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Antibacterial and dynamical behaviour of silicon nanoparticles influenced sustainable waste flax fibre-reinforced epoxy composite for biomedical application

  • L. Natrayan EMAIL logo , Fuad Ameen , Neelima Devi Chinta , Nalla Bhanu Teja , G. Muthu , S. Kaliappan , Saheb Ali and Ashiwin Vadiveloo
Published/Copyright: March 25, 2024
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Green Processing and Synthesis
From the journal Green Processing and Synthesis Volume 13 Issue 1

Abstract

This article explores the impact of nano-silica on the properties of woven flax fibre/epoxy composites. Using compression moulding, epoxy/flax/silica hybrid nanocomposites were produced. The nano-silica was dispersed in the epoxy matrix via ultrasonication at various weight ratios. A series of tests, including crack durability, dynamic mechanical analysis, and scanning electron microscopy, were conducted to evaluate the modified materials. Notably, a 3% nano-silica filler load resulted in a 54% and 57% improvement in initiation and transmission interfacial fracture toughness, respectively. Scanning electron microscope imaging confirmed that fibres pull out at the crack tip during initial debonding, accounting for the increased toughness. Dynamic mechanical analysis further revealed enhancements in mechanical properties. Moreover, the 3% nano-silica content led to less fibre pull-out, suggesting higher heat resistance than standard flax/epoxy composites. The material also demonstrated promising antimicrobial efficacy against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, offering a potential alternative to conventional antibiotics.

Keywords: polymer; antibacterial; mechanical properties; green composites; sustainable waste; nanomaterials

1 Introduction

Due to an increased ecological footprint and demand for producing eco-friendly materials, using organic resources to substitute fibreglass as reinforcing materials for geotechnical production has found favour in recent history. In 2006, the European Union used around 48,500 tonnes of organic materials as reinforcing materials. In 2012, it reached roughly 415,000 tons, accounting for 12% of overall reinforcing materials (glasses, graphite, and fibrous materials) in fibre-based composites [1]. By 2023, around 930,000 tonnes of organic fibre will be utilized, accounting for 26% of total reinforcing materials. By 2021, the US Departments of Agriculture and Energy established a target of producing at least 15% of all fundamental chemical construction blocks from sustainable and organic resources, growing to 50% by 2060. The rapid rise of bio-composites indicates they will be widely used as structural materials [2,3]. Low-density bio-fibres are cost-effective. These would be non-abrasive and recyclable. Furthermore, they are inexpensive, and their mechanical qualities are equivalent to synthetic fibres employed as reinforcements. One of the most extensively used bio-fibres is flax (Linum usitatissimum). Flax was among the earliest plants harvested, turned, and intertwined into fabrics. Flax was discovered in Egyptian burials reaching 6000 BC [4]. Natural flax fibres in Dzudzuana Cave (Georgia) demonstrate that primitive poachers were producing strands for hafting primitive tools, manufacturing buckets, or stitching clothes 35,000 years before. Cultivars include flax for fibre and flaxseed for kernel oil [5]. Since 1995, Canada has been the world’s leading flax grower and exporter. In 2006/2007, Canada produced over 1.42 million tonnes of flax, with 65% of its flaxseed exports going to the European Union (EU), 40% to the United States, and 5% to Japan. The Netherlands is also a major flax grower, with approximately 140,000 ha in production each year. The EU generated 322,000 tonnes of flax fibre in 2012. The climate in the region is ideal for cultivating flax, and the expanding global demand for linen makes it a valuable income crop [5,6].

In West Europe, flax has a short growing season, with only 3 months between seeding in February and harvest in June. Longer flax fibres that are delicate and uniform are frequently woven into linen yarns. Linen fabric retains a strong historical position amongst household textiles, like bed sheets, decorating fabrics, and home décor items. Cooking towels, sails, awnings, and canvases are made using thicker yarns from short flax strands. In automobile exterior substrates and furnishings, lesser fibre qualities are employed as reinforcement and fillers in polymers [7,8]. Their tension qualities are critical when contemplating flax fibres as reinforcements in fibre-reinforced composites. The samples impact the tension distortion of flax fibre, even though the fibres are grown in the same region, and the test settings are the same. Huang et al. used a universal MTS tension testing equipment with a 2 N capability strain gauge to test mono flax fibres. The cross-head movement rate was 10 mm·min−1, and the gauge length was 10 mm. They concluded that the tensile properties of the flax fibre were based on the stress fibre’s linear and non-linear parts and the wall cells’ thickness. Tension distortion of several malodorous flax fibres grown in the exact geographic location and on the same land in a moderate region. The malodorous flax cultivars investigated were Olivier, Alaskan, Agara, and Himalaya. The rearrangement of the lignocellulose precision in the orientation of the filament direction and shearing throughout stretchable stress might describe this behaviour [10]. A linear area of the stress–strain curve is observed for higher delamination, which is typical of Hooke’s law action. The authors’ findings all support the concept that the relationship between the axis and the filament has an important impression on the material features of flax fibres [9].

Biocomposites are mixtures that consist of multiple strands in a unified framework. Combinations could improve the mechanical characteristics of natural fibres and biodegradable polymers by tackling the flaws of different blends. The current practice in increasing biopolymers’ mechanical performance is utilizing reinforcement particles to alleviate the lack of attachment between the fibres and the matrix. Better substrate and chemicals combined with homogenous nanosuspension contributed to better tensile modulus. The different layers employed were both natural and inorganic nanofillers [10]. Most tests used manufactured additives such as ceramic particles, silicone granules, and cementite stones. Substitutes include coir fibre grains, quantitative cotton form, carbon black, and other organic nanoscale liners. One purpose of nanostructure would be to improve polymer-reinforcement adhesion [11]. Because nanoscale substances aim to form clusters in the matrices, employing nanoscale substances gives a regularly dispersed challenge in a biocomposite containing natural fibres with nanoparticle filler; moisture content decreases while mechanical performance increases. Solvers et al. [12] studied the structural properties of polymeric composites supplemented by coco-bunch fibre and aluminium oxide particles. Coco fibre with nanoparticles improves mechanical properties. Adeniyi et al. considered the mechanical and physical characteristics of Boer avia diffuse origin fibre-enhanced polymer composite material.

The compressive, bending, and electromagnetic characteristics of vakka organic fibre strengthened polyamide materials [13]. The hybrids were created by removing fibres through a time-consuming technique. In terms of compressive, bending, and electromagnetic properties, these composites are compared to other composites made under similar conditions, such as reed, sisal, and bananas. The rheological characteristics of a lightweight carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy matrix were investigated [16]. The study aimed to analyze the flow behavior and viscoelastic properties of this composite material under different conditions. The findings provide valuable insights into the processing and performance of the epoxy matrix when reinforced with carbon fibers [16]. Dynamic and static material behaviours of handwoven fibreglass polymeric materials. The dispersion of multi-walled carbon nanotubes with a lower aspect ratio improves the composite fatigue life. Fatigue also prevented the composite from breaking down [17]. The properties of tiny cellulose fibers and the connectivity of multiple-wall carbon nanotubes were examined to explore their relationship. This study aims to develop nano tube-coated natural fibers, which can be utilized as advanced textiles, showcasing a unique and excellent detection capacity [18]. Few researchers investigated how multi-walled nanotubes influenced nanostructures’ mechanical and physical characteristics impregnated with glass fibre. The experiment led to a significant improvement in mechanical properties [19]. This study uses a nanotube as a filler material. Nanotube dispersion in varying proportions was obtained using epoxy material. The composite was then filled with jute fibre to evaluate mechanical characteristics such as compressive properties, modulus of elasticity, and fracture toughness [14,15].

The emergence of antibiotic-resistant pathogens has become a serious health issue; thus, numerous studies have been reported to improve the current antimicrobial therapies. It is well known that more than 73% of bacterial illnesses are resistant to at least one of the antibiotics generally prescribed to treat the infection. The development of new and effective antimicrobial agents seems to be of paramount importance. The antimicrobial characteristics of metals, such as zinc (Zn), nano silicon, and flax/epoxy composite, each having various properties, potencies, and spectra of activity, have been recognized and used for centuries.

Understanding the various fracture properties of nanomaterials under steady and transient loads requires considerable effort. A novel aspect of this research work is to investigate the effect of nano-silica concentration on the flax fibre/epoxy nanocomposite. Fabricated composites were characterized by their tensile and fracture properties. Processes involving flax fibre multi-resolution structures are also discussed.

2 Experimental work

2.1 Materials

The multilayer composites were made with woven flax fibre and epoxy resin. The epoxy resin was chosen because it has a lower density, which is necessary for compression moulding. Dicyandiamide and fenuron are used as hardeners and accelerators. A fibre industry in Theni, Tamil Nādu, India, offered reinforcement and matrices. Carboxyl-functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes had external diameters of 9–15 nm and lengths of around 50 nm. The material was supplied by Naga Chemical Industries, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. The flax filament abstraction from the flax stem is shown in Figure 1. Graphene is very transparent, especially when compared to other filler particles, with a directional intensity of 0.78 mg·m−2. It also features the harshest and most challenging crystalline phase of any substance known to mankind. It has a tensile property of 128 GPa and a percentage of elongation of 1.2, which are significantly higher than the deformation of 210 GPa of common steel.

Figure 1 Flax filament abstraction from flax stem.
Figure 1

Flax filament abstraction from flax stem.

Since nano-silica has special qualities that improve the overall performance of the composite material, it was selected as a reinforcement for flax fibre/epoxy composites. Nano-silica’s high surface area, large aspect ratio, and outstanding mechanical strength increase stiffness and load-bearing capacity when included in the composite. Furthermore, because of its small particle size, it disperses more easily inside the epoxy matrix, improving the interfacial interaction with the flax fibres [16,17]. This better interaction at the nanoscale level leads to better resistance to environmental factors like moisture and better mechanical properties like modulus and tensile strength. In order to meet the specific requirements of the application, epoxy, flax fibre, and nano-silica are combined to create a lightweight, robust, and long-lasting composite material that has potential applications in the automobile and aerospace industries, among other sectors [18,19].

2.2 Preparation of nanocomposites

By integrating the matrix and additives, the nano-silica and thermosetting components were combined for 15 min using a structurally constant pumping method. Subsequently, the resulting slurry was dispersed into the lattice using Doppler ultrasound using a sonicator. Various weight ratios of nano-silica, expressed as weight percentages (1, 3, and 5 wt%), were utilized to fabricate the composite material. The nano-sized silica and thermosetting combination were placed in a glass dropper, subjected to physiologically constant stirring, and kept in an ultrasound bath set to pulse mode for 30 min. The nanoparticles were produced within a metal mould measuring 150 × 150 × 3 mm. To facilitate the easy removal of the composite laminate, beeswax was initially applied to the mould. The matrix multiplication involved a 10:1 resin-to-drying reagent ratio, supplemented with additives ranging from 1.5 to 4.5 g, all of identical dimensions. This mixture underwent repeated swirling for approximately 10 h to ensure thorough blending. In the manufacturing process, 40% of the mixture was initially removed from the mould, followed by the processed fibres, and then the remaining matrix. Material grids were evenly positioned along the three borders of the mould using a roll. The mould was subjected to a 10 kg tension to maintain laminating breadth and remove excess matrix, resulting in a 3 mm composite with limited dimensions. Following the curing of the lamination, each mould was placed in a 75°C heating element for 3 h. Subsequently, the laminate was separated into pieces and evaluated according to ASTM specifications, with the molecular composition of natural fibres detailed in Table 1.

Table 1

Chemical composition and mechanical properties of reinforcement and matrix [19,20]

Sl. No Properties Flax fibre Epoxy resin
1 Cellulose (%) 62.12–75.39 —
2 Hemi cellulose (%) 12.98–26.08 —
3 Lignin (%) 3.79–4.47 —
4 Density (g·cm−3) 2.4 1.12
5 Tensile strength (MPa) 526–1585 7–21
6 Young’s modulus (GPa) 48–79 0.63
7 Elongation (%) 1.9–2.3 1.8

2.3 Description of testing

2.3.1 Tension test

Tensile tests for nanomaterials were performed following ASTM D-638-03 utilizing a universal testing machine with a crossheading rapidity of 1 mm·min−1 at ambient temperature. Every factor was evaluated five times, with the mean values presented.

2.3.2 Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA)

The DMA investigation was performed using the RSA III equipment to regulate the compressibility and steps of the process. Flax fibre-reinforced laminate samples measuring 50 mm long, 6.5 mm wide, and 3 mm thick were evaluated in three-point bends at temperatures ranging from 45 to 200°C, with a temperature increase of 3°C per minute and a frequency of 1.0 Hz. The maximum of the tendency curves was used to calculate the phase transformation temperature of the nanocomposites.

2.3.3 Fracture toughness test

The magnitude of stress required to perpetuate a preconceived weakness is indicated by toughness. It is a critical quality characteristic because faults cannot be ignored during a component’s handling, manufacturing, or service. The debonding endurance of flax fibre-based laminated composites was measured using a double cantilever beam type I fractured sample (ASTM D 5528-01). The end block, double cantilever beam arm bend, and root rotational adjustments were considered. Universal mechanical testing apparatus was used to perform cantilever beam examinations. The minimum specimen size is 150 mm long and 20 mm wide, with a wall thickness of 50 mm.

2.3.4 Microstructural analysis

At the microscopic level, SEM was employed to investigate ruptured lightweight structures. To enhance the electrochemical performance of a blend, the sample has been laved and macerated, and the outer layer is covered with nanometres of precious metals before SEM clearness.

2.4 Antibacterial test

The infection-causing gram-positive bacteria like Staphylococcus aureus (MTCC-740) and Streptococcus mutans (MTCC-890) and gram-negative bacteria like Escherichia coli (MTCC 443) and Klebsiella pneumonia (MTCC 109) were maintained on nutrient broth flask that contained all the essential nutrients to inhibit the growth of microbes. The test bacterial suspensions (20 μl) containing 150 cells·ml−1 were spread out on nutrient agar plates. Freshly prepared flax/epoxy composite filled with nano-silicon sample was used in two ratios (LC – low concentration and HC – high concentrations) and added to the well. For comparison, we used standard antibiotics against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. The samples were first incubated for diffusion for 30 min at 4°C and then for the bacterial culture for 24 h at 37°C. Positive test results were scored when a zone of inhibition was observed around the well after incubation.

3 Result and discussions

3.1 Tensile behaviour of hybrid composites

Figure 2 shows the stress vs strain of tensile load on flax-based nanocomposites. The tensile properties of nanostructured materials and plain epoxy composites were studied to reinforce the advantages of nano-silica in the polymer matrix. Figure 3 shows the tensile strength of flax/nano-silica composites based on nano-silica weight proportions. Compared to plain epoxy composites, the nanocomposites showed improved tensile strength for 1% and 3% nanometre scale loading. The modulus of elasticity increased when 1%, 3%, and 5% nano-silica were added to the clean epoxy composite. The translational changes in the polymer–nano-silica contact polymers may be responsible for the increased strength and modulus of compatible nanomaterials [21]. Adding nano-sized silica particles to the composite matrix may make flax/epoxy/nano-silica hybrid composites stronger than flax/epoxy composites. Because nano-silica is a stiff and high-strength substance, it helps reinforce the composite’s overall framework. The addition of nano-silica improves the material’s tensile strength, increasing its capacity to support loads. The nano-silica nanoparticles also make it much easier for the flax fibres and the epoxy matrix to adhere together. This stronger bonding between the faces makes the fibres and matrix less likely to come loose. It also improves the overall mechanical properties by making it easier for stress to move from the matrix’s surface to the fibres [22]. Furthermore, the dispersed nature of silica particles at the nanoscale guarantees a more even distribution throughout the matrix, resulting in a more homogeneous and structurally sound composite. The higher tension strength seen in flax/epoxy/nano-silica hybrid composites compared to those with and without nano-silica is because of how these parts work together [23].

Figure 2 Stress vs strain of tensile load on flax-based nanocomposites.
Figure 2

Stress vs strain of tensile load on flax-based nanocomposites.

Figure 3 Tensile strength of flax/nano-silica composites based on nano-silica weight proportions.
Figure 3

Tensile strength of flax/nano-silica composites based on nano-silica weight proportions.

Figure 4 shows the modulus of elasticity of flax/nano-silica composites based on nano-silica weight proportions. The incorporation of certain polar functional groups to hybridize between the silica network via hydrophobic interactions and the oxygen-containing groups of silicate trigonal helps facilitate the growth of the gallery of strengthening nanolayers, causing an augmented interlayer spacing of piled nanosheets, which are then divided into nanolayers and distributed uniformly. The modulated signal epoxy’s miscibility with polar functional sets of nanomaterials and the epoxy matrices mediates among superficial properties of the polymers and the silica in the metaphase, contributing considerably to the improvement in strength seen in other compatible systems. The strength and values are reduced when 5% silica is added to plain epoxy composites [24]. The increasing proportion of low molecular weight oligomers in malleated epoxy is responsible for the lower strength as silica concentration increases.

Figure 4 Modulus of elasticity of flax/nano-silica composites based on nano-silica weight proportions.
Figure 4

Modulus of elasticity of flax/nano-silica composites based on nano-silica weight proportions.

3.2 Dynamic mechanical investigation

DMA was used to examine the influence of incorporating nano-silica into flax-based composites on the thermal–mechanical behaviour of the material at silica levels of 0, 1, 3, and 5 wt% based on the epoxy matrix. DMA results for flax/epoxy-based composites with various concentrations of silica are shown in Figure 5. Compared to plain epoxy, adding micro-silica increases storage modulus across the entire range of temperatures above transitory temperature. The elastic retention modulus of the epoxy/flax composite increases with silica addition of up to 3 wt%. Although increased silica under different loading conditions results in a slight fall in elasticity across the entire range of temperatures, the storage modulus improves under transitional heat for 3 wt% silica addition, while it improves above transient temperature for 1 wt%, which is 22% greater than plain epoxy. It can be understood by the nanoparticle’s strengthening action, which increases the rigidity of flax/epoxy composites [25]. Figure 5 illustrates how the insulator damage developed as a result of heat.

Figure 5 Storage modulus of flax/nano-silica composites at −10°C and 60.
Figure 5

Storage modulus of flax/nano-silica composites at −10°C and 60.

Including nano-silica raises the temperature of the trough while increasing its amplitude. The temperature rises to 13.25°C when 3 wt% silica is added. As reported earlier, silica/nanocomposite systems showed considerable variations in glass transition temperature once silica was introduced to the epoxy/flax composites. The rise in glass transition temperature might be related to a decrease in the motility of epoxy nanocomposite short chains due to the nanomaterial interactions. If the nanocrystals are well disseminated in the matrix, restricted chain movement is feasible. Therefore, the particles’ surface-to-surface connections should be moderately modest, and link section mobility may well be controlled. Nanomaterial adherence to the adjacent polymer matrices would also help the dynamic elasticity by limiting intermolecular interaction to a certain degree [26].

3.3 Fracture toughness properties

Toughness is a quality that describes how effectively a material can prevent or survive fracture development. The fracture toughness of tensile strength was evaluated, as shown in Figure 6. Depending on the loading condition, the composites responded differentially to nanofiller concentration. The composite’s toughness improved when the nanofiller concentration was increased, but its impact resistance decreased. The gradual decrease in load after the complete load–displacement graphs of the composites (Figure 6) demonstrates that fracture development was slow after the start. This observation was considerably more visible in polymers with filler reinforcement due to their flexibility [27].

Figure 6 Load vs displacement curve of fracture toughness based on nano-silica filler loading.
Figure 6

Load vs displacement curve of fracture toughness based on nano-silica filler loading.

Fracture formation in composites is a slow, continuous process under semi-conditions and low strain rates. Figure 6 depicts the static mechanical properties of flax fibre/resin composites. The tangential values of loss angles altered to an elevated temperature as the swelling capacity of composites containing nanotubes improved [28]. In all cases, the transition temperature increased to a more significant temperature and pressure after adding the nanotubes. These findings show that by adding more nanotubes to an epoxy composite, the mixture’s higher storage elasticity limits polymer segmental motion to some extent, decreasing the composite structure’s strength and flexibility [29,30,31]. According to this understanding, the fracture extended across the interfacial layer’s matrix material. The resin matrix had plenty of time to respond and change since the break spread slowly. As a result, the enhanced matrix modulus generated by the nano-filler fracture propagation is reduced [32]. The strengthening effect of nano-silica particles is responsible for the improved fracture toughness reported in flax/epoxy/nano-silica hybrid composites compared to flax/epoxy composites. Because of its small size and large surface area, nano-silica improves the chemical reactions between the epoxy matrix and the flax strands [33]. By strengthening and homogenizing the connection between the flax fibres and the epoxy resin, the inclusion of nano-silica contributes to improved mechanisms for load transmission and distribution of stresses in the combined material. Furthermore, nano-silica particles enhance the material’s mechanical features by serving as efficient reinforcing fillers [34]. They help the material become stronger and more rigid, improving its resistance to fracture. Because nano-silica has an impediment impact, absorbs energies throughout stretching, and promotes more flexible fracturing conduct, it helps prevent the onset and spread of cracks [35]. The results show that adding nano-silica to flax/epoxy materials strengthens them compared to those without it. It accomplishes this by improving the interface connection, the mechanical properties of the composite, and finally, the resistance to breaking [36].

3.4 Microstructural analysis

The morphology of composites directly affects mechanical properties, including strength, stiffness, and durability. The general efficiency of the composite is greatly influenced by the spatial distribution and configuration of reinforcement components inside the framework, as well as by the bonding between the surfaces that exist between them [37]. Comprehending these microstructural features is crucial to customizing materials with the intended mechanical characteristics [38]. A few essentials are responsible for the improved interfacial fracture toughness in flax-reinforced composites. Nano-silica was recognized using the rupture surface characteristics shown in Figure 7. A progressive morphology after the fibre/epoxy interaction delamination can be seen in the microscope for the fibre/Nano Silica composite after the pull-out shown in Figure 7(a). Large sections of the epoxy resin appear coated, indicating a decrease in debonding susceptibility. Because of the previously described pinned and fracture tip splitting, the hybrid flax composite samples with nanoparticles in the matrices often had a coarser matrix surface than those with plain epoxy, as shown in Figure 7(b)–(d). Two distinct features can be seen in the surface morphology of the flax/epoxy filled 3 wt% nano-silica that displays the maximum toughness values in Figure 7(c): first, a harsh geographic area that displays bolstered adherence, and second, a rough area in front of the tip of the fibre pull-out, where fibres could be seen drawn out or cracked without composite covering [39].

Figure 7 Microstructural images of flax/epoxy/nano-silica-based hybrid composites after tensile behaviour. (a) Fibre/Nano Silica dispersion, (b) Fibre surface after pull-out, (c) Voids and cracks in Nanocomposite, and (d) Flax/epoxy filled 3 wt% nano-silica good surface.
Figure 7

Microstructural images of flax/epoxy/nano-silica-based hybrid composites after tensile behaviour. (a) Fibre/Nano Silica dispersion, (b) Fibre surface after pull-out, (c) Voids and cracks in Nanocomposite, and (d) Flax/epoxy filled 3 wt% nano-silica good surface.

Because of the reinforcing effect caused by the distributed nanoparticle, the rough patches of the flax show a full link at the flax-epoxy boundary [40]. Fibres pulled out in front of the breakage area during the conditions of debonding, which might be caused by fibre content interactions and fibre–fibre contact. Because of the reinforcement–matrix interface, many fibres broke at the surface defects, absorbing a significant amount of fracturing energy [41]. At high silica concentrations, the variable region and lattice distortion among fibres were more widespread and profound, as shown in Figure 7(d). Still, quasi-static toughness increased somewhat because the nano-silica cumulations were disposed to get bigger in dimensions with increased silica concentrations [42]. This finding implies that nanocomposites with a modest silica concentration already have a substantial upsurge in quasi-static cracking stoutness and that increasing silica levels do not support additional advancements. If the agglomeration particles are too big, they may be more readily fragmented without creating a barricade for holding and divergence of progressing fractures [43]. The qualities seen to improve with the addition of nano-silica can be attributed to many causes. First, better load transmission and general durability result from the increased surface area of nano-silica, improving matrix–filler interactions [44]. Furthermore, the small size of the nano-silica particles facilitates better substrate distribution, lowering agglomerates and boosting uniformity. In addition to increasing surface roughness, the nanoscale dimensions also help to improve the bond between the matrix of minerals and the nano-silica. These combined effects increase mechanical qualities, including rigidity, strength, and toughness, which makes nano-silica an advantageous addition to material composites [45].

3.5 Antibacterial action

The flax/epoxy composite filled with nano-silicon displayed antibacterial activity against the tested gram-positive bacterial strains of S. aureus (HC, 21 ± 0.564) and S. mutans (HC, 22 ± 0.562) and gram-negative strains E. coli (HC, 19 ± 0.849) and K. pneumoniae (HC, 18 ± 0.689), as shown in Figure 8 and measured in Table 2. S. mutans depicted the highest sensitivity to flax/epoxy composite filled with nano-silicon compared to the other strains. The composite between the inhibition zone seen in the disc diffusion test had a more detrimental effect on them [46]. The antibacterial characteristics of composites are frequently ascribed to several processes, including addition of nano-silica particles. Due to their ability to damage bacterial cell membranes and interfere with their metabolic activities, these nanoparticles may possess innate antibacterial properties. Furthermore, because nano-silica has a larger surface area than other materials, it can make better contact with bacteria, strengthening the antibacterial response. An important part of the composite design is the relationship between antibacterial effectiveness and nano-silica concentration [47]. Antimicrobial activity is often enhanced because more potent antibacterial agents are present at higher nano-silica levels. Finding a balance is crucial since very high quantities might harm the composite’s mechanical qualities or raise possible toxicity issues. In order to achieve the intended antibacterial properties while preserving the general strength of the composite substance, it is imperative to optimize the nano-silica concentration [48].

Figure 8 Well diffusion assay for flax/epoxy composite filled with nano-silicon against microbial strains (A = standard antibiotics, B = low concentration, and C = high concentration): (a) S. aureus; (b) S. mutans; (c) E. coli; and (d) K. pneumoniae.
Figure 8

Well diffusion assay for flax/epoxy composite filled with nano-silicon against microbial strains (A = standard antibiotics, B = low concentration, and C = high concentration): (a) S. aureus; (b) S. mutans; (c) E. coli; and (d) K. pneumoniae.

Table 2

Measurement zone against different gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria measured in MM measurement

S. aureus S. mutans E. coli K. pneumoniae
A B C A B C A B C A B C
13 14 21 15 17 22 15 12 19 14 17 18

4 Conclusion and potential applications

This experiment examined the influence of nano-silica on the bonding strength between plain woven flax fibre and blended epoxy. The study focused on the experimental assessment of the flax/epoxy/nano-silica composite’s dynamical microstructural and mechanical toughness characteristics.

  • The results show that a 3 wt% nano-silica concentration improves commencement and propagating interfacial fracture toughness by approximately 54% and 57%, respectively. The strengthening actions of nano-silica are responsible for the increased toughness of flax/epoxy composites.

  • SEM micrographs revealed rather rough regions, indicating a high level of debonding susceptibility. When 3 wt% nano-silica was added to a clean flax/epoxy composite, the glass transition temperature rose by about 7.5°C, indicating improved heat tolerance.

  • According to this research, the fracture extended across the interfacial layer’s matrix material. The resin matrix had plenty of time to react and deform since the break spread slowly. As a result of the enhanced matrix modulus generated by the nanofiller, fracture propagation is reduced.

  • Depending on the loading condition, the composites responded differentially to the nanofiller concentration. The composite’s toughness improved when the nanofiller concentration was increased, but its impact resistance decreased.

  • Flax/epoxy composite filled with nano-silicon showed noted antimicrobial activity against four bacterial strains.

The results of this study offer new composites with distinctive features and functions, greatly advancing the field of material science for medical use. The study discusses these composites’ mechanical strength, biological compatibility, and the possibility of controlled drug administration. It also discusses how they can be made and characterized to fit your demands. As the study found, adding particular biomolecules or nanoparticles to the composite matrix creates new possibilities to improve the material’s ability to interact with biological systems. The customized qualities of these composites may facilitate cell proliferation and regeneration of tissue, which has potential uses in tissue engineering. Furthermore, the composites' controlled dissolution properties make them attractive options for pharmaceutical delivery systems, as they provide a platform for the targeted and prolonged release of therapeutic substances. The results of the study, therefore, open the door for developments in the field of biological materials, which may find use in medication delivery, regenerative medicine, and other medical fields, which will eventually contribute to better outcomes for patients and medical treatments.

Acknowledgments

This research was funded by Researchers Supporting Project (No. RSP2024R364), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  1. Funding information: This research was funded by Researchers Supporting Project (No. RSP2024R364), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  2. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  3. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2023-10-22
Accepted: 2024-02-20
Published Online: 2024-03-25

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  125. Retraction
  126. Retraction of “Biosynthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles from Cedrela toona leaf extracts: An exploration into their antibacterial, anticancer, and antioxidant potential”
  127. Retraction of “Photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes and biological potentials of biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the polar extract of Cyperus scariosus R.Br. (Cyperaceae)”
  128. Retraction to “Green synthesis on performance characteristics of a direct injection diesel engine using sandbox seed oil”
https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2023-0214
Keywords for this article
polymer; antibacterial; mechanical properties; green composites; sustainable waste; nanomaterials
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Green polymer electrolyte and activated charcoal-based supercapacitor for energy harvesting application: Electrochemical characteristics
  3. Research on the adsorption of Co2+ ions using halloysite clay and the ability to recover them by electrodeposition method
  4. Simultaneous estimation of ibuprofen, caffeine, and paracetamol in commercial products using a green reverse-phase HPTLC method
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  17. Exploring the antimicrobial potential of biogenically synthesized graphene oxide nanoparticles against targeted bacterial and fungal pathogens
  18. Biofabrication of silver nanoparticles using Uncaria tomentosa L.: Insight into characterization, antibacterial activities combined with antibiotics, and effect on Triticum aestivum germination
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  22. Estimation of greenhouse gas emissions from rice and annual upland crops in Red River Delta of Vietnam using the denitrification–decomposition model
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  34. Enhancement efficacy of omeprazole by conjugation with silver nanoparticles as a urease inhibitor
  35. Residual, sequential extraction, and ecological risk assessment of some metals in ash from municipal solid waste incineration, Vietnam
  36. Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using the mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) leaf extract: Comparative preliminary in vitro antibacterial study
  37. Simultaneous determination of lesinurad and febuxostat in commercial fixed-dose combinations using a greener normal-phase HPTLC method
  38. A greener RP-HPLC method for quaternary estimation of caffeine, paracetamol, levocetirizine, and phenylephrine acquiring AQbD with stability studies
  39. Optimization of biomass durian peel as a heterogeneous catalyst in biodiesel production using microwave irradiation
  40. Thermal treatment impact on the evolution of active phases in layered double hydroxide-based ZnCr photocatalysts: Photodegradation and antibacterial performance
  41. Preparation of silymarin-loaded zein polysaccharide core–shell nanostructures and evaluation of their biological potentials
  42. Preparation and characterization of composite-modified PA6 fiber for spectral heating and heat storage applications
  43. Preparation and electrocatalytic oxygen evolution of bimetallic phosphates (NiFe)2P/NF
  44. Rod-shaped Mo(vi) trichalcogenide–Mo(vi) oxide decorated on poly(1-H pyrrole) as a promising nanocomposite photoelectrode for green hydrogen generation from sewage water with high efficiency
  45. Green synthesis and studies on citrus medica leaf extract-mediated Au–ZnO nanocomposites: A sustainable approach for efficient photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B dye in aqueous media
  46. Cellulosic materials for the removal of ciprofloxacin from aqueous environments
  47. The analytical assessment of metal contamination in industrial soils of Saudi Arabia using the inductively coupled plasma technology
  48. The effect of modified oily sludge on the slurry ability and combustion performance of coal water slurry
  49. Eggshell waste transformation to calcium chloride anhydride as food-grade additive and eggshell membranes as enzyme immobilization carrier
  50. Synthesis of EPAN and applications in the encapsulation of potassium humate
  51. Biosynthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles from Cedrela toona leaf extracts: An exploration into their antibacterial, anticancer, and antioxidant potential
  52. Enhancing mechanical and rheological properties of HDPE films through annealing for eco-friendly agricultural applications
  53. Immobilisation of catalase purified from mushroom (Hydnum repandum) onto glutaraldehyde-activated chitosan and characterisation: Its application for the removal of hydrogen peroxide from artificial wastewater
  54. Sodium titanium oxide/zinc oxide (STO/ZnO) photocomposites for efficient dye degradation applications
  55. Effect of ex situ, eco-friendly ZnONPs incorporating green synthesised Moringa oleifera leaf extract in enhancing biochemical and molecular aspects of Vicia faba L. under salt stress
  56. Biosynthesis and characterization of selenium and silver nanoparticles using Trichoderma viride filtrate and their impact on Culex pipiens
  57. Photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes and biological potentials of biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the polar extract of Cyperus scariosus R.Br. (Cyperaceae)
  58. Assessment of antiproliferative activity of green-synthesized nickel oxide nanoparticles against glioblastoma cells using Terminalia chebula
  59. Chlorine-free synthesis of phosphinic derivatives by change in the P-function
  60. Anticancer, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities of nanoemulsions based on water-in-olive oil and loaded on biogenic silver nanoparticles
  61. Study and mechanism of formation of phosphorus production waste in Kazakhstan
  62. Synthesis and stabilization of anatase form of biomimetic TiO2 nanoparticles for enhancing anti-tumor potential
  63. Microwave-supported one-pot reaction for the synthesis of 5-alkyl/arylidene-2-(morpholin/thiomorpholin-4-yl)-1,3-thiazol-4(5H)-one derivatives over MgO solid base
  64. Screening the phytochemicals in Perilla leaves and phytosynthesis of bioactive silver nanoparticles for potential antioxidant and wound-healing application
  65. Graphene oxide/chitosan/manganese/folic acid-brucine functionalized nanocomposites show anticancer activity against liver cancer cells
  66. Nature of serpentinite interactions with low-concentration sulfuric acid solutions
  67. Multi-objective statistical optimisation utilising response surface methodology to predict engine performance using biofuels from waste plastic oil in CRDi engines
  68. Microwave-assisted extraction of acetosolv lignin from sugarcane bagasse and electrospinning of lignin/PEO nanofibres for carbon fibre production
  69. Biosynthesis, characterization, and investigation of cytotoxic activities of selenium nanoparticles utilizing Limosilactobacillus fermentum
  70. Highly photocatalytic materials based on the decoration of poly(O-chloroaniline) with molybdenum trichalcogenide oxide for green hydrogen generation from Red Sea water
  71. Highly efficient oil–water separation using superhydrophobic cellulose aerogels derived from corn straw
  72. Beta-cyclodextrin–Phyllanthus emblica emulsion for zinc oxide nanoparticles: Characteristics and photocatalysis
  73. Assessment of antimicrobial activity and methyl orange dye removal by Klebsiella pneumoniae-mediated silver nanoparticles
  74. Influential eradication of resistant Salmonella Typhimurium using bioactive nanocomposites from chitosan and radish seed-synthesized nanoselenium
  75. Antimicrobial activities and neuroprotective potential for Alzheimer’s disease of pure, Mn, Co, and Al-doped ZnO ultra-small nanoparticles
  76. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles from Bauhinia variegata and their biological applications
  77. Synthesis and optimization of long-chain fatty acids via the oxidation of long-chain fatty alcohols
  78. Eminent Red Sea water hydrogen generation via a Pb(ii)-iodide/poly(1H-pyrrole) nanocomposite photocathode
  79. Green synthesis and effective genistein production by fungal β-glucosidase immobilized on Al2O3 nanocrystals synthesized in Cajanus cajan L. (Millsp.) leaf extracts
  80. Green stability-indicating RP-HPTLC technique for determining croconazole hydrochloride
  81. Green synthesis of La2O3–LaPO4 nanocomposites using Charybdis natator for DNA binding, cytotoxic, catalytic, and luminescence applications
  82. Eco-friendly drugs induce cellular changes in colistin-resistant bacteria
  83. Tangerine fruit peel extract mediated biogenic synthesized silver nanoparticles and their potential antimicrobial, antioxidant, and cytotoxic assessments
  84. Green synthesis on performance characteristics of a direct injection diesel engine using sandbox seed oil
  85. A highly sensitive β-AKBA-Ag-based fluorescent “turn off” chemosensor for rapid detection of abamectin in tomatoes
  86. Green synthesis and physical characterization of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) derived from the methanol extract of Euphorbia dracunculoides Lam. (Euphorbiaceae) with enhanced biosafe applications
  87. Detection of morphine and data processing using surface plasmon resonance imaging sensor
  88. Effects of nanoparticles on the anaerobic digestion properties of sulfamethoxazole-containing chicken manure and analysis of bio-enzymes
  89. Bromic acid-thiourea synergistic leaching of sulfide gold ore
  90. Green chemistry approach to synthesize titanium dioxide nanoparticles using Fagonia Cretica extract, novel strategy for developing antimicrobial and antidiabetic therapies
  91. Green synthesis and effective utilization of biogenic Al2O3-nanocoupled fungal lipase in the resolution of active homochiral 2-octanol and its immobilization via aluminium oxide nanoparticles
  92. Eco-friendly RP-HPLC approach for simultaneously estimating the promising combination of pentoxifylline and simvastatin in therapeutic potential for breast cancer: Appraisal of greenness, whiteness, and Box–Behnken design
  93. Use of a humidity adsorbent derived from cockleshell waste in Thai fried fish crackers (Keropok)
  94. One-pot green synthesis, biological evaluation, and in silico study of pyrazole derivatives obtained from chalcones
  95. Bio-sorption of methylene blue and production of biofuel by brown alga Cystoseira sp. collected from Neom region, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
  96. Synthesis of motexafin gadolinium: A promising radiosensitizer and imaging agent for cancer therapy
  97. The impact of varying sizes of silver nanoparticles on the induction of cellular damage in Klebsiella pneumoniae involving diverse mechanisms
  98. Microwave-assisted green synthesis, characterization, and in vitro antibacterial activity of NiO nanoparticles obtained from lemon peel extract
  99. Rhus microphylla-mediated biosynthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles for enhanced antibacterial and antibiofilm efficacy
  100. Harnessing trichalcogenide–molybdenum(vi) sulfide and molybdenum(vi) oxide within poly(1-amino-2-mercaptobenzene) frameworks as a photocathode for sustainable green hydrogen production from seawater without sacrificial agents
  101. Magnetically recyclable Fe3O4@SiO2 supported phosphonium ionic liquids for efficient and sustainable transformation of CO2 into oxazolidinones
  102. A comparative study of Fagonia arabica fabricated silver sulfide nanoparticles (Ag2S) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) with distinct antimicrobial, anticancer, and antioxidant properties
  103. Visible light photocatalytic degradation and biological activities of Aegle marmelos-mediated cerium oxide nanoparticles
  104. Physical intrinsic characteristics of spheroidal particles in coal gasification fine slag
  105. Exploring the effect of tea dust magnetic biochar on agricultural crops grown in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contaminated soil
  106. Crosslinked chitosan-modified ultrafiltration membranes for efficient surface water treatment and enhanced anti-fouling performances
  107. Study on adsorption characteristics of biochars and their modified biochars for removal of organic dyes from aqueous solution
  108. Zein polymer nanocarrier for Ocimum basilicum var. purpurascens extract: Potential biomedical use
  109. Green synthesis, characterization, and in vitro and in vivo biological screening of iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe3O4) generated with hydroalcoholic extract of aerial parts of Euphorbia milii
  110. Novel microwave-based green approach for the synthesis of dual-loaded cyclodextrin nanosponges: Characterization, pharmacodynamics, and pharmacokinetics evaluation
  111. Bi2O3–BiOCl/poly-m-methyl aniline nanocomposite thin film for broad-spectrum light-sensing
  112. Green synthesis and characterization of CuO/ZnO nanocomposite using Musa acuminata leaf extract for cytotoxic studies on colorectal cancer cells (HCC2998)
  113. Review Articles
  114. Materials-based drug delivery approaches: Recent advances and future perspectives
  115. A review of thermal treatment for bamboo and its composites
  116. An overview of the role of nanoherbicides in tackling challenges of weed management in wheat: A novel approach
  117. An updated review on carbon nanomaterials: Types, synthesis, functionalization and applications, degradation and toxicity
  118. Special Issue: Emerging green nanomaterials for sustainable waste management and biomedical applications
  119. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using mature-pseudostem extracts of Alpinia nigra and their bioactivities
  120. Special Issue: New insights into nanopythotechnology: current trends and future prospects
  121. Green synthesis of FeO nanoparticles from coffee and its application for antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-oxidation activity
  122. Dye degradation activity of biogenically synthesized Cu/Fe/Ag trimetallic nanoparticles
  123. Special Issue: Composites and green composites
  124. Recent trends and advancements in the utilization of green composites and polymeric nanocarriers for enhancing food quality and sustainable processing
  125. Retraction
  126. Retraction of “Biosynthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles from Cedrela toona leaf extracts: An exploration into their antibacterial, anticancer, and antioxidant potential”
  127. Retraction of “Photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes and biological potentials of biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the polar extract of Cyperus scariosus R.Br. (Cyperaceae)”
  128. Retraction to “Green synthesis on performance characteristics of a direct injection diesel engine using sandbox seed oil”
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