCs. The beam of electrons was passed through the powdered sample, and the SEM micrographs were obtained at different magnifications [37]. The zeta potential of NCs was measured to evaluate the stability and size of the NCs [38]. The sample was sonicated and then examined by Zetasizer Nanoinstruments (Malvern Instruments Ltd, Ver. 7.10). The total count rate for the size distribution of Al2O3 NCs was 104.9 kcps (kilo counts per second) at 25°C.

2.10 Analytical techniques for the estimation of enzyme activity and protein content

The β-glucosidase enzyme activity was examined following the procedure of Watanabe et al., with some modifications [39]. The β-glucosidase activity was measured in a reaction mixture containing 0.2 ml of p-NPG substrate (0.1%), 0.2 ml of phosphate buffer (1 M; pH 6.0), and 0.4 ml of enzyme broth. The reaction mix was incubated at 30°C for 1 h. Following the incubation, the reaction was stopped by adding 2.5 ml of Na2CO3 (1 M), and the release of pNP was estimated by measuring the absorbance (A 400) using a UV–VIS spectrophotometer [40]. Under specified reaction conditions, 1 U of β-glucosidase was expressed as the amount of enzyme required to produce 1 μmol·min−1 pNP.

Enzyme activity ( U· ml − 1 ) = OD ( sample ) − OD ( blank ) incubation time

The total protein in the enzyme supernatant was determined quantitatively by the Bradford method, using bovine serum albumin as a standard protein [41].

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Preparation of C. cajan leaf extract

3.1.1 Effect of different time intervals

The effects of different time intervals to prepare the C. cajan leaf extract were evaluated as shown in Figure 1. The dry weight of leaf powder of C. cajan was boiled with peptone saline for several time intervals from 15, 30, 45, 60, and 75−90 min for the preparation of leaf extract. The optimized value of extract was achieved as 0.55 ± 0.013 mg·ml−1 as well as 0.66 ± 0.18 mg·ml−1 after agitation (75 min). By analyzing, the proper pellets with optical density were acquired as 0.612 and 0.824 with 225 and 250 nm of wavelength correspondingly. The red line in the graph at 250 nm showed the maximum peak with 75 min of time interval whereas the minimum peak with 30 min of time interval. On the other hand, the black line in the graph showed that 225 nm with the minimum peak with 30 min of time interval also had the highest peak with 60 min of time interval. The smallest yield of leaf extract was attained with 15 min of time interval in the readings equally. The most excellent environment for leaf extract preparation was with 40 min of time interval. Leaf extract has anti-oxidant and anti-aging properties, when used with aqueous solvent [42]. The Soxhlet method was utilized when ethyl-acetate and chloroform were taken as aqueous solvents for a time interval of 8 h of C. cajan leaf extract preparation [43].

Figure 1 Effect of different time intervals for the preparation of C. cajan leaf extracts at (pH 4.5, volume of peptone-saline 18.75 ml, incubation temperature 30°C, weight of leaf powder 1 g) and error bars at ρ ≤ 0.05 indicating standard deviation among the values.
Figure 1

Effect of different time intervals for the preparation of C. cajan leaf extracts at (pH 4.5, volume of peptone-saline 18.75 ml, incubation temperature 30°C, weight of leaf powder 1 g) and error bars at ρ ≤ 0.05 indicating standard deviation among the values.

The competence of extracts increases when the effectiveness of the time increases and it never causes any loss of solute. The higher extraction yield was obtained when the solvent-to-solid ratio increased and required a long-time concentration mentioned by Raghuwanshi et al. [44]. The time interval of 75 min has a great impact on extraction. It gives maximum yield by prolonged exposure in diluent for sufficient desired products and their highest activity.

3.1.2 Effect of different temperature

The temperature effects for C. cajan leaf extract preparation were evaluated. The different temperatures were utilized for the evaluation between 50 and 60°C for optimal analysis as shown in Figure 2(a). The spectra for the effect of two different temperatures are shown in Figure 2(b). Then, the UV–visible spectroscopy was done for optimal check with 200–800 nm of wavelength. The pink line shown in the spectrum at 50°C presented the lowest peak at a wavelength of 275 nm with 0.35 of absorbance and the maximum peak at a wavelength of 225 nm with 0.48 of absorbance. Whereas the blue line at 60°C presented the lowest peak with a wavelength of 275 nm with 0.45 of absorbance and the highest peak at 225 nm of wavelength with 0.68 of absorbance. These results corresponded to the investigation of Nehra et al. and Nagati et al. [43,45].

Figure 2 (a) Effect of different temperatures on the preparation of C. cajan leaf extracts. (b) UV/VIS spectroscopy for the effect of different temperatures on the preparation of C. cajan leaf extracts.
Figure 2

(a) Effect of different temperatures on the preparation of C. cajan leaf extracts. (b) UV/VIS spectroscopy for the effect of different temperatures on the preparation of C. cajan leaf extracts.

On the other hand, 40°C of temperature was found by Raghuwanshi et al. [44]. At high temperatures, the extract’s solubility and the reaction yield also increase [24]. This parameter has a great influence on the extraction optimization process as phenol compounds can be easily separated. Temperature above this can cause degradation and oxidation of preferred compounds.

3.2 Production of β-glucosidase from A. oryzae Isl-9 strain under submerged fermentation

3.2.1 Effect of different nitrogen sources

The different sources of nitrogen were used for the β-glucosidase production from A. oryzae via submerged fermentation and their effects were evaluated. The result is given in Figure 3. The two different nitrogen sources NH4Cl and (NH4)2SO4 were evaluated. The enhanced cell mass production along with the greater microbial activity of the enzyme was achieved. The several concentrations used were 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, and 0.6% (w/v). After the comparison, 0.4% (w/v) (NH4)2SO4 was attained as an optimal concentration of nitrogen source. The highest β-glucosidase production was achieved having a large pellet size than that of other concentrations used. The maximum activity of the enzyme as 3.6 ± 0.7 U·mg−1 was obtained with 0.4% (w/v) of (NH4)2SO4 and the activity of the enzyme acquired as 3.2 ± 0.9 U·mg−1 with 0.4% (w/v) of NH4Cl. The nitrogen source (NH4)2SO4 showed the highest peak of 3.07 ± 0.45 mg·ml−1 and NH4Cl with the smallest peak of 2.5 ± 0.47 mg·ml−1.

Figure 3 Effect of different nitrogen sources for the production of β-glucosidase from A. oryzae Isl-9 under submerged culture (cane sugar 4.5% (w/v), K2HPO4 0.1% (w/v), MgSO4 0.05% (w/v), inoculum size 1 ml (v/v), incubation time 60 min, incubation temperature 30°C) and error bars at ρ ≤ 0.05 indicating standard deviation among the values.
Figure 3

Effect of different nitrogen sources for the production of β-glucosidase from A. oryzae Isl-9 under submerged culture (cane sugar 4.5% (w/v), K2HPO4 0.1% (w/v), MgSO4 0.05% (w/v), inoculum size 1 ml (v/v), incubation time 60 min, incubation temperature 30°C) and error bars at ρ ≤ 0.05 indicating standard deviation among the values.

Abdullah et al. achieved a similar result with 0.4% (w/v) of (NH4)2SO4 to produce β-glucosidase by A. oryzae Isl-9 strain via submerged fermentation [31]. It stated that the cell mass was enhanced by this concentration of nitrogen source. For a microbe to grow in fermentation media, the nitrogen source was a high requirement as it synthesizes amino acids, nitrogenous compounds, vitamins, and bioactive compounds. It gave high production of extracellular β-glucosidase when used in fermentation media as presented by Ahmed et al. [2].

3.2.2 Effect of different magnesium sources

The different sources of magnesium were used for β-glucosidase production and their effects were evaluated. The results are given in Figure 4. The three magnesium sources MgSO4, MgO, and MgCl2 were employed for enhanced cell mass having the greatest activity of enzyme. Several concentrations were used (0.025, 0.05, 0.075, 0.1, 0.125, and 0.15% (w/v)) for different sources. Then, 0.05% (w/v) MgSO4 was achieved for the optimal concentration source of magnesium. The maximum β-glucosidase production was achieved with a larger pellet size than that of the pellets produced by other sources. Then, the greatest activity of the enzyme as 4.08 ± 0.55 U·mg−1 was acquired with 0.05% (w/v) of MgSO4. Whereas the higher activity of the enzyme obtained was 3.85 ± 0.96 and 3.44 ± 0.32 U·mg−1 with 0.05% (w/v) of MgO as well as MgCl2. After analysis, MgSO4 showed the highest peak as 2.65 ± 0.89 mg·ml−1 and MgO and MgCl2 showed the lowest peaks as 2.25 ± 0.90 and 1.97 ± 0.31 mg·ml−1, respectively. This optimum concentration of MgSO4 was necessary for prolonged exponential growth of microbe and results in increased cell mass. It provided magnesium ions to the media for the increase in enzymatic activity. The concentration of 0.03% (w/v) of MgSO4 was utilized for the production of β-glucosidase through A. oryzae Isl-9 strain by Olajuyigbe et al. [46]. The results are given in Figure 4. These are relative with a concentration of MgSO4 as 0.05% (w/v) employed by Liao et al. [47].

Figure 4 Effect of different magnesium sources for the production of β-glucosidase from A. oryzae Isl-9 under submerged culture (cane sugar 4.5% (w/v), (NH4)2SO4 0.4%(w/v), KH2PO4 0.075% (w/v), inoculum size 1 ml (v/v), incubation time 60 min, incubation temperature 30°C), and error bars at ρ ≤ 0.05 indicating standard deviation among the values.
Figure 4

Effect of different magnesium sources for the production of β-glucosidase from A. oryzae Isl-9 under submerged culture (cane sugar 4.5% (w/v), (NH4)2SO4 0.4%(w/v), KH2PO4 0.075% (w/v), inoculum size 1 ml (v/v), incubation time 60 min, incubation temperature 30°C), and error bars at ρ ≤ 0.05 indicating standard deviation among the values.

3.2.3 Effect of size of inoculum

Several sizes of inoculum were utilized to produce β-glucosidase through A. oryzae Isl-9 wild-type strain via submerged fermentation. Their effects were noted and shown in Figure 5. These six altered inoculum sizes were compared to achieve maximum cell mass production along with the largest activities of the enzyme. The different inoculum volumes were used (0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, and 3% v/v) to obtain the optimization parameter. Then, the optimal volume was achieved as 2% (v/v) for further optimization. The maximum β-glucosidase production was attained by having the large pellet with this optimized size of inoculum than that of the other volumes. The highest specific activity of the enzyme as 5.64 ± 0.07 U·mg−1 was acquired at 250 nm of wavelength and the specific activity of the enzyme as 5.32 ± 0.09 U·mg−1 was obtained at 240 nm of wavelength. The size of inoculum with 2% (v/v) showed the highest peak as 4.98 ± 0.72 mg·ml−1 at a wavelength of 250 nm and the lowest peak as 4.36 ± 0.02 mg·ml−1 at 240 nm of wavelength. The production of β-glucosidase stopped with the huge size of inoculum utilized with high intensity of activity of the enzyme. But at a low level of conidial suspension, β-glucosidase production increased with a decrease in enzyme activity. So, the 2% (v/v) conidial inoculum was optimized as the ideal size. The size of inoculum (1.5)% (v/v) used by Khalid et al. [48]. The volume of inoculum as 0.01% (v/v) was used for investigation in Ahmed et al. studies to enhance the production of β-glucosidase [2]. On the other hand, 5% (v/v) of conidial suspension was attained by Molina et al. that were as reported high production of β-glucosidase under submerged fermentation [49].

Figure 5 Effect of different sizes of inoculum for the production of β-glucosidase from A. oryzae Isl-9 under submerged culture (cane sugar 4.5% (w/v), (NH4)2SO4 0.4% (w/v), KH2PO4 0.075% (w/v), MgSO4 0.05% (w/v), incubation time 60 min, temperature incubation 30°C) and error bars at ρ ≤ 0.05 indicating standard deviation among the values.
Figure 5

Effect of different sizes of inoculum for the production of β-glucosidase from A. oryzae Isl-9 under submerged culture (cane sugar 4.5% (w/v), (NH4)2SO4 0.4% (w/v), KH2PO4 0.075% (w/v), MgSO4 0.05% (w/v), incubation time 60 min, temperature incubation 30°C) and error bars at ρ ≤ 0.05 indicating standard deviation among the values.

3.2.4 Effect of different time intervals

Two different incubation time intervals were compared for the basic enzyme activity as shown in Figure 6(a). The highest enzyme activity was obtained at 60 min. In the spectra, it is demonstrated that the samples were utilized for optimization of the time period taken in enzyme assay; the black line presented the sample with 30 min of time interval while the red line presented the sample with 60 min of time interval as given in Figure 6(b). The black line showed its first two peaks at 275 and 290 nm with an absorbance of 0.25. However, its highest peak was at 235 nm with an absorbance of 0.74. On the other hand, 60 min incubation time for enzyme assay also presented the peaks at the same wavelength as 30 min but two lower peaks at absorbance of 0.5 while the highest peak with absorbance of 1.5. The results were in correspondence with the findings of Almeida et al. [13]. However, 10 min of the incubation period for enzyme assay was utilized by Abdullah et al. [31]. A longer incubation period helped the microbe to grow at a high rate so that the production of enzymes would be high. It is stated that if the enzyme remains with the substrate for a longer period, the greater the amount of product formed hence the greater the enzyme activity.

Figure 6 Effect of different time intervals for the production of β-glucosidase from A. oryzae Isl-9 under submerged culture.
Figure 6

Effect of different time intervals for the production of β-glucosidase from A. oryzae Isl-9 under submerged culture.

3.3 Characterization

3.3.1 UV/VIS spectroscopy

Various levels of extract of C. cajan leaves were employed and the result is given in Figure 7a. The spectrum illustrated various leaf extract levels which presented some peaks with the use of several absorbances and wavelengths. The optimized leaf extract level was 25 ml which showed the line with maximum peak at the wavelength of 286 nm along with 0.88 of absorbance. The highest leaf extract level of 30 ml presented that the line has the maximum peak at a wavelength of 283 nm along with 0.8 absorbance. The level of leaf extract as 15 ml of line has a large peak at a wavelength of 280 nm along with 0.6 absorbance. The several procurement periods and their effects were utilized for the optimization parameters to produce Al2O3 NCs via green synthesis. The results are given in Figure 7b. The spectrum showed that the optimized procurement period (10 min−1·h) was evaluated for green synthesis of Al2O3 NCs. The maximum peak line shown at 300 nm along with 1.35 of absorbance was the optimized value. The other line having a procurement period of 60 min presented the peak at a wavelength of 300 nm along with 1.0 of absorbance. The minimum peak line was obtained by a procurement period of 40 min along with an absorbance of 1.25 at a wavelength of 300 nm. The procurement period of 50 min was utilized as the optimized value. Sabah et al. stated that when the beam of illuminating light increases, the absorbance becomes short, and spectrum peaks shift to a wavelength below 300 nm [50]. Ismail et al. investigated the maximum peak of green synthesis of Al2O3 at a wavelength of 245 nm along with all other optimal states [51]. The results shown in the above spectra are in accordance that showed the highest peak at 210 nm when Al2NO3 was used [52]. The same results were given by Nassar and Zainab 2015 showed high peaks at 210 and 225 nm. When the short wavelength appears for the high peaks, it determines the short size of NCs [53].

Figure 7 UV–VIS absorption spectrum of Al2O3 NCs. (a) Effect of different levels of C. cajan leaf extracts (Al2NO3 30 mM). (b) Effect of different procurement periods of C. cajan leaf extract (25 ml) for green synthesis of Al2O3 NCs.
Figure 7

UV–VIS absorption spectrum of Al2O3 NCs. (a) Effect of different levels of C. cajan leaf extracts (Al2NO3 30 mM). (b) Effect of different procurement periods of C. cajan leaf extract (25 ml) for green synthesis of Al2O3 NCs.

3.3.2 FTIR

The change in functional groups was observed at a range from 400 to 4,000 cm−1 [35]. The total scans utilized were 120 for every sample. Throughout the infrared (IR) spectroscopy, the samples were oxidized at diverse temperatures. The other peaks at 1,633 cm−1 showed OH deformation vibrations which indicated the presence of Al2O3. There is high bending vibration at 1,120 cm−1 which also showed the change in hydroxyl group differentiating free enzyme from immobilized enzyme. There was a minor modification in both peaks of free β-glucosidase and immobilized β-glucosidase as 3,305 and 3,346 cm−1 but a high change at 2,150 cm−1. The result is given in Figure 8. The correspondence result was obtained by Goldstein et al. having Al–O groups with vibration at 1,000 cm−1, CH stretches to 3,000 cm−1, and OH at 3,500 cm−1 [54]. The peaks obtained were utilized for the evolution of oxides and also for the comparison between β-glucosidase with and without Al2O3 NCs.

Figure 8 Fourier transform IR spectra for comparison between free and Al2O3-immobilized enzyme.
Figure 8

Fourier transform IR spectra for comparison between free and Al2O3-immobilized enzyme.

3.3.3 XRD

The crystalline nature of the NCs was observed with the different peaks. It was obtained by software X’Pert high score by JCPDS recorded at 311, 400, 422, 511, and 440, which confirmed the nature of Al2O3 NCs. The resultant peaks proved the presence of Al2O3 NCs. Figure 9 displays the intensity of the diffracted x-rays at diffraction angle (2-theta), along with the Miller indices. Sharpness of the peaks indicate the crystalline nature of the NCs. The results correspond to Piriyawong et al. and intensity peaks by Ansari and Husain [55,56].

Figure 9 XRD patterns of Al2O3 NCs.
Figure 9

XRD patterns of Al2O3 NCs.

3.3.4 SEM

The beam of electrons was used for the demonstration of surface topography. The beam of electrons is specifically employed in scanning electron microscopy. This is utilized to determine the NC size along with the sample composition. When the beam of electrons passes through the sample, it creates an image with accurate measurement. The images presented several aggregates showing different small sizes of NCs joined together. The results are shown in Figure 10a as 1 µm at 7.02 KX of magnification and in Figure 10b–d as 200 and 300 at 10.0 KX of magnification. These images were obtained after several examinations of the structure and crystalline nature of Al2O3 NCs. These results correspond with the Guo et al. studies [14]. However, there were contradictory results of micrographs by SEM at a magnification of 200 nm by Kubica et al. [57]. NC size and distribution were also attained with the SEM at 1 µm investigated by Majeed et al. [58].

Figure 10 SEM micrographs of Al2O3 NCs immobilized β-glucosidase resolved at different magnifications: (a) 1 µm at 7.02 KX, (b) 200 nm at 10.00 KX, (c) 200 nm at 10.00 KX, and (d) 300 nm at 10.00 KX.
Figure 10

SEM micrographs of Al2O3 NCs immobilized β-glucosidase resolved at different magnifications: (a) 1 µm at 7.02 KX, (b) 200 nm at 10.00 KX, (c) 200 nm at 10.00 KX, and (d) 300 nm at 10.00 KX.

3.3.5 Zeta size analyzer

The zeta potential can influence the NPs’ propensity to infuse membranes with cationic particles. The majority of cellular membranes were charged negatively, so a zeta analyzer can be easily employed by the disruption of the cell wall. The exact size of the particles was obtained by Rukhma et al. [59]. The inspection was achieved at the count rate of 104.9 kcps investigated by Clogston and Patri [38]. The results are shown in Figure 11. The size obtained by the zetasizer was 206.4 d·nm at an intensity of 16.2%. Zeta potential is an interpretation of potential contributions from differently charged particles that could have contributed to the results. The zeta potential measurement is a tremendously significant parameter and is used in a broad range of industries including pharmaceuticals, medicine, brewing, ceramics, mineral processing, and water treatment. Dissociation of any acidic groups on a particle surface gave a negatively charged surface. The measurement of zeta potential was reliably connected to the stability phase of nanofluids, the stability time increases with the increase of zeta potential absolute value Khoshnevisan and Barkhi [60]. These results were in correspondence as described by Choudhary et al. [61].

Figure 11 Zeta size distribution.
Figure 11

Zeta size distribution.

3.4 Optimization of biotransformation of sophoricoside to genistein

3.4.1 Effect of different rates of biotransformation and yield of genistein production

The several rates for the biotransformation were used to produce genistein from natural sophoricosidase by free β-glucosidase and immobilized β-glucosidase. Their effects on the optimizing value were evaluated. Various phenolic compounds from natural sources were converted from glycosides by hydrolysis. 2 ml of both free β-glucosidase and immobilized β-glucosidase and 3 ml of distilled water were used to increase the overall volume to 5 ml in four tubes. Both samples were then compared at 300 nm of wavelength for the determination of the optimized parameter. The diverse rates of biotransformation (24, 48, 72, 96 h) were used along with the substrate level as 2.5% (v/v), and their result is given in Figure 12. The process of biotransformation was held for 72 h for the appropriate results at 35°C in a shaking incubator (160 rpm). Both the free and immobilized β-glucosidase generated isoflavones as 0.43 ± 0.16 and 0.90 ± 0.46 mg·ml−1 at a wavelength of 300 nm. The maximum peak was developed by the Al2O3 immobilized β-glucosidase rather than that of the free β-glucosidase.

Figure 12 Effect of different rates of biotransformation of natural sophoricoside (in C. cajan leaf extract) to genistein by free and immobilized β-glucosidase (substrate level 2.5 ml (v/v), enzyme concentration 2 ml (v/v)) and error bars at ρ ≤ 0.05 indicating standard deviation among the values.
Figure 12

Effect of different rates of biotransformation of natural sophoricoside (in C. cajan leaf extract) to genistein by free and immobilized β-glucosidase (substrate level 2.5 ml (v/v), enzyme concentration 2 ml (v/v)) and error bars at ρ ≤ 0.05 indicating standard deviation among the values.

For the optimal value, the rate of biotransformation was used for 48 h at a wavelength of 300 nm. Al2O3 immobilized β-glucosidase demonstrates improved optimization outcomes rather than that of the free β-glucosidase. If the biotransformation is prolonged, the yield of genistein decreases which is the reason for 48 h as the rate of biotransformation is in correspondence to Mei et al. [62]. The results were similar to Kim where 48 h is the optimized parameter for biotransformation [63]. Wang et al. results were contradictory as different rates of biotransformation were utilized and 24 h was obtained as the optimized rate for genistein production [64]. This the optimal as basic compounds remain in the solvent without any loss so the yield can be increased.

3.4.2 Effect of different enzyme concentrations

The phenolic compounds from natural sources are converted from glycosides. An optimal enzyme volume was obtained after hydrolysis. The free β-glucosidase and Al2O3 immobilized β-glucosidase activities were 1.47 and 2.35 U·mg−1. The results were in correspondence with the Pandjaitan et al. investigation [65]. These results were relative to the studies of Abdella et al. since 1% (v/v) of enzyme concentration was taken as the optimal parameter [66]. This concentration of enzyme produced a high yield of genistein. If the concentration increases or decreases in the solvent, the yield of genistein is affected as it may lose its antioxidant activity. The appropriate wavelength for the biotransformation of genistein was taken as 300 nm as shown in Figure 13. In this spectrum, the free enzyme showed the smallest amount along with 0.1 absorbance and that of the immobilized enzyme at 1.0. The result was opposite to the Cesar et al. studies where 382 nm was the wavelength to show the high genistein yield [67].

Figure 13 Effect of different enzyme concentrations for biotransformation.
Figure 13

Effect of different enzyme concentrations for biotransformation.

4 Conclusion

In current years, there is a dire need for the production of bioactive compounds from medicinal plants that could be used for drug discovery and development. This work aimed at the synthesis of A. oryzae Isl-9 β-glucosidase under submerged fermentation and its immobilization on Al2O3 NCs produced from C. cajan leaf extracts. After optimizing fermentation parameters, in situ biotransformation was carried out for the eco-friendly and cost-effective production of genistein from natural sophoricoside (C. cajan leaf extract). Al2O3 NCs fabricated by dried leaf extract were crystalline in nature. Various other analytical techniques were also employed for the characterization of free and immobilized NCs. After immobilization, the stability of the β-glucosidase was increased, thereby increasing its potential in the pharmaceutical, biofuel, food, and beverage industries.

Acknowledgements

The authors are thankful to the Researchers Supporting Project number (RSPD2024R568), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  1. Funding information: Authors state no funding involved.

  2. Author contributions: Conceptualization, Sikander Ali; methodology, Afra Ejaz; software, Tariq Aziz; validation, Rukhma; formal analysis, M. Usman Ahmad, investigation, Najeeb Ullah; resources, Abid Sarwar; data curation, Abdulrahman Alshammari; writing – original draft preparation, Sikander Ali; writing – review and editing, Abid Sarwar; visualization, Thamer H. Albekairi; supervision, Tariq Aziz; and project administration, Sikander Ali.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

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Received: 2024-04-10
Accepted: 2024-08-08
Published Online: 2024-09-27

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  24. Ascorbic acid-mediated selenium nanoparticles as potential antihyperuricemic, antioxidant, anticoagulant, and thrombolytic agents
  25. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Illicium verum extract: Optimization and characterization for biomedical applications
  26. Antibacterial and dynamical behaviour of silicon nanoparticles influenced sustainable waste flax fibre-reinforced epoxy composite for biomedical application
  27. Optimising coagulation/flocculation using response surface methodology and application of floc in biofertilisation
  28. Green synthesis and multifaceted characterization of iron oxide nanoparticles derived from Senna bicapsularis for enhanced in vitro and in vivo biological investigation
  29. Potent antibacterial nanocomposites from okra mucilage/chitosan/silver nanoparticles for multidrug-resistant Salmonella Typhimurium eradication
  30. Trachyspermum copticum aqueous seed extract-derived silver nanoparticles: Exploration of their structural characterization and comparative antibacterial performance against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria
  31. Microwave-assisted ultrafine silver nanoparticle synthesis using Mitragyna speciosa for antimalarial applications
  32. Green synthesis and characterisation of spherical structure Ag/Fe2O3/TiO2 nanocomposite using acacia in the presence of neem and tulsi oils
  33. Green quantitative methods for linagliptin and empagliflozin in dosage forms
  34. Enhancement efficacy of omeprazole by conjugation with silver nanoparticles as a urease inhibitor
  35. Residual, sequential extraction, and ecological risk assessment of some metals in ash from municipal solid waste incineration, Vietnam
  36. Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using the mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) leaf extract: Comparative preliminary in vitro antibacterial study
  37. Simultaneous determination of lesinurad and febuxostat in commercial fixed-dose combinations using a greener normal-phase HPTLC method
  38. A greener RP-HPLC method for quaternary estimation of caffeine, paracetamol, levocetirizine, and phenylephrine acquiring AQbD with stability studies
  39. Optimization of biomass durian peel as a heterogeneous catalyst in biodiesel production using microwave irradiation
  40. Thermal treatment impact on the evolution of active phases in layered double hydroxide-based ZnCr photocatalysts: Photodegradation and antibacterial performance
  41. Preparation of silymarin-loaded zein polysaccharide core–shell nanostructures and evaluation of their biological potentials
  42. Preparation and characterization of composite-modified PA6 fiber for spectral heating and heat storage applications
  43. Preparation and electrocatalytic oxygen evolution of bimetallic phosphates (NiFe)2P/NF
  44. Rod-shaped Mo(vi) trichalcogenide–Mo(vi) oxide decorated on poly(1-H pyrrole) as a promising nanocomposite photoelectrode for green hydrogen generation from sewage water with high efficiency
  45. Green synthesis and studies on citrus medica leaf extract-mediated Au–ZnO nanocomposites: A sustainable approach for efficient photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B dye in aqueous media
  46. Cellulosic materials for the removal of ciprofloxacin from aqueous environments
  47. The analytical assessment of metal contamination in industrial soils of Saudi Arabia using the inductively coupled plasma technology
  48. The effect of modified oily sludge on the slurry ability and combustion performance of coal water slurry
  49. Eggshell waste transformation to calcium chloride anhydride as food-grade additive and eggshell membranes as enzyme immobilization carrier
  50. Synthesis of EPAN and applications in the encapsulation of potassium humate
  51. Biosynthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles from Cedrela toona leaf extracts: An exploration into their antibacterial, anticancer, and antioxidant potential
  52. Enhancing mechanical and rheological properties of HDPE films through annealing for eco-friendly agricultural applications
  53. Immobilisation of catalase purified from mushroom (Hydnum repandum) onto glutaraldehyde-activated chitosan and characterisation: Its application for the removal of hydrogen peroxide from artificial wastewater
  54. Sodium titanium oxide/zinc oxide (STO/ZnO) photocomposites for efficient dye degradation applications
  55. Effect of ex situ, eco-friendly ZnONPs incorporating green synthesised Moringa oleifera leaf extract in enhancing biochemical and molecular aspects of Vicia faba L. under salt stress
  56. Biosynthesis and characterization of selenium and silver nanoparticles using Trichoderma viride filtrate and their impact on Culex pipiens
  57. Photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes and biological potentials of biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the polar extract of Cyperus scariosus R.Br. (Cyperaceae)
  58. Assessment of antiproliferative activity of green-synthesized nickel oxide nanoparticles against glioblastoma cells using Terminalia chebula
  59. Chlorine-free synthesis of phosphinic derivatives by change in the P-function
  60. Anticancer, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities of nanoemulsions based on water-in-olive oil and loaded on biogenic silver nanoparticles
  61. Study and mechanism of formation of phosphorus production waste in Kazakhstan
  62. Synthesis and stabilization of anatase form of biomimetic TiO2 nanoparticles for enhancing anti-tumor potential
  63. Microwave-supported one-pot reaction for the synthesis of 5-alkyl/arylidene-2-(morpholin/thiomorpholin-4-yl)-1,3-thiazol-4(5H)-one derivatives over MgO solid base
  64. Screening the phytochemicals in Perilla leaves and phytosynthesis of bioactive silver nanoparticles for potential antioxidant and wound-healing application
  65. Graphene oxide/chitosan/manganese/folic acid-brucine functionalized nanocomposites show anticancer activity against liver cancer cells
  66. Nature of serpentinite interactions with low-concentration sulfuric acid solutions
  67. Multi-objective statistical optimisation utilising response surface methodology to predict engine performance using biofuels from waste plastic oil in CRDi engines
  68. Microwave-assisted extraction of acetosolv lignin from sugarcane bagasse and electrospinning of lignin/PEO nanofibres for carbon fibre production
  69. Biosynthesis, characterization, and investigation of cytotoxic activities of selenium nanoparticles utilizing Limosilactobacillus fermentum
  70. Highly photocatalytic materials based on the decoration of poly(O-chloroaniline) with molybdenum trichalcogenide oxide for green hydrogen generation from Red Sea water
  71. Highly efficient oil–water separation using superhydrophobic cellulose aerogels derived from corn straw
  72. Beta-cyclodextrin–Phyllanthus emblica emulsion for zinc oxide nanoparticles: Characteristics and photocatalysis
  73. Assessment of antimicrobial activity and methyl orange dye removal by Klebsiella pneumoniae-mediated silver nanoparticles
  74. Influential eradication of resistant Salmonella Typhimurium using bioactive nanocomposites from chitosan and radish seed-synthesized nanoselenium
  75. Antimicrobial activities and neuroprotective potential for Alzheimer’s disease of pure, Mn, Co, and Al-doped ZnO ultra-small nanoparticles
  76. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles from Bauhinia variegata and their biological applications
  77. Synthesis and optimization of long-chain fatty acids via the oxidation of long-chain fatty alcohols
  78. Eminent Red Sea water hydrogen generation via a Pb(ii)-iodide/poly(1H-pyrrole) nanocomposite photocathode
  79. Green synthesis and effective genistein production by fungal β-glucosidase immobilized on Al2O3 nanocrystals synthesized in Cajanus cajan L. (Millsp.) leaf extracts
  80. Green stability-indicating RP-HPTLC technique for determining croconazole hydrochloride
  81. Green synthesis of La2O3–LaPO4 nanocomposites using Charybdis natator for DNA binding, cytotoxic, catalytic, and luminescence applications
  82. Eco-friendly drugs induce cellular changes in colistin-resistant bacteria
  83. Tangerine fruit peel extract mediated biogenic synthesized silver nanoparticles and their potential antimicrobial, antioxidant, and cytotoxic assessments
  84. Green synthesis on performance characteristics of a direct injection diesel engine using sandbox seed oil
  85. A highly sensitive β-AKBA-Ag-based fluorescent “turn off” chemosensor for rapid detection of abamectin in tomatoes
  86. Green synthesis and physical characterization of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) derived from the methanol extract of Euphorbia dracunculoides Lam. (Euphorbiaceae) with enhanced biosafe applications
  87. Detection of morphine and data processing using surface plasmon resonance imaging sensor
  88. Effects of nanoparticles on the anaerobic digestion properties of sulfamethoxazole-containing chicken manure and analysis of bio-enzymes
  89. Bromic acid-thiourea synergistic leaching of sulfide gold ore
  90. Green chemistry approach to synthesize titanium dioxide nanoparticles using Fagonia Cretica extract, novel strategy for developing antimicrobial and antidiabetic therapies
  91. Green synthesis and effective utilization of biogenic Al2O3-nanocoupled fungal lipase in the resolution of active homochiral 2-octanol and its immobilization via aluminium oxide nanoparticles
  92. Eco-friendly RP-HPLC approach for simultaneously estimating the promising combination of pentoxifylline and simvastatin in therapeutic potential for breast cancer: Appraisal of greenness, whiteness, and Box–Behnken design
  93. Use of a humidity adsorbent derived from cockleshell waste in Thai fried fish crackers (Keropok)
  94. One-pot green synthesis, biological evaluation, and in silico study of pyrazole derivatives obtained from chalcones
  95. Bio-sorption of methylene blue and production of biofuel by brown alga Cystoseira sp. collected from Neom region, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
  96. Synthesis of motexafin gadolinium: A promising radiosensitizer and imaging agent for cancer therapy
  97. The impact of varying sizes of silver nanoparticles on the induction of cellular damage in Klebsiella pneumoniae involving diverse mechanisms
  98. Microwave-assisted green synthesis, characterization, and in vitro antibacterial activity of NiO nanoparticles obtained from lemon peel extract
  99. Rhus microphylla-mediated biosynthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles for enhanced antibacterial and antibiofilm efficacy
  100. Harnessing trichalcogenide–molybdenum(vi) sulfide and molybdenum(vi) oxide within poly(1-amino-2-mercaptobenzene) frameworks as a photocathode for sustainable green hydrogen production from seawater without sacrificial agents
  101. Magnetically recyclable Fe3O4@SiO2 supported phosphonium ionic liquids for efficient and sustainable transformation of CO2 into oxazolidinones
  102. A comparative study of Fagonia arabica fabricated silver sulfide nanoparticles (Ag2S) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) with distinct antimicrobial, anticancer, and antioxidant properties
  103. Visible light photocatalytic degradation and biological activities of Aegle marmelos-mediated cerium oxide nanoparticles
  104. Physical intrinsic characteristics of spheroidal particles in coal gasification fine slag
  105. Exploring the effect of tea dust magnetic biochar on agricultural crops grown in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contaminated soil
  106. Crosslinked chitosan-modified ultrafiltration membranes for efficient surface water treatment and enhanced anti-fouling performances
  107. Study on adsorption characteristics of biochars and their modified biochars for removal of organic dyes from aqueous solution
  108. Zein polymer nanocarrier for Ocimum basilicum var. purpurascens extract: Potential biomedical use
  109. Green synthesis, characterization, and in vitro and in vivo biological screening of iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe3O4) generated with hydroalcoholic extract of aerial parts of Euphorbia milii
  110. Novel microwave-based green approach for the synthesis of dual-loaded cyclodextrin nanosponges: Characterization, pharmacodynamics, and pharmacokinetics evaluation
  111. Bi2O3–BiOCl/poly-m-methyl aniline nanocomposite thin film for broad-spectrum light-sensing
  112. Green synthesis and characterization of CuO/ZnO nanocomposite using Musa acuminata leaf extract for cytotoxic studies on colorectal cancer cells (HCC2998)
  113. Review Articles
  114. Materials-based drug delivery approaches: Recent advances and future perspectives
  115. A review of thermal treatment for bamboo and its composites
  116. An overview of the role of nanoherbicides in tackling challenges of weed management in wheat: A novel approach
  117. An updated review on carbon nanomaterials: Types, synthesis, functionalization and applications, degradation and toxicity
  118. Special Issue: Emerging green nanomaterials for sustainable waste management and biomedical applications
  119. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using mature-pseudostem extracts of Alpinia nigra and their bioactivities
  120. Special Issue: New insights into nanopythotechnology: current trends and future prospects
  121. Green synthesis of FeO nanoparticles from coffee and its application for antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-oxidation activity
  122. Dye degradation activity of biogenically synthesized Cu/Fe/Ag trimetallic nanoparticles
  123. Special Issue: Composites and green composites
  124. Recent trends and advancements in the utilization of green composites and polymeric nanocarriers for enhancing food quality and sustainable processing
  125. Retraction
  126. Retraction of “Biosynthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles from Cedrela toona leaf extracts: An exploration into their antibacterial, anticancer, and antioxidant potential”
  127. Retraction of “Photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes and biological potentials of biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the polar extract of Cyperus scariosus R.Br. (Cyperaceae)”
  128. Retraction to “Green synthesis on performance characteristics of a direct injection diesel engine using sandbox seed oil”
https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2024-0080
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
genistein; biotransformation; Cajanus cajan; submerged fermentation; UV–visible spectra; Fourier transform infrared spectra
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Research Articles
  2. Green polymer electrolyte and activated charcoal-based supercapacitor for energy harvesting application: Electrochemical characteristics
  3. Research on the adsorption of Co2+ ions using halloysite clay and the ability to recover them by electrodeposition method
  4. Simultaneous estimation of ibuprofen, caffeine, and paracetamol in commercial products using a green reverse-phase HPTLC method
  5. Isolation, screening and optimization of alkaliphilic cellulolytic fungi for production of cellulase
  6. Functionalized gold nanoparticles coated with bacterial alginate and their antibacterial and anticancer activities
  7. Comparative analysis of bio-based amino acid surfactants obtained via Diels–Alder reaction of cyclic anhydrides
  8. Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles on yellow phosphorus slag and its application in organic coatings
  9. Exploring antioxidant potential and phenolic compound extraction from Vitis vinifera L. using ultrasound-assisted extraction
  10. Manganese and copper-coated nickel oxide nanoparticles synthesized from Carica papaya leaf extract induce antimicrobial activity and breast cancer cell death by triggering mitochondrial caspases and p53
  11. Insight into heating method and Mozafari method as green processing techniques for the synthesis of micro- and nano-drug carriers
  12. Silicotungstic acid supported on Bi-based MOF-derived metal oxide for photodegradation of organic dyes
  13. Synthesis and characterization of capsaicin nanoparticles: An attempt to enhance its bioavailability and pharmacological actions
  14. Synthesis of Lawsonia inermis-encased silver–copper bimetallic nanoparticles with antioxidant, antibacterial, and cytotoxic activity
  15. Facile, polyherbal drug-mediated green synthesis of CuO nanoparticles and their potent biological applications
  16. Zinc oxide-manganese oxide/carboxymethyl cellulose-folic acid-sesamol hybrid nanomaterials: A molecularly targeted strategy for advanced triple-negative breast cancer therapy
  17. Exploring the antimicrobial potential of biogenically synthesized graphene oxide nanoparticles against targeted bacterial and fungal pathogens
  18. Biofabrication of silver nanoparticles using Uncaria tomentosa L.: Insight into characterization, antibacterial activities combined with antibiotics, and effect on Triticum aestivum germination
  19. Membrane distillation of synthetic urine for use in space structural habitat systems
  20. Investigation on mechanical properties of the green synthesis bamboo fiber/eggshell/coconut shell powder-based hybrid biocomposites under NaOH conditions
  21. Green synthesis of magnesium oxide nanoparticles using endophytic fungal strain to improve the growth, metabolic activities, yield traits, and phenolic compounds content of Nigella sativa L.
  22. Estimation of greenhouse gas emissions from rice and annual upland crops in Red River Delta of Vietnam using the denitrification–decomposition model
  23. Synthesis of humic acid with the obtaining of potassium humate based on coal waste from the Lenger deposit, Kazakhstan
  24. Ascorbic acid-mediated selenium nanoparticles as potential antihyperuricemic, antioxidant, anticoagulant, and thrombolytic agents
  25. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Illicium verum extract: Optimization and characterization for biomedical applications
  26. Antibacterial and dynamical behaviour of silicon nanoparticles influenced sustainable waste flax fibre-reinforced epoxy composite for biomedical application
  27. Optimising coagulation/flocculation using response surface methodology and application of floc in biofertilisation
  28. Green synthesis and multifaceted characterization of iron oxide nanoparticles derived from Senna bicapsularis for enhanced in vitro and in vivo biological investigation
  29. Potent antibacterial nanocomposites from okra mucilage/chitosan/silver nanoparticles for multidrug-resistant Salmonella Typhimurium eradication
  30. Trachyspermum copticum aqueous seed extract-derived silver nanoparticles: Exploration of their structural characterization and comparative antibacterial performance against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria
  31. Microwave-assisted ultrafine silver nanoparticle synthesis using Mitragyna speciosa for antimalarial applications
  32. Green synthesis and characterisation of spherical structure Ag/Fe2O3/TiO2 nanocomposite using acacia in the presence of neem and tulsi oils
  33. Green quantitative methods for linagliptin and empagliflozin in dosage forms
  34. Enhancement efficacy of omeprazole by conjugation with silver nanoparticles as a urease inhibitor
  35. Residual, sequential extraction, and ecological risk assessment of some metals in ash from municipal solid waste incineration, Vietnam
  36. Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using the mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) leaf extract: Comparative preliminary in vitro antibacterial study
  37. Simultaneous determination of lesinurad and febuxostat in commercial fixed-dose combinations using a greener normal-phase HPTLC method
  38. A greener RP-HPLC method for quaternary estimation of caffeine, paracetamol, levocetirizine, and phenylephrine acquiring AQbD with stability studies
  39. Optimization of biomass durian peel as a heterogeneous catalyst in biodiesel production using microwave irradiation
  40. Thermal treatment impact on the evolution of active phases in layered double hydroxide-based ZnCr photocatalysts: Photodegradation and antibacterial performance
  41. Preparation of silymarin-loaded zein polysaccharide core–shell nanostructures and evaluation of their biological potentials
  42. Preparation and characterization of composite-modified PA6 fiber for spectral heating and heat storage applications
  43. Preparation and electrocatalytic oxygen evolution of bimetallic phosphates (NiFe)2P/NF
  44. Rod-shaped Mo(vi) trichalcogenide–Mo(vi) oxide decorated on poly(1-H pyrrole) as a promising nanocomposite photoelectrode for green hydrogen generation from sewage water with high efficiency
  45. Green synthesis and studies on citrus medica leaf extract-mediated Au–ZnO nanocomposites: A sustainable approach for efficient photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B dye in aqueous media
  46. Cellulosic materials for the removal of ciprofloxacin from aqueous environments
  47. The analytical assessment of metal contamination in industrial soils of Saudi Arabia using the inductively coupled plasma technology
  48. The effect of modified oily sludge on the slurry ability and combustion performance of coal water slurry
  49. Eggshell waste transformation to calcium chloride anhydride as food-grade additive and eggshell membranes as enzyme immobilization carrier
  50. Synthesis of EPAN and applications in the encapsulation of potassium humate
  51. Biosynthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles from Cedrela toona leaf extracts: An exploration into their antibacterial, anticancer, and antioxidant potential
  52. Enhancing mechanical and rheological properties of HDPE films through annealing for eco-friendly agricultural applications
  53. Immobilisation of catalase purified from mushroom (Hydnum repandum) onto glutaraldehyde-activated chitosan and characterisation: Its application for the removal of hydrogen peroxide from artificial wastewater
  54. Sodium titanium oxide/zinc oxide (STO/ZnO) photocomposites for efficient dye degradation applications
  55. Effect of ex situ, eco-friendly ZnONPs incorporating green synthesised Moringa oleifera leaf extract in enhancing biochemical and molecular aspects of Vicia faba L. under salt stress
  56. Biosynthesis and characterization of selenium and silver nanoparticles using Trichoderma viride filtrate and their impact on Culex pipiens
  57. Photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes and biological potentials of biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the polar extract of Cyperus scariosus R.Br. (Cyperaceae)
  58. Assessment of antiproliferative activity of green-synthesized nickel oxide nanoparticles against glioblastoma cells using Terminalia chebula
  59. Chlorine-free synthesis of phosphinic derivatives by change in the P-function
  60. Anticancer, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities of nanoemulsions based on water-in-olive oil and loaded on biogenic silver nanoparticles
  61. Study and mechanism of formation of phosphorus production waste in Kazakhstan
  62. Synthesis and stabilization of anatase form of biomimetic TiO2 nanoparticles for enhancing anti-tumor potential
  63. Microwave-supported one-pot reaction for the synthesis of 5-alkyl/arylidene-2-(morpholin/thiomorpholin-4-yl)-1,3-thiazol-4(5H)-one derivatives over MgO solid base
  64. Screening the phytochemicals in Perilla leaves and phytosynthesis of bioactive silver nanoparticles for potential antioxidant and wound-healing application
  65. Graphene oxide/chitosan/manganese/folic acid-brucine functionalized nanocomposites show anticancer activity against liver cancer cells
  66. Nature of serpentinite interactions with low-concentration sulfuric acid solutions
  67. Multi-objective statistical optimisation utilising response surface methodology to predict engine performance using biofuels from waste plastic oil in CRDi engines
  68. Microwave-assisted extraction of acetosolv lignin from sugarcane bagasse and electrospinning of lignin/PEO nanofibres for carbon fibre production
  69. Biosynthesis, characterization, and investigation of cytotoxic activities of selenium nanoparticles utilizing Limosilactobacillus fermentum
  70. Highly photocatalytic materials based on the decoration of poly(O-chloroaniline) with molybdenum trichalcogenide oxide for green hydrogen generation from Red Sea water
  71. Highly efficient oil–water separation using superhydrophobic cellulose aerogels derived from corn straw
  72. Beta-cyclodextrin–Phyllanthus emblica emulsion for zinc oxide nanoparticles: Characteristics and photocatalysis
  73. Assessment of antimicrobial activity and methyl orange dye removal by Klebsiella pneumoniae-mediated silver nanoparticles
  74. Influential eradication of resistant Salmonella Typhimurium using bioactive nanocomposites from chitosan and radish seed-synthesized nanoselenium
  75. Antimicrobial activities and neuroprotective potential for Alzheimer’s disease of pure, Mn, Co, and Al-doped ZnO ultra-small nanoparticles
  76. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles from Bauhinia variegata and their biological applications
  77. Synthesis and optimization of long-chain fatty acids via the oxidation of long-chain fatty alcohols
  78. Eminent Red Sea water hydrogen generation via a Pb(ii)-iodide/poly(1H-pyrrole) nanocomposite photocathode
  79. Green synthesis and effective genistein production by fungal β-glucosidase immobilized on Al2O3 nanocrystals synthesized in Cajanus cajan L. (Millsp.) leaf extracts
  80. Green stability-indicating RP-HPTLC technique for determining croconazole hydrochloride
  81. Green synthesis of La2O3–LaPO4 nanocomposites using Charybdis natator for DNA binding, cytotoxic, catalytic, and luminescence applications
  82. Eco-friendly drugs induce cellular changes in colistin-resistant bacteria
  83. Tangerine fruit peel extract mediated biogenic synthesized silver nanoparticles and their potential antimicrobial, antioxidant, and cytotoxic assessments
  84. Green synthesis on performance characteristics of a direct injection diesel engine using sandbox seed oil
  85. A highly sensitive β-AKBA-Ag-based fluorescent “turn off” chemosensor for rapid detection of abamectin in tomatoes
  86. Green synthesis and physical characterization of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) derived from the methanol extract of Euphorbia dracunculoides Lam. (Euphorbiaceae) with enhanced biosafe applications
  87. Detection of morphine and data processing using surface plasmon resonance imaging sensor
  88. Effects of nanoparticles on the anaerobic digestion properties of sulfamethoxazole-containing chicken manure and analysis of bio-enzymes
  89. Bromic acid-thiourea synergistic leaching of sulfide gold ore
  90. Green chemistry approach to synthesize titanium dioxide nanoparticles using Fagonia Cretica extract, novel strategy for developing antimicrobial and antidiabetic therapies
  91. Green synthesis and effective utilization of biogenic Al2O3-nanocoupled fungal lipase in the resolution of active homochiral 2-octanol and its immobilization via aluminium oxide nanoparticles
  92. Eco-friendly RP-HPLC approach for simultaneously estimating the promising combination of pentoxifylline and simvastatin in therapeutic potential for breast cancer: Appraisal of greenness, whiteness, and Box–Behnken design
  93. Use of a humidity adsorbent derived from cockleshell waste in Thai fried fish crackers (Keropok)
  94. One-pot green synthesis, biological evaluation, and in silico study of pyrazole derivatives obtained from chalcones
  95. Bio-sorption of methylene blue and production of biofuel by brown alga Cystoseira sp. collected from Neom region, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
  96. Synthesis of motexafin gadolinium: A promising radiosensitizer and imaging agent for cancer therapy
  97. The impact of varying sizes of silver nanoparticles on the induction of cellular damage in Klebsiella pneumoniae involving diverse mechanisms
  98. Microwave-assisted green synthesis, characterization, and in vitro antibacterial activity of NiO nanoparticles obtained from lemon peel extract
  99. Rhus microphylla-mediated biosynthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles for enhanced antibacterial and antibiofilm efficacy
  100. Harnessing trichalcogenide–molybdenum(vi) sulfide and molybdenum(vi) oxide within poly(1-amino-2-mercaptobenzene) frameworks as a photocathode for sustainable green hydrogen production from seawater without sacrificial agents
  101. Magnetically recyclable Fe3O4@SiO2 supported phosphonium ionic liquids for efficient and sustainable transformation of CO2 into oxazolidinones
  102. A comparative study of Fagonia arabica fabricated silver sulfide nanoparticles (Ag2S) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) with distinct antimicrobial, anticancer, and antioxidant properties
  103. Visible light photocatalytic degradation and biological activities of Aegle marmelos-mediated cerium oxide nanoparticles
  104. Physical intrinsic characteristics of spheroidal particles in coal gasification fine slag
  105. Exploring the effect of tea dust magnetic biochar on agricultural crops grown in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contaminated soil
  106. Crosslinked chitosan-modified ultrafiltration membranes for efficient surface water treatment and enhanced anti-fouling performances
  107. Study on adsorption characteristics of biochars and their modified biochars for removal of organic dyes from aqueous solution
  108. Zein polymer nanocarrier for Ocimum basilicum var. purpurascens extract: Potential biomedical use
  109. Green synthesis, characterization, and in vitro and in vivo biological screening of iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe3O4) generated with hydroalcoholic extract of aerial parts of Euphorbia milii
  110. Novel microwave-based green approach for the synthesis of dual-loaded cyclodextrin nanosponges: Characterization, pharmacodynamics, and pharmacokinetics evaluation
  111. Bi2O3–BiOCl/poly-m-methyl aniline nanocomposite thin film for broad-spectrum light-sensing
  112. Green synthesis and characterization of CuO/ZnO nanocomposite using Musa acuminata leaf extract for cytotoxic studies on colorectal cancer cells (HCC2998)
  113. Review Articles
  114. Materials-based drug delivery approaches: Recent advances and future perspectives
  115. A review of thermal treatment for bamboo and its composites
  116. An overview of the role of nanoherbicides in tackling challenges of weed management in wheat: A novel approach
  117. An updated review on carbon nanomaterials: Types, synthesis, functionalization and applications, degradation and toxicity
  118. Special Issue: Emerging green nanomaterials for sustainable waste management and biomedical applications
  119. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using mature-pseudostem extracts of Alpinia nigra and their bioactivities
  120. Special Issue: New insights into nanopythotechnology: current trends and future prospects
  121. Green synthesis of FeO nanoparticles from coffee and its application for antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-oxidation activity
  122. Dye degradation activity of biogenically synthesized Cu/Fe/Ag trimetallic nanoparticles
  123. Special Issue: Composites and green composites
  124. Recent trends and advancements in the utilization of green composites and polymeric nanocarriers for enhancing food quality and sustainable processing
  125. Retraction
  126. Retraction of “Biosynthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles from Cedrela toona leaf extracts: An exploration into their antibacterial, anticancer, and antioxidant potential”
  127. Retraction of “Photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes and biological potentials of biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the polar extract of Cyperus scariosus R.Br. (Cyperaceae)”
  128. Retraction to “Green synthesis on performance characteristics of a direct injection diesel engine using sandbox seed oil”
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