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Assessment of antiproliferative activity of green-synthesized nickel oxide nanoparticles against glioblastoma cells using Terminalia chebula

  • Sui Long , Lu Hui , Dou Yanli , Zhang Dongdong , Du Feixiong and Wang Weibing EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: June 15, 2024
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Green Processing and Synthesis
From the journal Green Processing and Synthesis Volume 13 Issue 1

Abstract

The present study investigates the effect of nickel oxide nanoparticles (NiO-NPs) on C6 glioma cells and develops a method for preparing NiO. Plant-based materials (leaf extract) can produce NPs efficiently and economically. Therefore, we developed NiO-NPs from Terminalia chebula leaf extract to reduce C6 glioblastoma cell proliferation. The structural, optical, and antimicrobial properties of NiO-NPs were investigated. 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assays, Acridine orange/ethidium bromide dual staining, Hoechst 33342, and Rh123 staining were used to evaluate nuclear changes and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) in C6 glioblastoma cells. X-ray diffraction analyses revealed the cubic structures of the synthesized NiO-NPs, field emission scanning electron microscope analysis revealed polygonal NiO-NPs and an energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer confirmed the high purity of the synthesized NiO-NPs. V. cholera, S. pneumonia, S. aureus, B. subtilis, P. aeruginosa, K. pneumonia, and C. albicans were sensitive to NiO-NPs. When NiO-NPs were applied at lower concentrations to rat glioblastoma C6 cells, they dose-dependently inhibited viability and induced apoptosis. Our findings show that NiO-NPs exhibit altered MMP and nuclear integrity. In this study, NiO-NPs were synthesized using T. chebula leaf extract, which has antiproliferative properties, and NiO-NPs increased cell cytotoxicity in C6 cells. Further exploration of NiO-NPs in glioblastoma animal models should be investigated.

Keywords: green synthesis; Terminalia chebula ; NiO-NPs; antibacterial; antifungal activity; anticancer activity

1 Introduction

Glioblastomas – primary malignant tumors of the central nervous system (CNS) – account for 46.1% of all brain and spinal cord cancers in the United States [1]. Current treatment techniques for glioblastomas include surgery, high-dose radiation after surgery, and chemotherapy, all of which are highly aggressive neoplasms of the CNS. Despite advances in conventional glioma therapy, the proper medications for these cancers are unavailable. Penetration and resistance are critical factors that affect treatment [2]. An estimated 3.2 glioblastoma cases occur per 100,000 people worldwide [3]. Glioblastoma is treated with surgery, radiotherapy, and bevacizumab, an antiangiogenic drug. Most glioblastoma patients die from local recurrence over 5 years if they do not receive the aforementioned treatments. The survival rate for patients receiving these treatments is 5%, whereas the survival rate for those without these treatments is only 15 months [4].

This lower survival rate is due to the infiltrative viability of glioblastomas, which makes surgical removal of the initial tumors challenging. Furthermore, glioblastomas have developed drug-resistant mechanisms, diminishing the efficacy of chemotherapy despite the successful delivery of chemotherapy drugs [5]. Furthermore, the blood–brain barrier (BBB) stops chemotherapy drugs from entering the brain. Developing novel therapeutic strategies and improving current treatment modalities is essential to improve clinical outcomes in glioblastoma patients [6]. Despite recent improvements in glioblastoma treatments, the BBB and the inherent drug resistance of this cancer severely undermine their efficacy. Studies have shown that the local recurrence of glioblastoma and poor prognosis significantly reduce the efficacy of chemotherapeutic or bioactive agents [7].

Bacterial infections are serious health issues for living organisms. Bacteria multiply everywhere and are responsible for substantial morbidity and mortality [8]. Bacteria can survive and cause infections because of environmental factors, such as molarity, toxins, temperature, radiation, and lack of nutrition. Antibiotic resistance is becoming a clinical and public health concern worldwide. Ineffective antibacterial drug development strategies and antibiotic indiscriminate use are the primary causes of microbial resistance. Furthermore, antimicrobial-resistant bacteria are expected to reach epidemic proportions by 2050, killing approximately 10 million people [9]. Nanotechnology advancements in recent years have resulted in the development of various metal oxides, such as ZnO, TiO2, and SnO2 NPs. These metal oxides are potential antibacterial agents [10,11]. Nanoparticles (NPs) are considered more effective antimicrobial agents than their bulk form against drug-resistant pathogens because of their size and bioactivity [12].

Nickel oxide (NiO) is a potential metal oxide with a bandgap of 3.6–4.0 eV that belongs to p-semiconducting NPs [13]. As photocatalysts, magnetic resources, and antibacterial and anticancer agents, NiO nanoparticles (NiO-NPs) exhibit significant electrical, optical, and magnetic properties. Furthermore, the low toxicity, low cost, and biocompatibility of NiO-NP make it an ideal material for biomedical applications. NiO-NPs are antimicrobial agents against bacterial and fungal pathogens. Clitoria ternatea flower extract-mediated NiO-NP synthesis, according to Prabu et al., exhibits significant resistance to E. coli [14]. Antimicrobial activity was enhanced compared with NiO-NPs when Murraya koenigii leaf extracts were tested against bacterial strains [15]. Thirbika et al. demonstrated that Cymbopogon citratus assisted NiO-NP biosynthesis against bacterial strains [16]. Khodair et al. reported that NiO@Glu/TSC exhibited potent cytotoxicity against MCF-7 cell lines, whereas no significant toxicity was evaluated in HEK293 cells [17].

In the last few decades, NiO-NPs have been prepared through diverse methods, such as co-precipitation [18], sol–gel [19], hydrothermal [20], and solvothermal [21]. Plant-based reducing agents could make NPs because they are not hazardous and inexpensive. Plant extracts, which are “natural factories for essential chemical molecules” with enormous stores of metabolites they produce, are used as a reducing and capping agent in forming metal oxides because they do not involve dangerous chemicals. T. Chebula Retz., also known as the King of Medicine, is the only plant in the Combretaceae family that contains active ingredients, such as amino acids, chebulic acid, corilagin, gallic acid, ellagic acid, chebulinic acid, flavonoids, chebulagic acid, and sterols [22]. The T. chebula Retz. extract has antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral properties [23].

NPs synthesized through physical and chemical methods typically involve high voltage, elevated temperatures, expensive reagents, sophisticated equipment, and toxic solvents. These processes can produce hazardous residues, raising environmental and human safety and health concerns. Numerous synthesis techniques have been developed for creating new nanomaterials in recent years. These methods include the sol–gel route, solvothermal synthesis, hydrothermal process, chemical vapor deposition approach, electro-deposition, direct oxidation, and green synthesis. However, the imperative to mitigate the harmful effects of many chemical processes has led to growing support for green synthesis routes [24,25]. There is a pressing need for procedures that utilize biologically safe, ecologically friendly, and economically accessible pathways while minimizing or eliminating the higher costs and environmentally detrimental consequences associated with commonly used synthetic approaches. By reducing and potentially preventing harmful environmental effects, green technology holds immense appeal for numerous real-world applications. Phyto-nanotechnology, which harnesses extracts from various plant parts (such as roots, leaves, barks, and fruits), has gained substantial attention from bacteria, viruses, algae, fungi, and other sources [26,27].

We hypothesize the characterization of green-synthesized NiO-NPs using structural, morphological, and optical parameters, and we examine their anticancer and antimicrobial properties on C6 glioma cells. Among the main goals of the study is the development of a green synthesizing process for NiO-NPs from Terminalia chebula leaf extract that is simple, fast, high-yielding, easily scalable, eco-friendly, and cost-effective, enabling the control of glioma cells that develop from the brain and spinal cord.

2 Experimental methods

2.1 T. chebula leaf extract preparation method

The extract was distilled from 10 g fresh T. chebula leaves that had been washed with tap water. This action was taken to get rid of dust and other unknown particles. The distilled extract was soaked in 100 mL of double-distilled water. The leaf extract solution was then boiled for 20 min at 80°C with a magnetic stirrer before being filtered through Whatman No. 1 filter paper and stored at 25°C for future preparations.

2.2 An eco-friendly method for synthesizing NiO-NPs

Approximately 100 mL of T. chebula leaf aqueous extract was mixed with 0.1 M nickel nitrate hexahydrate solution. We magnetically stirred it for 4 h on a hot plate at 80°C. We let the solution cool to room temperature. We centrifuged it for 15 min at 8,000 rpm and dried the nanopowder for 2 h at 120°C. Before characterizing the results, we annealed the NiO-NPs in the atmosphere for 5 h at 800°C.

2.3 Molecular characterization of NiO-NPs

X-ray diffraction (XRD) was used to characterize NiO-NPs, with diffraction patterns recorded in the 20°–80° range. The NPs were examined with a field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) and an energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDAX). A transmission electron microscope (TEM) was used to study the NiO-NP morphology. The NanoPlus instrument measured dynamic light scattering of particles, UV-Vis spectral analysis was performed, and a Perkin–Elmer spectrometer recorded Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra in the 400–4,000 cm−1 range. Photoluminescence (PL) was measured at room temperature with a luminescence spectrophotometer and a Xenon lamp following Elderdery et al.’s protocol [28].

2.4 Assay for 2,2-diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging by NiO-NPs

The DPPH method assessed antioxidant activity by combining DPPH with the NiO-NP solution. Absorbance at 517 nm was measured using a UV-visible spectrophotometer, according to Biswas et al. [29].

The following formula was used to calculate antioxidant inhibition to estimate antioxidant activity:

(1) ( Control absorbance ( OD ) − Sample absorbance ( OD ) ) / Control absorbance ( OD ) × 100

2.5 Antimicrobial activity of NiO-NPs

NiO-NPs demonstrated antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial and fungal strains using the well diffusion method, following previous protocols [28,30].

2.6 Cell culture

We used Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium, a complete medium containing high glucose, pyruvate, 100 IU·mL−1 penicillin, 10% fetal bovine serum, and 100 g·mL−1 streptomycin for the culture of rat glioma cells (C6), and normal mouse fibroblasts (3T3). The cells were maintained at room temperature with CO2 and 5% humidity.

2.7 Antiproliferation assay

3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-Diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) was used as an indicator chemical to determine the cytotoxicity of NiO-NPs. C6 and 3T3 cells were cultured and treated with different concentrations of NiO-NPs (2, 4, 16, 32, 64, 128, and 256 g·mL−1) for 24, 48, and 72 h, washed thrice, and treated with MTT solution after 4 h. Absorbance at 595 nm was measured using a UV spectrophotometer. Cell viability was determined by counting the total number of viable cells based on a previous protocol [31].

2.8 Analyzing nuclear fragmentation at a microscopic level

C6 cells were cultured in six-well culture dishes for 48 h before incubation with various IC25 and IC50 concentrations of NiO-NPs and an additional 48 h to examine nuclear fragmentation as a hallmark of apoptotic cell death. In the next step, the cells were carefully washed with HEPES-buffered saline (pH 7.35) and stained for 15 min with 100 µm Hoechst 33258. After washing the cells with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), they were photographed using the ZOE Fluorescent Cell Imager (BioRad, USA).

2.9 Under a microscope, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) is measured

Disruption of MMP triggers apoptosis in cells. The cells were grown in six-well plates for 48 h before adding NiO-NPs (concentrations of IC25 and IC50). Rhodamine 123 (3 mM) was used to stain mitochondria after washing. After washing the cells in PBS, they were photographed using the ZOE Fluorescent Cell Imager (BioRad, USA).

2.10 Statistical analysis

An analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by an unpaired t-test was used for statistical analysis. Statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS 17.0 software. In each experiment and assay, three replications were conducted (n = 3). The means of the three values are reported.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 UV-visible, FTIR, and PL spectral properties of NiO-NPs

Figure 1 illustrates the XRD patterns of green-produced NiO-NPs. The XRD pattern of the NiO-NPs revealed peaks at 2ϴ = 37.26°, 43.30°, 62.87°, 75.36°, and 79.42°, corresponding to cubic crystal structures (1 1 1), (2 0 0), (2 2 0), (3 1 1), and (2 2 2), respectively. Thus, NiO (JCPDS map number 04-0835) was well organized [32]. The NPs were characterized by their crystalline nature based on the intensity and narrow width of their diffraction peaks. Their average crystallite size was calculated using the Debye-Scherrer formula [33]. The NiO NPs had an average crystallite size of 42.90 nm. As shown in Figure 1b, DLS analysis was used to determine the hydrodynamic size of the green synthesized NiO-NPs and to estimate the concentrations and sizes of the NPs. The NiO-NPs had an average size of 50 nm in suspension and a size distribution of 10–100 nm.

Figure 1 XRD pattern of a NiO-NPs (a). Number-weighted particle size distribution obtained using DLS (b).
Figure 1

XRD pattern of a NiO-NPs (a). Number-weighted particle size distribution obtained using DLS (b).

The surface shape and particle size of the green-produced NiO-NPs were investigated using FESEM and TEM, as shown in Figures 2a and b. The FESEM results demonstrated that NiO-NPs were uniformly distributed. The NiO-NPs had a spherical (polygonal) structure and were aggregated into medium grains with nonuniform structures and particle sizes of 40–50 nm with a PDI value of 0.27–0.32. EDAX analysis revealed that Ni and O atomic percentages in NiO-NPs were 42.52% and 57.48%, respectively (Figure 2c), confirming that the fabricated NiO-NPs are of high purity as no other impurity peaks were found in the NiO surface matrix (Figure 2c).

Figure 2 FESEM and TEM micrographics of the NiO-NPs: FESEM magnification of surface (a), TEM (b), elements, weight %, and atomic % of the composition obtained using EDAX (c).
Figure 2

FESEM and TEM micrographics of the NiO-NPs: FESEM magnification of surface (a), TEM (b), elements, weight %, and atomic % of the composition obtained using EDAX (c).

Figure 3a shows the FTIR spectrum of the green-synthesized NiO-NPs, and the C═C stretching vibration of alkanes was represented by the peak of T. chebula leaf extract at 3,649 cm−1. Broad O–H stretching and H–O–H bending vibration were detected at 3,432 and 1,630 cm−1, respectively, attributed to adsorbed water on the surface of NiO-NPs. At 1,334 cm−1, aromatic C═C stretching reached its peak. The asymmetric and symmetric C–H stretching absorption peaks were located at 2,917 and 2,853 cm−1, respectively, and the C–O stretching peaks were observed at 1,018 cm−1. At 530 and 425 cm−1, octahedral Ni–O coordination was observed. T. chebula plant extracts contain a secondary metabolite that acts as a reducing, stabilizing, and capping agent in the green synthesis of metallic NPs. The secondary metabolite typically binds to NPs through its hydroxyl and carbonyl functional groups [16].

Figure 3 Spectral analysis of NiO-NPs. The UV-Vis spectrum of a NiO-NPs (a). FTIR transmittance vs wavenumber chart of NiO-NPs derived from infrared analysis (b). PL spectra for NiO-NPs at room temperature (c).
Figure 3

Spectral analysis of NiO-NPs. The UV-Vis spectrum of a NiO-NPs (a). FTIR transmittance vs wavenumber chart of NiO-NPs derived from infrared analysis (b). PL spectra for NiO-NPs at room temperature (c).

On the basis of the UV-Vis absorption spectrum of green NiO-NPs, their optical properties were evaluated (Figure 3b). Several electronic transitions between the electron bands of the Ni metal core in the NiO-NPs confirmed the origin of the peak at 366 nm caused by surface plasmon resonance (SPR) absorption. Band gaps are the energy required to free electrons from a bound state (as part of an interatomic bond) within a crystalline solid [34,35].

The PL spectrum of NiO-NPs with an excitation wavelength of 325 nm was observed at 366, 390, 401, 420, 450, 482, and 508 nm, and the defects in the structure were explained through PL emission peaks (Figure 3c). Excitons recombining from the conduction band to the valence band (VB) produced UV emission peaks at 366 and 390 nm. The violet emission peaks at 401 and 420 nm are caused by the energy transition from curved electrons at the Ni interstitial (Nii) to the VB [30]. The blue emission peaks at 450 and 482 nm are caused by electron recombination from the doubly ionized Ni vacancy (V2-Ni) to the VB hole. Surface defects formed within the NiO matrix caused the green emission peak at 508 nm. These defects include interstitial oxygen inclusions and Ni vacancies formed by charge transfer between Ni2+ and Ni3+ [30].

3.2 Green-synthesized NiO-NPs by T. chebula leaf extract exhibit antioxidant activity and antimicrobial activity

NiO-NPs prepared with T. chebula leaf extract were assessed for their potential antioxidant using the DPPH radical scavenging assay. DPPH solutions turned yellow when added to the formulation, indicating they scavenge free radicals and are antioxidants [36,37]. Using T. chebula leaf extract, the NiO-NPs were inhibited dose-dependently (Figure 4). Therefore, T. chebula leaf extract exhibited a significant percentage of inhibition at the highest concentration.

Figure 4 The DPPH radical scavenging activity of green synthesized NiO-NPs. The antioxidant activities of NiO-NPs and ascorbic acid were compared using unpaired t-tests and the results were presented as mean AE SD, n = 3. “*” indicates significant difference at P < 0.05; “**” indicates significant difference at P < 0.01 were compared with ascorbic acid.
Figure 4

The DPPH radical scavenging activity of green synthesized NiO-NPs. The antioxidant activities of NiO-NPs and ascorbic acid were compared using unpaired t-tests and the results were presented as mean AE SD, n = 3. “*” indicates significant difference at P < 0.05; “**” indicates significant difference at P < 0.01 were compared with ascorbic acid.

The antimicrobial activity of the green-synthesized NiO-NPs was tested against fungal and bacterial strains, such as C. albicans, S. pneumonia, K. pneumoniae, S. aureus, B. subtilis, V. cholerae, and P. aeruginosa, and their zones of inhibition are shown in Figure 5. The synthesized NiO-NPs and conventional antibiotics, such as amoxicillin, exhibited antimicrobial activity against both bacteria and fungi. As a result, NiO-NPs should be concentrated to increase their antibacterial properties. NiO-NPs have antimicrobial activity but are dispersible and cause cell damage because of Ni2+ extracellular attachments to intracellular Ca2+ metabolism. NPs exhibit significant activity because of the strong electrostatic interaction between Ni ions and the membrane of a microbial cell. NiO-NPs can release reactive oxygen species (ROS), highly reactive radicals that damage cell walls, proteins, intracellular systems, and DNA, thereby killing cancer cells. The green-synthesized NiO-NPs were evaluated for their antioxidant potential using the DPPH radical scavenging assay. DPPH solutions turned yellow when added to the formulation, indicating that they scavenge free radicals and are antioxidants [36,37], highly reactive radicals that damage cell walls, proteins, intracellular systems, and DNA, thereby killing cancer cells [38–40]. T. chebula leaf extract inhibited NiO-NPs in a dose-dependent manner (Figure 4).

Figure 5 Antimicrobial activity of NiO-NPs. (a) S. aureus, S. pneumonia, B. subtilis, K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, V. cholera, and C. albicans (e). (b) Zone of inhibition of Nio-NPs. Graph Pad Prism (San Diego, CA; ver. 7.0) was used to compare the antimicrobial activities of green synthesized NiO-NPs against tested bacteria and fungi. A one-way ANOVA followed by an unpaired t-test was used to assess the difference, and “*” indicates that P < 0.05 was considered significant.
Figure 5

Antimicrobial activity of NiO-NPs. (a) S. aureus, S. pneumonia, B. subtilis, K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, V. cholera, and C. albicans (e). (b) Zone of inhibition of Nio-NPs. Graph Pad Prism (San Diego, CA; ver. 7.0) was used to compare the antimicrobial activities of green synthesized NiO-NPs against tested bacteria and fungi. A one-way ANOVA followed by an unpaired t-test was used to assess the difference, and “*” indicates that P < 0.05 was considered significant.

A bacterial mechanism explaining the NiO-NPs produced by different bacterial strains is shown in Table 1.

Table 1

Antibacterial mechanism of NiO-NPs with various bacterial strains

Nanomaterials Microbial strains Efficacy Mechanism
NiO E. coli, B. subtilis, S. aureus, and P. aeruginosa 10 μg·mL−1 Bacterial cells are damaged and die due to the formation of ROS and Ni2+ released by NiO NPs [41].
NiO E. coli 40 µg·mL−1 Increased NiO concentration increased antibacterial activity [42].
S. aureus
Ce-doped NiO E. coli, S. aureus, S. pneumonia, P. vulgaris, P. aeruginosa, S. dysenteriae, and K. pneumonia 10 μg·mL−1 It is often thought that zone inhibition is caused by distractions of the cell membrane, but it is more likely that a combination of factors such as ROS and Ni2+ are responsible, as well as bacterial failure to divide [43].
NiO E. coli, B. subtilis, S. aureus, and C. albicans. 100 μg·mL−1 The inhibitory effect of tested antibacterial-prepared NiO-NPs on culture may be due to decreased protein stability, enzyme activity, and membrane genotoxicity [44].
Nd-doped NiO S. aureus, K. pneumonia, S. dysenteriae, E. coli, and P. vulgaris 2 mg·mL−1 During zone inhibition in bacteria, distractions of the cell membrane may cause NiO to release Ni2+, which interacts with the membrane, attracting Ni2+ with its positive charge and penetrating the membrane, where it reacts with sulfhydryl groups. Ni2+ penetrates the cell membrane through negative and positive charges [45].

The antibacterial activity of NiO-NPs was investigated in this study using some possible mechanisms. NiO-NPs may disrupt the bacterial cell membrane and can physically interact with the bacterial cell wall, leading to membrane damage, leakage of cellular contents, and, eventually, cell death. This disruption can be caused by the oxidative stress induced by NiO-NPs. NiO-NPs can generate ROS, such as superoxide radicals and hydrogen peroxide when they come into contact with bacterial cells [46,47]. ROS can cause oxidative damage to proteins, lipids, and DNA within the bacterial cell, leading to cell death. Nickel ions released from NiO-NPs may bind to essential enzymes within bacterial cells, inhibiting their activity. This interference with enzymatic processes can disrupt vital metabolic pathways and ultimately lead to bacterial death. NiO-NPs can potentially interact with bacterial DNA, causing DNA strand breaks and mutations. This interaction can interfere with replication and transcription, leading to cell death. NiO-NPs may be internalized by bacterial cells. Once inside, they can disrupt intracellular processes and structures, leading to cell dysfunction and death [48]. The surface charge of NiO-NPs can influence their interaction with bacterial cells. Positively charged NPs may interact more strongly with the negatively charged bacterial cell membrane, facilitating their penetration and disruption. The size and surface area of NiO-NPs can also play a role. Smaller NPs may have a higher surface area and, therefore, a more significant potential to interact with bacterial cells [49].

3.3 NiO-NPs induce cytotoxicity and apoptotic cell death in glioma cells via nuclear fragmentation and MMP disruption

As shown in Figure 6, treatment of C6 glioma cells with 43.35, 32.24, and 17.61 µg·mL−1 of NiO-NPs for 24, 48, and 72 h caused dose- and time-dependent cell death. Cell viability and growth were significantly reduced within 72 h after a high dose, but 3T3 fibroblasts never showed cytotoxicity, suggesting no effect on 3T3 cell proliferation (Figure 7).

Figure 6 NiO-NPs cause cytotoxicity in C6 glioma cells. C6 glioma cell lines were treated with different concentrations (2, 4, 16, 32, 64, 128 and 256 µg·mL−1) of NiO-NPs for 24, 48 and 72 h. The cells were subjected to an MTT assay, and the values were depicted as ± SD of three individual experiments. A one-way ANOVA followed by an unpaired t-test was used to assess the difference, and “*” indicates that P < 0.05 was considered significant.
Figure 6

NiO-NPs cause cytotoxicity in C6 glioma cells. C6 glioma cell lines were treated with different concentrations (2, 4, 16, 32, 64, 128 and 256 µg·mL−1) of NiO-NPs for 24, 48 and 72 h. The cells were subjected to an MTT assay, and the values were depicted as ± SD of three individual experiments. A one-way ANOVA followed by an unpaired t-test was used to assess the difference, and “*” indicates that P < 0.05 was considered significant.

Figure 7 NiO-NPs cause cytotoxicity in 3T3 cells. 3T3 cell lines were treated with different concentrations (2, 4, 16, 32, 64, 128, and 256 µg·mL−1) of NiO-NPs for 24, 48, and 72 h. The cells were subjected to an MTT assay, and the values are depicted as mean value ± SD of three individual experiments.
Figure 7

NiO-NPs cause cytotoxicity in 3T3 cells. 3T3 cell lines were treated with different concentrations (2, 4, 16, 32, 64, 128, and 256 µg·mL−1) of NiO-NPs for 24, 48, and 72 h. The cells were subjected to an MTT assay, and the values are depicted as mean value ± SD of three individual experiments.

Fluorescence microscopy revealed that C6 cells treated with NiO-NPs for 24 h exhibited morphological changes when induced to undergo apoptosis (Figure 8). No apoptosis was observed in the control cells, as shown in Figure 8a. Nuclear staining indicates crescent-shaped or granular cells in the early stages of apoptosis, according to Acridine orange (AO), with yellow-green staining distributed asymmetrically in the cells. Apoptotic cells were treated with the nanocomposite longer when the nanocomposite concentration was increased. Concentrated and asymmetrically distributed orange nuclei were observed in late-stage apoptotic cells, as shown in Figures 8b and c. In Figure 8c, ethidium bromide (EtBr) staining demonstrated necrotic cell decay, exhibiting nonuniform red fluorescence at their edges with the increase in the size. Chromatin condensation can identify apoptotic cells during apoptosis [50]. Therefore, AO/EtBr staining of C6 cells treated with NiO-NPs was performed to determine whether NiO-NPs induce apoptosis. Significant AO/EtBr staining of the C6 glioma cancer cell line suggests that nanoparticle exposure led to membrane integrity loss. They may cause morphological changes because, as previously mentioned, they can induce supraphysiological ROS by directly penetrating the cell membranes of C6 cells, which in turn causes cell stress [51,52]. Moreover, in this study, NiO-NPs have been tested against C6 glioma cancer cells in an in vitro experiment. Gliomas are challenging because of the development of brain stem cells. The C6 glioma cancer cells have been shown to contribute to drug resistance in gliomas [53,54]. Using NiO-NPs resulted in a significant reduction in C6 cells in culture plates, as well as significant cytotoxicity and loss of morphological architecture. This finding suggests that NiO-NPs cause cytotoxicity, probably through ROS and prooxidants, and oxidative stress when they enter cells. In vitro experiments with glioma cells found that NiO-NPs alone induce cell death [55].

Figure 8 Effect of NiO-NPs on the apoptotic cell death in the C6 glioma for 24 h. AO and EtBr (1:1) were used to dual-stain the cells and then analyzed by fluorescence microscopy (Labomed, USA). The control cells showed green fluorescence, which indicates living cells without apoptosis. The NiO-NPs tested cells showed yellow and orange fluorescence, which indicates early and late apoptotic cell death (Low Dose), respectively, with condensed or fragmented nuclei and necrotic cells (High Dose). untreated C6 cells (Control), NiO-NPs treated with IC25 concentration on C6 cells, and NiO-NPs-treated cells with the IC50 concentration at 20× magnification. Viable Cells (Green); Early Apoptotic Cells (Yellowish red); Late Apoptotic Cells (Red).
Figure 8

Effect of NiO-NPs on the apoptotic cell death in the C6 glioma for 24 h. AO and EtBr (1:1) were used to dual-stain the cells and then analyzed by fluorescence microscopy (Labomed, USA). The control cells showed green fluorescence, which indicates living cells without apoptosis. The NiO-NPs tested cells showed yellow and orange fluorescence, which indicates early and late apoptotic cell death (Low Dose), respectively, with condensed or fragmented nuclei and necrotic cells (High Dose). untreated C6 cells (Control), NiO-NPs treated with IC25 concentration on C6 cells, and NiO-NPs-treated cells with the IC50 concentration at 20× magnification. Viable Cells (Green); Early Apoptotic Cells (Yellowish red); Late Apoptotic Cells (Red).

After treatment with NiO-NPs, we examined the morphological changes in the cell nuclei by staining them with Hoechst 33258 as a second marker for apoptosis. The nuclei of control cells exhibited homogeneous staining (Figure 9a), whereas the nuclei of cells treated with NiO-NPs showed chromatin condensation into sharply demarcated masses. The nuclear area was also decreased due to chromatin condensation in cells that die by apoptosis, and the nuclei were stained with Hoechst 33342 (Figures 9b and c). In previous studies, the number of cells with condensed nuclei has increased after treatment with NiO-NPs, indicating an increase in apoptotic nuclei with loss of shape apart from nuclear condensation, whereas control cells have remained undamaged and uniform in shape [56]. Most cells maintained their shape until 24 h after incubation but lost it thereafter. Because of NiO-NP treatment, staining with Hoechst 33342 showed signs of apoptosis [57].

Figure 9 Cellular apoptosis by nuclear fragmentation was observed with Hoechst 33342 staining. C6 cells were treated with NiO-NPs for 48 h. Chromatin condensation, nuclear fragmentation (Low Dose), and apoptotic bodies are shown in treated cells (High Dose). The untreated C6 cells (Control), NiO-NPs treated with IC25 concentration on C6 cells, and NiO-NPs-treated cells with the IC50 concentration are shown at 20× magnification.
Figure 9

Cellular apoptosis by nuclear fragmentation was observed with Hoechst 33342 staining. C6 cells were treated with NiO-NPs for 48 h. Chromatin condensation, nuclear fragmentation (Low Dose), and apoptotic bodies are shown in treated cells (High Dose). The untreated C6 cells (Control), NiO-NPs treated with IC25 concentration on C6 cells, and NiO-NPs-treated cells with the IC50 concentration are shown at 20× magnification.

During apoptotic cell death, we measured MMP changes using the fluorescent dye Rhodamine 123. In mitochondria with active membrane potential, Rh123 is a cationic fluorescent dye. The cytoplasm of cells not treated with this dye exhibited distinct fluorescent spots (Figure 10a). By contrast, NiO-NPs did not transport the dye into mitochondria, so only diffuse fluorescence was detected (Figures 10b and c). C6 glioma cells undergo NiO-NPs-induced apoptosis when their MMP is exhausted. At 24 h, NiO-NPs at a lower concentration did not affect the mitochondrial potential and proliferation of C6 glioma cells. By contrast, the same attention for a longer duration significantly inhibited these cells. NiO-NPs in C6 glioma cells decreased cell proliferation and apoptosis, suggesting a higher NiO-NP uptake and decreased viable cells. In previous studies, NiO-NPs have shown superior performance to other NPs in physicochemical studies in in vitro and cell line studies [58]. Treatment with NiO-NPs also significantly increased MMP loss in C6 cells. The cells were killed because of the increased oxidative stress and the inhibition of signaling pathways in the opposite direction.

Figure 10 Activation of MMP (ΔψM) loss induced by NiO-NPs. The cells were loaded with NiO-NPs to determine the MMP loss fluorescence in the mitochondria with RH123 (Low Dose) and observed under a fluorescent microscope (High Dose) Bar = 50 µm. The untreated C6 cells (Control), NiO-NPs treated with IC25 concentration on C6 cells, and NiO-NPs-treated cells with the IC50 concentration are shown at 20× magnification.
Figure 10

Activation of MMP (ΔψM) loss induced by NiO-NPs. The cells were loaded with NiO-NPs to determine the MMP loss fluorescence in the mitochondria with RH123 (Low Dose) and observed under a fluorescent microscope (High Dose) Bar = 50 µm. The untreated C6 cells (Control), NiO-NPs treated with IC25 concentration on C6 cells, and NiO-NPs-treated cells with the IC50 concentration are shown at 20× magnification.

Inorganic NPs can be synthesized using physical, chemical, and biological methods. Biological synthesis offers environmental friendliness, biocompatibility, precise control, sustainability, and versatility. It uses natural precursors, requires less energy, and can be used in renewable resources. A study optimized the biosynthesis of iron oxide NPs from Penicillium waksmanii using mathematical methodology, achieving good monodispersity and well-defined dimensions [59]. Therapeutic metal-based nanomaterials have been designed for therapy and diagnostics, simultaneously carrying therapeutic and imaging agents [60]. Metal NPs, such as gold, silver, and platinum, have unique properties suitable for drug delivery and imaging applications. Green-synthesized metallic NPs exhibit strong antimicrobial properties, making them suitable for wound dressings, medical equipment coatings, and disinfectants [61]. Bioengineered metal-based antimicrobial nanomaterials are used in surface coatings, nanoscale drug delivery systems, and biogenic NPs to combat antimicrobial resistance. These NPs can be functionalized with targeting ligands and imaging agents for early cancer detection and monitoring [62]. Among the innovative cancer treatments offered by nanotechnology are bioengineered AgNPs, silver and gold nano biomaterials, and smart nanomedicines, which can be conjugated with FDA-approved drugs according to factors, such as size distribution, morphology, surface charge, surface chemistry, and capping agents [63,64].

Metallic-based NPs have potential applications in medicine, electronics, and materials science but pose health and environmental risks. They can cause toxicity, accumulate in organs and tissues, trigger inflammatory responses, and cause allergic reactions. They can also enter the environment through wastewater discharge, affecting aquatic organisms and ecosystems [65]. The long-term effects of exposure are unknown, and occupational hazards exist. Nanoparticle aggregation and persistence are also of concern. Regulatory frameworks for safe use and disposal are still evolving, making it challenging to assess and manage risks. The potential disadvantages and health risks depend on factors like metal type, particle size, surface modification, exposure route, and individual susceptibility [66]. Cancer cells are less likely to respond to anticancer drugs when the proapoptotic signaling pathways are activated. The use of NiO in nano complexes has been shown to inhibit inflammation conditions [67].

NiO-NPs have potential antiproliferative properties against cancer cells, making them suitable for drug delivery and targeting specific cancer cells like glioblastoma. Green synthesis methods using natural extracts, such as T. chebula, can enhance biocompatibility and selectivity. The unique synthesis approach and the specific synthesis process of T. chebula represent a novel and eco-friendly approach. Assessing the antiproliferative activity, biocompatibility, and toxicity of these NPs is crucial for finding effective treatments for glioblastoma. Comparative and in vivo studies are needed to establish the uniqueness and efficacy of these NPs in glioblastoma treatment. Further research and validation are needed to determine the full potential of this approach in glioblastoma therapy.

These findings may be an aspect of our future study investigating the antitumor effects of NiO-NPs. Phyto-molecules complexed with our synthesized NPs displayed characteristic green NiO-NP patterns. Compared with the control cells, the stability was improved by the green effect of the phytocompounds in this study, exhibiting the maximum effect on glioma cells. Therefore, future work can be carried forward to develop NPs that penetrate the glioma–brain barrier and treat the disease. Furthermore, we found that NiO-NPs showed significant antimicrobial and antitumor activities in our in vitro experiments, suggesting that they should be further investigated in future drug testing and development studies involving various plant phytochemicals.

4 Conclusion

The green process was used to synthesize NiO-NPs using T. chebula leaf extract. According to the XRD results, the synthesized NiO-NPs had a cubic structure with a particle size of 42.90 nm. The FTIR spectrum at 530 and 425 cm−1 shows Ni–O octahedral coordination. In the green-produced NiO-NPs, SPR absorption at 366 nm produced UV-Vis peaks at the edge of the absorption curve. The FESEM results revealed that the NiO-NPs were spherical, polygonal, and aggregated into medium-sized grains, and the EDAX spectra identified their chemical composition. As from the PL spectrum, the green emission peak at 508 nm was caused by interstitial oxygen trapped in the NiO matrix. Because of the exchange of Ni2+/Ni3+, Ni vacancies are formed. The synthesized NiO-NPs and conventional antibiotics, such as amoxicillin, exhibited antimicrobial activity against bacteria and fungi. Therefore, increasing NiO-NP concentration also increased antimicrobial activity. Our findings show that NiO-NPs are a potent trigger for cell death, but the C6 glioma cell lines when tested exhibited strong cytotoxicity. The green NiO-NPs synthesized from T. chebula leaf extract caused apoptosis by altering MMP and disrupting nuclear structures, a typical mechanism of cell death caused by this method.

  1. Funding information: Authors state no funding involved.

  2. Author contributions: Sui Long, Lu Hui: conceived the research idea, methodology and designed the experiments; Dou Yanli, Zhang Dongdong, Du Feixiong: performed the experiments, analysed the results, writing the manuscript draft; Wang Weibing: designed the experiments, methodology, funding acquisition, and resources; Sui Long, Lu Hui, Dou Yanli, Zhang Dongdong, Du Feixiong, and Wang Weibing: writing – reviewing and editing of the manuscript, data analysis, funding acquisition, and resources.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2023-06-24
Accepted: 2023-10-09
Published Online: 2024-06-15

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  28. Green synthesis and multifaceted characterization of iron oxide nanoparticles derived from Senna bicapsularis for enhanced in vitro and in vivo biological investigation
  29. Potent antibacterial nanocomposites from okra mucilage/chitosan/silver nanoparticles for multidrug-resistant Salmonella Typhimurium eradication
  30. Trachyspermum copticum aqueous seed extract-derived silver nanoparticles: Exploration of their structural characterization and comparative antibacterial performance against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria
  31. Microwave-assisted ultrafine silver nanoparticle synthesis using Mitragyna speciosa for antimalarial applications
  32. Green synthesis and characterisation of spherical structure Ag/Fe2O3/TiO2 nanocomposite using acacia in the presence of neem and tulsi oils
  33. Green quantitative methods for linagliptin and empagliflozin in dosage forms
  34. Enhancement efficacy of omeprazole by conjugation with silver nanoparticles as a urease inhibitor
  35. Residual, sequential extraction, and ecological risk assessment of some metals in ash from municipal solid waste incineration, Vietnam
  36. Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using the mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) leaf extract: Comparative preliminary in vitro antibacterial study
  37. Simultaneous determination of lesinurad and febuxostat in commercial fixed-dose combinations using a greener normal-phase HPTLC method
  38. A greener RP-HPLC method for quaternary estimation of caffeine, paracetamol, levocetirizine, and phenylephrine acquiring AQbD with stability studies
  39. Optimization of biomass durian peel as a heterogeneous catalyst in biodiesel production using microwave irradiation
  40. Thermal treatment impact on the evolution of active phases in layered double hydroxide-based ZnCr photocatalysts: Photodegradation and antibacterial performance
  41. Preparation of silymarin-loaded zein polysaccharide core–shell nanostructures and evaluation of their biological potentials
  42. Preparation and characterization of composite-modified PA6 fiber for spectral heating and heat storage applications
  43. Preparation and electrocatalytic oxygen evolution of bimetallic phosphates (NiFe)2P/NF
  44. Rod-shaped Mo(vi) trichalcogenide–Mo(vi) oxide decorated on poly(1-H pyrrole) as a promising nanocomposite photoelectrode for green hydrogen generation from sewage water with high efficiency
  45. Green synthesis and studies on citrus medica leaf extract-mediated Au–ZnO nanocomposites: A sustainable approach for efficient photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B dye in aqueous media
  46. Cellulosic materials for the removal of ciprofloxacin from aqueous environments
  47. The analytical assessment of metal contamination in industrial soils of Saudi Arabia using the inductively coupled plasma technology
  48. The effect of modified oily sludge on the slurry ability and combustion performance of coal water slurry
  49. Eggshell waste transformation to calcium chloride anhydride as food-grade additive and eggshell membranes as enzyme immobilization carrier
  50. Synthesis of EPAN and applications in the encapsulation of potassium humate
  51. Biosynthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles from Cedrela toona leaf extracts: An exploration into their antibacterial, anticancer, and antioxidant potential
  52. Enhancing mechanical and rheological properties of HDPE films through annealing for eco-friendly agricultural applications
  53. Immobilisation of catalase purified from mushroom (Hydnum repandum) onto glutaraldehyde-activated chitosan and characterisation: Its application for the removal of hydrogen peroxide from artificial wastewater
  54. Sodium titanium oxide/zinc oxide (STO/ZnO) photocomposites for efficient dye degradation applications
  55. Effect of ex situ, eco-friendly ZnONPs incorporating green synthesised Moringa oleifera leaf extract in enhancing biochemical and molecular aspects of Vicia faba L. under salt stress
  56. Biosynthesis and characterization of selenium and silver nanoparticles using Trichoderma viride filtrate and their impact on Culex pipiens
  57. Photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes and biological potentials of biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the polar extract of Cyperus scariosus R.Br. (Cyperaceae)
  58. Assessment of antiproliferative activity of green-synthesized nickel oxide nanoparticles against glioblastoma cells using Terminalia chebula
  59. Chlorine-free synthesis of phosphinic derivatives by change in the P-function
  60. Anticancer, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities of nanoemulsions based on water-in-olive oil and loaded on biogenic silver nanoparticles
  61. Study and mechanism of formation of phosphorus production waste in Kazakhstan
  62. Synthesis and stabilization of anatase form of biomimetic TiO2 nanoparticles for enhancing anti-tumor potential
  63. Microwave-supported one-pot reaction for the synthesis of 5-alkyl/arylidene-2-(morpholin/thiomorpholin-4-yl)-1,3-thiazol-4(5H)-one derivatives over MgO solid base
  64. Screening the phytochemicals in Perilla leaves and phytosynthesis of bioactive silver nanoparticles for potential antioxidant and wound-healing application
  65. Graphene oxide/chitosan/manganese/folic acid-brucine functionalized nanocomposites show anticancer activity against liver cancer cells
  66. Nature of serpentinite interactions with low-concentration sulfuric acid solutions
  67. Multi-objective statistical optimisation utilising response surface methodology to predict engine performance using biofuels from waste plastic oil in CRDi engines
  68. Microwave-assisted extraction of acetosolv lignin from sugarcane bagasse and electrospinning of lignin/PEO nanofibres for carbon fibre production
  69. Biosynthesis, characterization, and investigation of cytotoxic activities of selenium nanoparticles utilizing Limosilactobacillus fermentum
  70. Highly photocatalytic materials based on the decoration of poly(O-chloroaniline) with molybdenum trichalcogenide oxide for green hydrogen generation from Red Sea water
  71. Highly efficient oil–water separation using superhydrophobic cellulose aerogels derived from corn straw
  72. Beta-cyclodextrin–Phyllanthus emblica emulsion for zinc oxide nanoparticles: Characteristics and photocatalysis
  73. Assessment of antimicrobial activity and methyl orange dye removal by Klebsiella pneumoniae-mediated silver nanoparticles
  74. Influential eradication of resistant Salmonella Typhimurium using bioactive nanocomposites from chitosan and radish seed-synthesized nanoselenium
  75. Antimicrobial activities and neuroprotective potential for Alzheimer’s disease of pure, Mn, Co, and Al-doped ZnO ultra-small nanoparticles
  76. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles from Bauhinia variegata and their biological applications
  77. Synthesis and optimization of long-chain fatty acids via the oxidation of long-chain fatty alcohols
  78. Eminent Red Sea water hydrogen generation via a Pb(ii)-iodide/poly(1H-pyrrole) nanocomposite photocathode
  79. Green synthesis and effective genistein production by fungal β-glucosidase immobilized on Al2O3 nanocrystals synthesized in Cajanus cajan L. (Millsp.) leaf extracts
  80. Green stability-indicating RP-HPTLC technique for determining croconazole hydrochloride
  81. Green synthesis of La2O3–LaPO4 nanocomposites using Charybdis natator for DNA binding, cytotoxic, catalytic, and luminescence applications
  82. Eco-friendly drugs induce cellular changes in colistin-resistant bacteria
  83. Tangerine fruit peel extract mediated biogenic synthesized silver nanoparticles and their potential antimicrobial, antioxidant, and cytotoxic assessments
  84. Green synthesis on performance characteristics of a direct injection diesel engine using sandbox seed oil
  85. A highly sensitive β-AKBA-Ag-based fluorescent “turn off” chemosensor for rapid detection of abamectin in tomatoes
  86. Green synthesis and physical characterization of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) derived from the methanol extract of Euphorbia dracunculoides Lam. (Euphorbiaceae) with enhanced biosafe applications
  87. Detection of morphine and data processing using surface plasmon resonance imaging sensor
  88. Effects of nanoparticles on the anaerobic digestion properties of sulfamethoxazole-containing chicken manure and analysis of bio-enzymes
  89. Bromic acid-thiourea synergistic leaching of sulfide gold ore
  90. Green chemistry approach to synthesize titanium dioxide nanoparticles using Fagonia Cretica extract, novel strategy for developing antimicrobial and antidiabetic therapies
  91. Green synthesis and effective utilization of biogenic Al2O3-nanocoupled fungal lipase in the resolution of active homochiral 2-octanol and its immobilization via aluminium oxide nanoparticles
  92. Eco-friendly RP-HPLC approach for simultaneously estimating the promising combination of pentoxifylline and simvastatin in therapeutic potential for breast cancer: Appraisal of greenness, whiteness, and Box–Behnken design
  93. Use of a humidity adsorbent derived from cockleshell waste in Thai fried fish crackers (Keropok)
  94. One-pot green synthesis, biological evaluation, and in silico study of pyrazole derivatives obtained from chalcones
  95. Bio-sorption of methylene blue and production of biofuel by brown alga Cystoseira sp. collected from Neom region, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
  96. Synthesis of motexafin gadolinium: A promising radiosensitizer and imaging agent for cancer therapy
  97. The impact of varying sizes of silver nanoparticles on the induction of cellular damage in Klebsiella pneumoniae involving diverse mechanisms
  98. Microwave-assisted green synthesis, characterization, and in vitro antibacterial activity of NiO nanoparticles obtained from lemon peel extract
  99. Rhus microphylla-mediated biosynthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles for enhanced antibacterial and antibiofilm efficacy
  100. Harnessing trichalcogenide–molybdenum(vi) sulfide and molybdenum(vi) oxide within poly(1-amino-2-mercaptobenzene) frameworks as a photocathode for sustainable green hydrogen production from seawater without sacrificial agents
  101. Magnetically recyclable Fe3O4@SiO2 supported phosphonium ionic liquids for efficient and sustainable transformation of CO2 into oxazolidinones
  102. A comparative study of Fagonia arabica fabricated silver sulfide nanoparticles (Ag2S) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) with distinct antimicrobial, anticancer, and antioxidant properties
  103. Visible light photocatalytic degradation and biological activities of Aegle marmelos-mediated cerium oxide nanoparticles
  104. Physical intrinsic characteristics of spheroidal particles in coal gasification fine slag
  105. Exploring the effect of tea dust magnetic biochar on agricultural crops grown in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contaminated soil
  106. Crosslinked chitosan-modified ultrafiltration membranes for efficient surface water treatment and enhanced anti-fouling performances
  107. Study on adsorption characteristics of biochars and their modified biochars for removal of organic dyes from aqueous solution
  108. Zein polymer nanocarrier for Ocimum basilicum var. purpurascens extract: Potential biomedical use
  109. Green synthesis, characterization, and in vitro and in vivo biological screening of iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe3O4) generated with hydroalcoholic extract of aerial parts of Euphorbia milii
  110. Novel microwave-based green approach for the synthesis of dual-loaded cyclodextrin nanosponges: Characterization, pharmacodynamics, and pharmacokinetics evaluation
  111. Bi2O3–BiOCl/poly-m-methyl aniline nanocomposite thin film for broad-spectrum light-sensing
  112. Green synthesis and characterization of CuO/ZnO nanocomposite using Musa acuminata leaf extract for cytotoxic studies on colorectal cancer cells (HCC2998)
  113. Review Articles
  114. Materials-based drug delivery approaches: Recent advances and future perspectives
  115. A review of thermal treatment for bamboo and its composites
  116. An overview of the role of nanoherbicides in tackling challenges of weed management in wheat: A novel approach
  117. An updated review on carbon nanomaterials: Types, synthesis, functionalization and applications, degradation and toxicity
  118. Special Issue: Emerging green nanomaterials for sustainable waste management and biomedical applications
  119. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using mature-pseudostem extracts of Alpinia nigra and their bioactivities
  120. Special Issue: New insights into nanopythotechnology: current trends and future prospects
  121. Green synthesis of FeO nanoparticles from coffee and its application for antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-oxidation activity
  122. Dye degradation activity of biogenically synthesized Cu/Fe/Ag trimetallic nanoparticles
  123. Special Issue: Composites and green composites
  124. Recent trends and advancements in the utilization of green composites and polymeric nanocarriers for enhancing food quality and sustainable processing
  125. Retraction
  126. Retraction of “Biosynthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles from Cedrela toona leaf extracts: An exploration into their antibacterial, anticancer, and antioxidant potential”
  127. Retraction of “Photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes and biological potentials of biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the polar extract of Cyperus scariosus R.Br. (Cyperaceae)”
  128. Retraction to “Green synthesis on performance characteristics of a direct injection diesel engine using sandbox seed oil”
https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2023-0112
Keywords for this article
green synthesis; Terminalia chebula; NiO-NPs; antibacterial; antifungal activity; anticancer activity
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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  2. Green polymer electrolyte and activated charcoal-based supercapacitor for energy harvesting application: Electrochemical characteristics
  3. Research on the adsorption of Co2+ ions using halloysite clay and the ability to recover them by electrodeposition method
  4. Simultaneous estimation of ibuprofen, caffeine, and paracetamol in commercial products using a green reverse-phase HPTLC method
  5. Isolation, screening and optimization of alkaliphilic cellulolytic fungi for production of cellulase
  6. Functionalized gold nanoparticles coated with bacterial alginate and their antibacterial and anticancer activities
  7. Comparative analysis of bio-based amino acid surfactants obtained via Diels–Alder reaction of cyclic anhydrides
  8. Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles on yellow phosphorus slag and its application in organic coatings
  9. Exploring antioxidant potential and phenolic compound extraction from Vitis vinifera L. using ultrasound-assisted extraction
  10. Manganese and copper-coated nickel oxide nanoparticles synthesized from Carica papaya leaf extract induce antimicrobial activity and breast cancer cell death by triggering mitochondrial caspases and p53
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  12. Silicotungstic acid supported on Bi-based MOF-derived metal oxide for photodegradation of organic dyes
  13. Synthesis and characterization of capsaicin nanoparticles: An attempt to enhance its bioavailability and pharmacological actions
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  15. Facile, polyherbal drug-mediated green synthesis of CuO nanoparticles and their potent biological applications
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  18. Biofabrication of silver nanoparticles using Uncaria tomentosa L.: Insight into characterization, antibacterial activities combined with antibiotics, and effect on Triticum aestivum germination
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  22. Estimation of greenhouse gas emissions from rice and annual upland crops in Red River Delta of Vietnam using the denitrification–decomposition model
  23. Synthesis of humic acid with the obtaining of potassium humate based on coal waste from the Lenger deposit, Kazakhstan
  24. Ascorbic acid-mediated selenium nanoparticles as potential antihyperuricemic, antioxidant, anticoagulant, and thrombolytic agents
  25. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Illicium verum extract: Optimization and characterization for biomedical applications
  26. Antibacterial and dynamical behaviour of silicon nanoparticles influenced sustainable waste flax fibre-reinforced epoxy composite for biomedical application
  27. Optimising coagulation/flocculation using response surface methodology and application of floc in biofertilisation
  28. Green synthesis and multifaceted characterization of iron oxide nanoparticles derived from Senna bicapsularis for enhanced in vitro and in vivo biological investigation
  29. Potent antibacterial nanocomposites from okra mucilage/chitosan/silver nanoparticles for multidrug-resistant Salmonella Typhimurium eradication
  30. Trachyspermum copticum aqueous seed extract-derived silver nanoparticles: Exploration of their structural characterization and comparative antibacterial performance against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria
  31. Microwave-assisted ultrafine silver nanoparticle synthesis using Mitragyna speciosa for antimalarial applications
  32. Green synthesis and characterisation of spherical structure Ag/Fe2O3/TiO2 nanocomposite using acacia in the presence of neem and tulsi oils
  33. Green quantitative methods for linagliptin and empagliflozin in dosage forms
  34. Enhancement efficacy of omeprazole by conjugation with silver nanoparticles as a urease inhibitor
  35. Residual, sequential extraction, and ecological risk assessment of some metals in ash from municipal solid waste incineration, Vietnam
  36. Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using the mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) leaf extract: Comparative preliminary in vitro antibacterial study
  37. Simultaneous determination of lesinurad and febuxostat in commercial fixed-dose combinations using a greener normal-phase HPTLC method
  38. A greener RP-HPLC method for quaternary estimation of caffeine, paracetamol, levocetirizine, and phenylephrine acquiring AQbD with stability studies
  39. Optimization of biomass durian peel as a heterogeneous catalyst in biodiesel production using microwave irradiation
  40. Thermal treatment impact on the evolution of active phases in layered double hydroxide-based ZnCr photocatalysts: Photodegradation and antibacterial performance
  41. Preparation of silymarin-loaded zein polysaccharide core–shell nanostructures and evaluation of their biological potentials
  42. Preparation and characterization of composite-modified PA6 fiber for spectral heating and heat storage applications
  43. Preparation and electrocatalytic oxygen evolution of bimetallic phosphates (NiFe)2P/NF
  44. Rod-shaped Mo(vi) trichalcogenide–Mo(vi) oxide decorated on poly(1-H pyrrole) as a promising nanocomposite photoelectrode for green hydrogen generation from sewage water with high efficiency
  45. Green synthesis and studies on citrus medica leaf extract-mediated Au–ZnO nanocomposites: A sustainable approach for efficient photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B dye in aqueous media
  46. Cellulosic materials for the removal of ciprofloxacin from aqueous environments
  47. The analytical assessment of metal contamination in industrial soils of Saudi Arabia using the inductively coupled plasma technology
  48. The effect of modified oily sludge on the slurry ability and combustion performance of coal water slurry
  49. Eggshell waste transformation to calcium chloride anhydride as food-grade additive and eggshell membranes as enzyme immobilization carrier
  50. Synthesis of EPAN and applications in the encapsulation of potassium humate
  51. Biosynthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles from Cedrela toona leaf extracts: An exploration into their antibacterial, anticancer, and antioxidant potential
  52. Enhancing mechanical and rheological properties of HDPE films through annealing for eco-friendly agricultural applications
  53. Immobilisation of catalase purified from mushroom (Hydnum repandum) onto glutaraldehyde-activated chitosan and characterisation: Its application for the removal of hydrogen peroxide from artificial wastewater
  54. Sodium titanium oxide/zinc oxide (STO/ZnO) photocomposites for efficient dye degradation applications
  55. Effect of ex situ, eco-friendly ZnONPs incorporating green synthesised Moringa oleifera leaf extract in enhancing biochemical and molecular aspects of Vicia faba L. under salt stress
  56. Biosynthesis and characterization of selenium and silver nanoparticles using Trichoderma viride filtrate and their impact on Culex pipiens
  57. Photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes and biological potentials of biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the polar extract of Cyperus scariosus R.Br. (Cyperaceae)
  58. Assessment of antiproliferative activity of green-synthesized nickel oxide nanoparticles against glioblastoma cells using Terminalia chebula
  59. Chlorine-free synthesis of phosphinic derivatives by change in the P-function
  60. Anticancer, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities of nanoemulsions based on water-in-olive oil and loaded on biogenic silver nanoparticles
  61. Study and mechanism of formation of phosphorus production waste in Kazakhstan
  62. Synthesis and stabilization of anatase form of biomimetic TiO2 nanoparticles for enhancing anti-tumor potential
  63. Microwave-supported one-pot reaction for the synthesis of 5-alkyl/arylidene-2-(morpholin/thiomorpholin-4-yl)-1,3-thiazol-4(5H)-one derivatives over MgO solid base
  64. Screening the phytochemicals in Perilla leaves and phytosynthesis of bioactive silver nanoparticles for potential antioxidant and wound-healing application
  65. Graphene oxide/chitosan/manganese/folic acid-brucine functionalized nanocomposites show anticancer activity against liver cancer cells
  66. Nature of serpentinite interactions with low-concentration sulfuric acid solutions
  67. Multi-objective statistical optimisation utilising response surface methodology to predict engine performance using biofuels from waste plastic oil in CRDi engines
  68. Microwave-assisted extraction of acetosolv lignin from sugarcane bagasse and electrospinning of lignin/PEO nanofibres for carbon fibre production
  69. Biosynthesis, characterization, and investigation of cytotoxic activities of selenium nanoparticles utilizing Limosilactobacillus fermentum
  70. Highly photocatalytic materials based on the decoration of poly(O-chloroaniline) with molybdenum trichalcogenide oxide for green hydrogen generation from Red Sea water
  71. Highly efficient oil–water separation using superhydrophobic cellulose aerogels derived from corn straw
  72. Beta-cyclodextrin–Phyllanthus emblica emulsion for zinc oxide nanoparticles: Characteristics and photocatalysis
  73. Assessment of antimicrobial activity and methyl orange dye removal by Klebsiella pneumoniae-mediated silver nanoparticles
  74. Influential eradication of resistant Salmonella Typhimurium using bioactive nanocomposites from chitosan and radish seed-synthesized nanoselenium
  75. Antimicrobial activities and neuroprotective potential for Alzheimer’s disease of pure, Mn, Co, and Al-doped ZnO ultra-small nanoparticles
  76. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles from Bauhinia variegata and their biological applications
  77. Synthesis and optimization of long-chain fatty acids via the oxidation of long-chain fatty alcohols
  78. Eminent Red Sea water hydrogen generation via a Pb(ii)-iodide/poly(1H-pyrrole) nanocomposite photocathode
  79. Green synthesis and effective genistein production by fungal β-glucosidase immobilized on Al2O3 nanocrystals synthesized in Cajanus cajan L. (Millsp.) leaf extracts
  80. Green stability-indicating RP-HPTLC technique for determining croconazole hydrochloride
  81. Green synthesis of La2O3–LaPO4 nanocomposites using Charybdis natator for DNA binding, cytotoxic, catalytic, and luminescence applications
  82. Eco-friendly drugs induce cellular changes in colistin-resistant bacteria
  83. Tangerine fruit peel extract mediated biogenic synthesized silver nanoparticles and their potential antimicrobial, antioxidant, and cytotoxic assessments
  84. Green synthesis on performance characteristics of a direct injection diesel engine using sandbox seed oil
  85. A highly sensitive β-AKBA-Ag-based fluorescent “turn off” chemosensor for rapid detection of abamectin in tomatoes
  86. Green synthesis and physical characterization of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) derived from the methanol extract of Euphorbia dracunculoides Lam. (Euphorbiaceae) with enhanced biosafe applications
  87. Detection of morphine and data processing using surface plasmon resonance imaging sensor
  88. Effects of nanoparticles on the anaerobic digestion properties of sulfamethoxazole-containing chicken manure and analysis of bio-enzymes
  89. Bromic acid-thiourea synergistic leaching of sulfide gold ore
  90. Green chemistry approach to synthesize titanium dioxide nanoparticles using Fagonia Cretica extract, novel strategy for developing antimicrobial and antidiabetic therapies
  91. Green synthesis and effective utilization of biogenic Al2O3-nanocoupled fungal lipase in the resolution of active homochiral 2-octanol and its immobilization via aluminium oxide nanoparticles
  92. Eco-friendly RP-HPLC approach for simultaneously estimating the promising combination of pentoxifylline and simvastatin in therapeutic potential for breast cancer: Appraisal of greenness, whiteness, and Box–Behnken design
  93. Use of a humidity adsorbent derived from cockleshell waste in Thai fried fish crackers (Keropok)
  94. One-pot green synthesis, biological evaluation, and in silico study of pyrazole derivatives obtained from chalcones
  95. Bio-sorption of methylene blue and production of biofuel by brown alga Cystoseira sp. collected from Neom region, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
  96. Synthesis of motexafin gadolinium: A promising radiosensitizer and imaging agent for cancer therapy
  97. The impact of varying sizes of silver nanoparticles on the induction of cellular damage in Klebsiella pneumoniae involving diverse mechanisms
  98. Microwave-assisted green synthesis, characterization, and in vitro antibacterial activity of NiO nanoparticles obtained from lemon peel extract
  99. Rhus microphylla-mediated biosynthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles for enhanced antibacterial and antibiofilm efficacy
  100. Harnessing trichalcogenide–molybdenum(vi) sulfide and molybdenum(vi) oxide within poly(1-amino-2-mercaptobenzene) frameworks as a photocathode for sustainable green hydrogen production from seawater without sacrificial agents
  101. Magnetically recyclable Fe3O4@SiO2 supported phosphonium ionic liquids for efficient and sustainable transformation of CO2 into oxazolidinones
  102. A comparative study of Fagonia arabica fabricated silver sulfide nanoparticles (Ag2S) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) with distinct antimicrobial, anticancer, and antioxidant properties
  103. Visible light photocatalytic degradation and biological activities of Aegle marmelos-mediated cerium oxide nanoparticles
  104. Physical intrinsic characteristics of spheroidal particles in coal gasification fine slag
  105. Exploring the effect of tea dust magnetic biochar on agricultural crops grown in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contaminated soil
  106. Crosslinked chitosan-modified ultrafiltration membranes for efficient surface water treatment and enhanced anti-fouling performances
  107. Study on adsorption characteristics of biochars and their modified biochars for removal of organic dyes from aqueous solution
  108. Zein polymer nanocarrier for Ocimum basilicum var. purpurascens extract: Potential biomedical use
  109. Green synthesis, characterization, and in vitro and in vivo biological screening of iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe3O4) generated with hydroalcoholic extract of aerial parts of Euphorbia milii
  110. Novel microwave-based green approach for the synthesis of dual-loaded cyclodextrin nanosponges: Characterization, pharmacodynamics, and pharmacokinetics evaluation
  111. Bi2O3–BiOCl/poly-m-methyl aniline nanocomposite thin film for broad-spectrum light-sensing
  112. Green synthesis and characterization of CuO/ZnO nanocomposite using Musa acuminata leaf extract for cytotoxic studies on colorectal cancer cells (HCC2998)
  113. Review Articles
  114. Materials-based drug delivery approaches: Recent advances and future perspectives
  115. A review of thermal treatment for bamboo and its composites
  116. An overview of the role of nanoherbicides in tackling challenges of weed management in wheat: A novel approach
  117. An updated review on carbon nanomaterials: Types, synthesis, functionalization and applications, degradation and toxicity
  118. Special Issue: Emerging green nanomaterials for sustainable waste management and biomedical applications
  119. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using mature-pseudostem extracts of Alpinia nigra and their bioactivities
  120. Special Issue: New insights into nanopythotechnology: current trends and future prospects
  121. Green synthesis of FeO nanoparticles from coffee and its application for antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-oxidation activity
  122. Dye degradation activity of biogenically synthesized Cu/Fe/Ag trimetallic nanoparticles
  123. Special Issue: Composites and green composites
  124. Recent trends and advancements in the utilization of green composites and polymeric nanocarriers for enhancing food quality and sustainable processing
  125. Retraction
  126. Retraction of “Biosynthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles from Cedrela toona leaf extracts: An exploration into their antibacterial, anticancer, and antioxidant potential”
  127. Retraction of “Photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes and biological potentials of biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the polar extract of Cyperus scariosus R.Br. (Cyperaceae)”
  128. Retraction to “Green synthesis on performance characteristics of a direct injection diesel engine using sandbox seed oil”
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