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Functionalized gold nanoparticles coated with bacterial alginate and their antibacterial and anticancer activities

  • Hebah A. Sindi ORCID logo , Ragaa A. Hamouda ORCID logo EMAIL logo , Nuha M. Alhazmi ORCID logo and Marwa S. Abdel-Hamid ORCID logo
Published/Copyright: February 3, 2024
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Green Processing and Synthesis
From the journal Green Processing and Synthesis Volume 13 Issue 1

Abstract

Gold nanoparticles (Au-NPs) have several uses for nanobiotechnologists because of their beneficial biomedical properties. Alginates have various biomedical and industrial applications. The aim of this study is to extract alginate from Azotobacter chroococcum, synthesize chemical Au-NPs (Ch/Au-NPs), and load the NPs with the extracted alginate to form Azotobacter alginate gold nanocomposites (Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs). The Ch/Au-NPs and Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs were characterized by UV-spectroscopy, Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), zeta potential, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The anticancer activities were determined using the breast cancer cell line MCF-7, human lung cancer cell line H1299, and Vero cell line. The results obtained by UV-spectroscopy exhibited a surface plasmon resonance that was clearly noticeable at 530 nm, and the EDS analysis proved that gold was present in percentages of 50.11 and 28.08 in the Ch/Au-NPs and Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs, respectively. There were several similarities between the alginic acid and the alginate extracted from A. chroococcum, and small modifications were proved by FT-IR spectroscopy. Negative charges were shown by the zeta potential. Crystalline and cubic NPs were shown by XRD analysis and TEM. TGA demonstrated the purity of the Ch/Au-NPs and the existence of organic compounds in the Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs. Both the Ch/Au-NPs and Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs had antibacterial activities against Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, Proteus mirabilis, Enterobacter sp., and Pseudomonas aeruginosa and possessed anticancer activities against MCF-7 and H1299.

Graphical abstract

Keywords: Azotobacter chroococcum ; alginate; gold nanoparticles; cancer cell line; bacteria

1 Introduction

A major health challenge and cause of death globally continues to be cancer. The severity of this disease was highlighted by the estimated 19.3 million new cases and 10 million fatalities from it that were recorded in 2020 [1]. To develop novel treatment approaches, it is crucial to get a deeper understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in both the onset and progression of cancer. The Vero cell line, which is derived from the kidney of the African green monkey, as well as the breast cancer cell line MCF7 and the non-small-cell lung cancer cell line H1299, are important lines for investigating various cancers. Millions of women around the world are affected by breast cancer, which is a severe health issue [2].

The increase in drug resistance in bacterial pathogens poses a significant obstacle to the effectiveness of antibiotics. This increase in the bacterial resistance to drugs presents a substantial challenge to health around the world. These bacteria can resist the effects of one or multiple antibiotics, leading to infections that are more difficult to manage and heightening the probability of serious sickness or fatalities. Bacteria and fungi are becoming increasingly resistant to antimicrobial medications, and it is estimated that more than 33,000 people die each year from resistant germs in Europe alone. Antimicrobial resistance has been named one of the top ten health hazards facing the global population by the World Health Organization [3,4].

Many studies have been conducted to look for alternative natural substances that can eliminate harmful bacteria, such as bio-fabricated nanoparticles (NPs) [5]. Alginate, a naturally occurring biopolymer, is mostly derived from brown algae (of the class Phaeophyceae) and specific bacterial species, such as Azotobacter and Pseudomonas [6]. This linear polysaccharide is made up of 1,4 units of -d-mannuronic acid (M) and -l-guluronic acid (G). In certain circumstances, it has the capacity to change into a substance that resembles gel. Owing to its special qualities, such as its capacity for gel formation, biocompatibility, and biodegradability, alginate has a wide range of applications in various industries. It is frequently employed in the food industry as a gelling, stabilizing, and thickening agent, as well as in the creation of edible films and coatings. Alginate has also acquired significance in the biomedical field because of its unique qualities such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, gel-forming ability, high absorbency, hemostatic capabilities, and controlled drug release ability [7,8]. These qualities have made alginate an invaluable material for uses such as cell encapsulation, tissue engineering, drug delivery systems, and wound healing. Its biocompatibility and hydrogel-forming ability make it an ideal material for a variety of medical applications, and its biodegradability ensures that it can be safely used in implantable devices and drug delivery systems without causing long-term harm [9].

A free-living, nitrogen-fixing bacterial genus called Azotobacter has been investigated for its possible contribution to the production of alginate. The bacterial production of alginate-like polymers was initially found in the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa and the soil bacterium Azotobacter vinelandii. The synthesis of alginates was then studied in Azotobacter chroococcum [10,11]. Compared with conventional seaweed-derived alginates, the alginate produced by Azotobacter has many benefits, including a more uniform quality, simpler purification procedures, and the potential for alteration of the alginate’s composition. Azotobacter’s alginate has been investigated for its potential in a number of uses, including tissue engineering scaffolds, drug delivery systems, and wound dressings. In the pharmaceutical industry, alginates and alginic acid are frequently used in highly pure forms; the former is used as a stabilizer in solutions and dispersions of solid substances, and the latter is used as a binder and disintegrating agent in tablets [12].

In recent years, gold nanoparticles (Au-NPs) have sparked considerable attention owing to their potential applications in the treatment of cancer and drug-resistant microorganisms. Faraday published the first scientific paper on Au-NPs in 1857, attributing their red color to their colloidal origin and outlining their light-scattering qualities [13]. They may be created to have certain specific qualities. The stability, mobility, compatibility, and other characteristics of Au-NPs are significantly influenced by their size and shape, which should be optimized for specific biomedical applications [9,14–18]. One of the most impressive qualities of Au-NPs is their ability to convert light into heat when exposed to laser light. This characteristic is important because it can be used to create nanophotothermal vectors that can kill bacteria at the molecular level; by destroying bacterial cell walls and preventing bacterial development, they can function as antimicrobial agents on their own [19,20]. The NPs probably cause bacterial cell membrane disruption, impede bacterial enzyme function, and stimulate the creation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that cause oxidative stress and damage to the bacterial cells [21].

Au-NPs are becoming more and more significant in a variety of biological and high-tech applications [22]. Biomolecules and drug-functionalized Au-NPs are efficiently used to treat various cancers and other diseases [23]. Bansal et al. [24] summarized the roles of Au-NPs in biomedical applications, such as curing rheumatic diseases, treating mental disorders, using for dental restorations, and improving immunity.

The combination of Au-NPs with sodium alginate increases the latter’s antioxidant activity [25]. An alginate coating of Au-NPs can make it easier for nanocarriers to pass through cell membranes, improving drug delivery to tumor cells [26]. Au-NPs and cisplatin can be co-loaded into alginate, forming a compound called the ACA nanocomplex, which led to a growth inhibition of 79% in CT26 colon cancers and increased the therapeutic effectiveness of conventional chemotherapy [27].

Therefore, the aims of this study are to extract extracellular alginate from A. chroococcum, synthesize Au-NPs by chemical methods, and load alginate into the Au-NPs to form alginate-Au nanocomposites (Alg-Au-NCMs). In addition, the obtained Au-NPs and Alg-Au-NCMs extracted from A. chroococcum were tested against some isolated bacteria and the breast cancer cell line MCF-7, human lung cancer cell line H1299, and Vero cell line in vitro.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Azotobacter chroococcum MH179061 cultivation

A. chroococcum MH179061 was obtained from the Department of Microbial Biotechnology, Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Research Institute (GEBRI), University of Sadat City [27]. It was inoculated into modified Ashby’s medium [28] and incubated for 5 days at an agitation of 350 rpm, pH of 6.84 ± 0.1, and temperature of 30°C.

2.2 Extraction of alginate from A. chroococcum MH179061

To extract the alginates, 1 mL of 0.5 M EDTA-sodium salt and 0.5 mL of 5 M NaCl were added to a 25 mL sample of culture broth. The mixture was mixed for 5 min before being centrifuged for 30 min at 38,000 rpm and 20°C to precipitate the cells. Alginates were precipitated from the supernatant after it had been cooled down by the addition of three volumes of ice-cold isopropanol, and they were then recovered by centrifugation at 38,000 rpm for 30 min at 4°C. After being dissolved in hot water, the white precipitate was precipitated once more, centrifuged, washing, and finally dried for 24 h at 60°C [27].

2.3 Synthesis of Au-NPs (Ch/Au-NPs)

Half mM gold auric chloride salt (HAuCl4), 0.017 g was dissolved in 100 mL of double distilled water with heating near boiling (95–98°C) and then 1% tri-sodium citrate solution was added drop-wise until the solution turned to black color, with continued heating the color changed to red wine color (10 v, HAuCl4: 1 v, tri-sodium citrate). After waiting until the temperature reached the room temperature, the Au-NP solution was centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 15 min. The pellet was dispersed in deionized water by vortex and subjected to centrifugation, the re-dispersion was repeated many times to obtain almost pure Ch/Au-NPs and then stored in the dark at 2–8°C until further investigations [29].

2.4 Synthesis of gold/alginate nanocomposite (Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs)

Approximately 0.25 g of extracted alginate and 0.25 g of Ch/Au-NPs were added to 100 mL of DD water, the mixture was heated at 60–80°C and continuously stirred at 600 rpm using a magnetic stirrer till the mixture turned to deep red wine. The obtained suspension was centrifuged at 15,000 rpm for 45 min, the precipitated sample was lyophilized, and then stored in a cool, dry, and dark place until their physiochemical characterizations were estimated.

2.5 Characterizations of Ch/Au-NPs and Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs

The characterization of Ch/Au-NPs and Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs by UV-Vis spectrophotometry, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) (JEOL JSM-6510/v, Tokyo, Japan), energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) (JEOL JSM-6510/v, Tokyo, Japan), zeta potential analysis (Malvern Zeta size Nano-Zs90, Malvern, PA, USA), Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectrometer, Thermo Fisher Nicolet IS10, (Waltham, MA, USA), X-ray diffractometer (PANanalytical X-Pert PRO, Spectris plc, Almelo, The Netherlands), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA).

2.6 Anticancer activities

The anticancer activities of Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs on the breast cancer cell line (MCF-7), human lung cancer cell line (H1299), and Vero cell line (obtained from National Cancer Institute Pharmacology Unit, Cairo university) were evaluated by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay [30].

2.7 Antibacterial activities

The antibacterial activity of Ch/Au-NPs and Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs was displayed against some pathogenic bacteria, Gram-negative, Proteus mirabilis, Enterobacter sp., and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, as well as Gram-positive, and Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, the bacteria obtained from Department of Microbial Biotechnology, GEBRI, University of Sadat City. All the bacterial isolates were cultured in nutrient broth at 37°C for 24 h. Approximately 50 µL of bacterial suspension (10−4) was spread over Mueller-Hinton agar (Sigma-Aldrich Company). Wells were made on the agar plates and occupied with 100 µL of each Ch/Au-NPs and Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs (5 mg·mL−1). After 24 h of incubation at 37°C, the clear zones were measured.

2.8 Statistical analysis

Data of the effect of Ch/Au-NPs and Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs on bacterial pathogens were presented as the mean standard error and were subjected to statistical analysis using one-way analysis of variance. The post hoc differences between means were tested by Tukey’s multiple comparison tests. Differences at P < 0.05 were reflected as significant.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 UV-spectrophotometer

The presence of Au-NPs was first detected by color changes and then confirmed using a UV-spectrophotometer. The examination of the NPs benefited greatly from UV-spectrophotometry. Figure 1 shows the UV-spectrophotometry findings for Ch/Au-NPs and Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs. The results showed that the surface plasmon resonance was clearly noticeable at 530 nm for both the Ch/Au-NPs and Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs, but the optical density for the Ch/Au-NPs was 0.29 nm and for the Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs was 0.24 nm. The results agreed with those of Haiss et al. [31], who found a surface plasmon resonance of Au-NPs that had a peak of 520–580 nm and was therefore quite apparent. The surface plasmon resonance peak of Au-NPs was detected at 560 nm [32] and 550 nm [33].

Figure 1 UV-spectrophotometer of Ch/Au-NPs (S1) and Azto/Alg-Au- NCMs (S2).
Figure 1

UV-spectrophotometer of Ch/Au-NPs (S1) and Azto/Alg-Au- NCMs (S2).

3.2 FT-IR analysis of commercial alginic acid and alginate extracted from A. chroococcum MH179061

The FT-IR spectrum of commercial sodium alginate and alginate extracted from A. chroococcum MH179061 is shown in Table 1 and Figure 2. Twenty peaks appeared in the commercial sodium alginate and 23 peaks in the alginate extracted from A. chroococcum MH179061. The peaks at wavelengths of 3,442, 2,932, 2,130, 1,647, 1,049, 1,341, 1,162, 1,089, 1,047, 950, 879, and 663 cm−1 that were found in the alginate extracted from A. chroococcum MH179061 resembled the peaks that appeared for the commercial sodium alginate with some shifts. These peaks indicated the presence of functional groups such as OH bonds, the methylene group, C═C bond stretching, C═O (quinonic form), –CH deformation, CH3 deformation, –C–O stretch, symmetric PO2– vibration, C═O groups, OH mode, C–O stretch, and C–S stretching modes, respectively. Certain peaks were found in the bacterial alginate but not in the alginate standard, such as those at the wavelengths of 2,974, 2,897, 2,665, 2,530, 2,409, 1,456, 1,381, 1,128, and 815 cm−1, this may have been related to certain amino acids and proteins (enzymes) secreted by A. chroococcum MH179061. Some peaks that were found in the alginate standard disappeared in the bacterial alginate, such as those at the wavelengths of 1,588, 1,270, 1,283, 1,243, and 761 cm−1, which suggests that some modification of the bacterial alginate compared with the commercial alginate may have been due to the sources of fabrication of the commercial alginate. Alginic acid is extracted from brown algae [34]. The alginate extracted from brown algae is different from the alginate extracted from bacteria due to the presence of O-acetyl groups in the bacterial alginate [35] and the presence of the alginate (polysaccharide) in the algal cell wall [36]. However, an exopolysaccharide is secreted by some types of bacteria, such as Azotobacter and Pseudomonas. The alginates produced by the two bacteria have several similarities but also are somewhat different [37].

Table 1

FT-IR analysis of commercial alginate extracted from A. chroococcum and alginic acid

Bacterial alginate wave (cm−1) Alginic standard wave (cm−1) Shift Assignment Ref.
3,442 3,386 −56 OH bonds [38]
2,974 — — C–H stretching [39]
2,932 2,926 −6 methylene group [39]
2,897 — — C–H symmetrical stretching [40]
2,665 — — N–H bond associated with amide [41]
2,530 — — S–H band [42]
2,409 — — OH [43]
2,130 2,111 — C═C bond stretching [44]
1,922 — — CO bound [45]
1,647 1,613 −34 C═O (quinonic form) [46]
— 1,588 — Vibrational stretching band of CO2 [47]
1,456 — — Asymmetric CH3 bending [48]
1,409 1,422 +13 –CH deformation [49]
1,381 — — CH2 deformation [50]
1,341 1,337 −4 CH3 deformation [51]
1,307 1,307 — Proteins or CH2 [52]
— 1,270 — Si–CH3 [53]
— 1,283 — C–O–C [54]
— 1,243 — C–O stretching [55]
1,162 1,175 −5 –C–O stretch [56]
1,128 — — C–O stretching vibration [57]
1,089 1,080 –9 Symmetric PO2− vibration [58]
1,047 1,020 −27 C═O groups [59]
950 933 −17 OH mode [60]
879 845 −34 C–O stretch [61]
815 — — Sugar-phosphate [62]
— 761 + Specific to substituted aromatic ring [63]
663 706 +43 C–S stretching modes [64]
— 576 — Primary alcohol skeleton bend [65]
— 527 — COC bending, glycosidic links/CCC ring deform [66]
Figure 2 FT-IR analysis of commercial sodium alginic acids (a) and alginate extracted from A. chroococcum MH179061 (b).
Figure 2

FT-IR analysis of commercial sodium alginic acids (a) and alginate extracted from A. chroococcum MH179061 (b).

FT-IR spectra recorded for both the Ch/Au-NPs and Azto/Alg-Au-NPs are shown in Figure 3. The absorption bands of the Ch/Au-NPs are seen at wavelengths of 3,442.85, 2,084, 1,636, and 562 cm−1, with small differences seen in the bands of Azto/Alg-Au-NPs at wavelengths of 3,445, 2,091, 1,637, and 523 cm−1. The bands at 3,442 and 3,445 cm−1 were attributed to the OH group and found in Au-NPs according to Hadi and Yas [67]. The band at 2,048 cm−1 was attributed to CO [68] and at 2,091 cm−1 to C–H band stretching [69]. The sharp peaks at 1,636 and 1,637 cm−1 were attributed to the amide group [70]. Broad bands at 562 and 523 cm−1 were attributed to metal oxide [71].

Figure 3 FT-IR analysis of Ch/Au-NPs (a) and Azto/Alg-Au-NPs (b).
Figure 3

FT-IR analysis of Ch/Au-NPs (a) and Azto/Alg-Au-NPs (b).

3.3 Energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis

EDX analysis was used to indicate the presence of Au-NPs. Figure 4 shows that the weight of gold in the Ch/Au-NPs was 50.11% at different kilo-electron volts (keV), with the major peak located at approximately 2 keV, and that the weight percentage was decreased to 28.08% in the Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs due to the presence of the alginate that was capping the Au-NPs. Some other elements also appeared, such as C, O, Na, Mg, P, Cl, Ca, and Cu, at weights of 29.77%, 29.16%, 3.5%, 0.91%, 1.53%, 0.65%, 5.52%, and 0.93%, respectively. The presence of metals such as Mg++, P, Cl‒, and Ca++ may have been related to the medium used to produce the alginate from the bacteria. The absorption metallic gold located at 2 keV demonstrated the presence of Au-NPs [72].

Figure 4 EDX spectrum analysis and weight% of Ch/Au-NPs (a) and Azto/Alg-Au-NPs (b).
Figure 4

EDX spectrum analysis and weight% of Ch/Au-NPs (a) and Azto/Alg-Au-NPs (b).

3.4 Zeta potential

The zeta potential measures the number of electric charges on a NP’s surface. Due to electrostatic repulsions, which are determined by the zeta potential, NPs are typically regarded as stable if the zeta potential is more positive than +30 mV or more negative than ‒30 mV [73]. Figure 5 shows the zeta potentials of the Ch/Au-NPs and Azto/Alg-Au-NPs. The zeta potential of the Ch/Au-NPs was a negative charge in the range of ‒30 mV, and the zeta potential of the Azto/Alg-Au-NPs was also a negative charge of ‒36 mV. The Azto/Alg-Au-NPs had charges that were more negative than those of the Ch/Au-NPs; this was due to the adsorption by the alginate on the surface of the Ch/Au-NPs and the enhanced stability of the Azto/Alg-Au-NPs. The zeta potential of the Au-NPs prepared in pure water was ‒10.80 mV, and the zeta potentials of the Au-NPs prepared in alginate ranged from ‒40.60 to ‒55.17 mV. As a result, the electrostatic and steric repulsion of the “COO” groups of alginate chains was stronger than that of the Au-NPs synthesized in pure water [74,75]. The zeta potential of the Au-NPs dispersed in different concentrations of alginate ranged from −40.60 to −55.17 mV. Alginate can be used to stabilize Au-NPs and reduce the rate at which large Au-NPs precipitate [76]. The negatively charged surface of polyvinyl pyrrolidone-capped Au-NPs prevents flocculation and, hence, stabilizes the colloids through electrostatic repulsion and steric action [77]. Citrate-Au-NPs were highly stable, with an average zeta potential of −38.7 ± 4.4 mV [78].

Figure 5 Zeta potential of Azto/Alg-Au-NPs (a) and Ch/Au-NPs (b).
Figure 5

Zeta potential of Azto/Alg-Au-NPs (a) and Ch/Au-NPs (b).

3.5 X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis

Figure 6a shows the XRD patterns of chemically synthesized Au-NPs (Ch/Au-NPs). They demonstrate that the Au-NPs were crystalline and cubic in shape. The XRD diffraction patterns of Ch/Au-NPs were recorded at 2-theta as 37.374°, 43.427°, 63.098°, 75.692°, 79.702°, and 95.456°, which corresponded to lattice planes (hkl) of 111, 200, 220, 311, 222, and 400. Figure 6b denotes the XRD patterns of the nanocomposites of alginate extracted from A. chroococcum MH179061 and the chemical synthesis of the Au-NPs (Azto/Alg-Au-NPs). The results demonstrate that the Azto/Alg-Au-NPs were crystalline and cubic in shape. The XRD diffraction patterns of the Azto/Alg-Au-NPs were recorded at 38.272°, 44.485°, 64.726°, 77.760°, 81.935°, and 98.410°, which corresponded to lattice planes (hkl) of 111, 200, 220, 311, 222, and 400, respectively. There were small modifications in the peak positions between the Ch/Au-NPs and Azto/Alg-Au-NPs, and this denoted the presence of the alginate that was coated on the Au-NPs. The strongest peak was at hkl 111 for both the Ch/Au-NPs and Azto/Alg-Au-NPs. There was a shift in 2-theta to a higher angle in the case of the Azto/Alg-Au-NPs, and this was due to the small size of the Azto/Alg-Au-NPs in comparison with the Ch/Au-NPs. The slight shift of the strongest peak (111) to a higher angle occurred as the particle size became smaller [79]. The obtained results were quite similar to those in the study by Bindhu and Umadevi [29], who reported diffraction peaks of biosynthesized Au-NPs at the 2-theta range of 38.21°, 44.11°, 64.81°, and 77.61°, and they were parallel to the numbers 111, 200, 220, and 311, respectively, of the Bragg reflection.

Figure 6 XRD analysis of Ch/Au-NPs (a) and Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs (b).
Figure 6

XRD analysis of Ch/Au-NPs (a) and Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs (b).

3.6 TEM images

Figure 7 shows the TEM images of the Ch/Au-NPs and Azto/Alg-Au-NPs. The images clarified the cubic geometry in terms of the shapes of the Ch/Au-NPs and Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs. The size of the Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs ranged from 24 to 27 nm and of the Ch/Au-NPs from 19.97 to 22 nm. These results demonstrated that the obtained NPs were nearly monodispersed. The shape of the Au-NPs differed according to the synthesis process. The Au-NPs synthesized by a solvothermal method using tin chloride (SnCl2) as a reducing agent had a nearly spherical geometry, ranging in size from 5 to 50 nm, and had an average particle size of 15 nm [80]. Au-NP synthesis by the isopropanol extract alfalfa biomass ranged from 30 to 60 nm in diameter and had low surface energy [81]. Chemically synthesized Au-NPs synthesized by pure water were mostly spherical and more aggregated than those synthesized in the presence of alginate [76]. The average size was 15–20 nm for the Au-NPs embedded in polyethylene oxide and sodium alginate polymer [82].

Figure 7 TEM of Azto/Alg-Au-NPs (a) and Ch/Au-NPs (b), arrows refer to alginate loaded in Au-NPs.
Figure 7

TEM of Azto/Alg-Au-NPs (a) and Ch/Au-NPs (b), arrows refer to alginate loaded in Au-NPs.

3.7 TGA findings

The TGAs of the Ch/Au-NPs and Azto/Alg-Au-NPs are provided in Figure 8a and b. The Ch/Au-NPs show a one-step loss of weight, whereas the Azto/Alg-Au-NPs show a two-step loss of weight. The weight of the Azto/Alg-Au-NPs was determined in an aqueous solution; it could therefore be proposed that a layered structure of alginate was formed around the surface of the gold via the OH groups and was connected to the gold, the OH groups of which were in an aqueous solution, through hydrophobic interaction. Loss of weight may be attributed to the loss of the alginate layer first, followed by the loss of the gold. Similar results were found by Tajammul Hussain et al. [83]; the first and second weight losses of the starch-capped Au-NPs in the TGA curve might be attributed to the releases of the outer and inner layers of the surfaces, respectively. TGA of pentafluorobenzenethiolate with Au55(PPh3)12Cl6 showed a two-step weight loss, and this proved the formation of the ligand shell’s composition [84]. TGA of biosynthesized Au-NPs by an apiin compound showed that the weight loss at 150°C was attributed to the water molecules extant in the apiin compound, followed by a steady weight loss until 800°C that was due to the surface desorption of bioorganic materials found with the NPs [85].

Figure 8 TGA curves of Ch/Au-NPs (a) and Azto/Alg-Au-NPs (b).
Figure 8

TGA curves of Ch/Au-NPs (a) and Azto/Alg-Au-NPs (b).

3.8 Anticancer activities

Figure 9a and b displays the anticancer activities of different concentrations of Azto/Alg-Au-NPs against the breast cancer cell line MCF-7, human lung cancer cell line H1299, and Vero cell line. The Azto/Alg-Au-NPs had good results against the breast cancer cell line MCF-7 and the human lung cancer cell line H1299, which had inhibition percentages of 56.4% and 52.9% at 0.085 µg·mL−1 Azto/Alg-Au-NPs. A low level of inhibition was shown with the Vero cell line. Figure 9 shows the cell viability rate of the breast cancer cell line MCF-7, human lung cancer cell line H1299, and Vero cell line that were pretreated with Azto/Alg-Au-NPs. Chloroquine-Au-NP conjugates exhibited anticancer activity against MCF-7 breast cancer cells [86]. The plant-mediated Au-NPs that were 30 nm in size showed anticancer activity against MCF-7 breast cancer cells with a minimum inhibitory concentration of 2 µg·mL−1; as the concentrations increased, the anticancer activity also increased [87]. Methotrexate/alginate/curcumin/Au-NPs displayed active targeting efficacy against MCF-7 cancer cells [88]. The biosynthesized Au-NPs obtained via extraction from the Nigella arvensis leaf had anticancer activities against H1299 and MCF-7 cancer cell lines with a half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 10 and 25 μg·mL−1, respectively [89]. The IC50 of cells with silver NPs was 35.8 µg·mL−1 [90]. Curcumin-coated Au-NPs and their composites with chitosan/sodium were cytotoxic against the UM-UC-6 and MDA-MB 231 cell lines in vitro [91]. The gold/cellulose nanocomposite was cytotoxic against A549 cancer lung cells and HEL299 normal lung fibroblasts, and it also reduced the relative expression of the Raf-1 gene [92]. The inhibition percentage was lower against the Vero cell line, and this finding agreed with the findings of Priya and Iyer [93] that various concentrations of Au-NPs were nontoxic against the Vero cell line.

Figure 9 (a) Anticancer activities of different concentrations of Azto/Alg-Au-NPs (µg·mL−1) against breast cancer cell line (MCF-7), human lung cancer cell line (H1299), and Vero cell line (different letters, denote significant values). (b) Cell viability rate of breast cancer cell line (MCF-7), human lung cancer cell line (H1299), and Vero cell line that were pre-treated with Azto/Alg-Au-NPs.
Figure 9

(a) Anticancer activities of different concentrations of Azto/Alg-Au-NPs (µg·mL−1) against breast cancer cell line (MCF-7), human lung cancer cell line (H1299), and Vero cell line (different letters, denote significant values). (b) Cell viability rate of breast cancer cell line (MCF-7), human lung cancer cell line (H1299), and Vero cell line that were pre-treated with Azto/Alg-Au-NPs.

3.9 Antibacterial activities

Figure 10a and b show the antibacterial activities of both the Ch/Au-NPs and Azto/Alg-Au-NPs against the bacterial isolates Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25,923, Proteus mirabilis, Enterobacter sp., and P. aeruginosa, which were evaluated by disc diffusion methods. Both the Ch/Au-NPs and Azto/Alg-Au-NPs had significant antibacterial activities against all tested bacteria. The Azto/Alg-Au-NPs were more effective against Enterobacter sp. but less effective against P. aeruginosa. There were no significant changes in the effect of Ch/Au-NPs against P. mirabilis or Enterobacter sp. Results demonstrated that the Azto/Alg-Au-NPs had greater antibacterial activity than the Ch/Au-NPs for all tested bacteria. A gold-peptide-alginate hydrogel was shown to have antimicrobial activity against pathogenic bacteria. A gold–gold alginate polymer could be promising in a very short time, which would make it potentially helpful for industrial and biomedical applications [94]. A composite of Au-NPs/polyaniline boronic acid/sodium alginate, which had an average size of 15–20 nm and a zeta potential of −32.5 ± 1.6 mV, had antibacterial activity against seafood-associated bacterial isolates [95]. Gold nanocomposites based on polysaccharides such as alginate and chitosan possessed antibacterial activity against gram-negative P. aeruginosa and gram-positive S. aureus [96]. Curcumin-coated Au-NPs and their composites with chitosan/sodium had antibacterial activities against S. aureus and E. coli [91].

Figure 10 (a) Antibacterial activities by agar well diffusion as a model of Ch/Au-NPs and Azto/Alg-Au-NPs against bacterial isolates (different letters, denote significant values). (b) Radar analysis shows the inhibition zone (mm) of both Ch/Au-NPs and Azto/Alg-Au-NPs against bacterial isolates.
Figure 10

(a) Antibacterial activities by agar well diffusion as a model of Ch/Au-NPs and Azto/Alg-Au-NPs against bacterial isolates (different letters, denote significant values). (b) Radar analysis shows the inhibition zone (mm) of both Ch/Au-NPs and Azto/Alg-Au-NPs against bacterial isolates.

TEM images of P. mirabilis gram-negative bacteria when used as a control and when treated by Azto/Alg-Au-NPs are shown in Figure 11. The Au-NPs became attached to the cell membrane, penetrated the cell, made holes in the cell wall, and finally completely destroyed the cell, which affirmed the mechanisms that had been suggested in many research studies. Glycol chitosan NPs were attached to the surface of methicillin-resistant S. aureus cells to alter the cells’ permeability, block the nutrient flow, and disrupt the cell membranes. Poly(γ-glutamic acid) NPs penetrated Salmonella enterica cells, forming cell wall cavities, plasmolysis, and degeneration [97]. A gold-titanium dioxide/sodium alginate composite had an antibacterial effect against S. aureus and E. coli in light conditions. The antibacterial property of the film arose from the improved production of ROS prompted by the surface plasmonic resonance of Au-NPs. The degradable and antibacterial properties reduced the composite film; this could have major potential in the food packaging industry [98]. Nanocomposites could be inexpensive and safe products when extracted from natural sources with antibacterial components [99].

Figure 11 HR-TEM examination of Proteus mirabilis with treated with Azto/Alg-Au-NPs. Healthy cell (a), treated bacteria (b), TEM image of Azto/Alg-Au-NPs (c), destroyed bacteria (d), and suggested mechanism (e).
Figure 11

HR-TEM examination of Proteus mirabilis with treated with Azto/Alg-Au-NPs. Healthy cell (a), treated bacteria (b), TEM image of Azto/Alg-Au-NPs (c), destroyed bacteria (d), and suggested mechanism (e).

4 Conclusion

The alginate produced by A. chroococcum is a good source for the production of Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs. The synthesis of Ch/Au-NPs and Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs was confirmed by FT-IR and EDS analysis. There were peaks that appeared in the commercial sodium alginate and the alginate extracted from bacteria with some small modifications shown on FT-IR spectroscopy. The zeta potential proved the negative charge of the Ch/Au-NPs, at ‒30, and of the Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs, at ‒36. The XRD patterns confirmed the crystalline nature of both the Ch/Au-NPs and Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs, according to the 2-theta angle and lattice planes (hkl) that appeared. The results obtained by EDX spectrum analysis denoted the percentages of gold in the Ch/Au-NPs (50.11%) and in the Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs (28.08%). TEM images proved that the Ch/Au-NPs were spherical in shape and ranged in size from 24 to 27 nm, and that the Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs were also spherical in shape and ranged in size from 19.97 to 22 nm. Both the Ch/Au-NPs and Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs possessed antibacterial activity against S. aureus ATCC 25923, P. mirabilis, Enterobacter sp., and P. aeruginosa. The Azto/Alg-Au-NCMs had anticancer effects against the breast cancer cell line MCF-7 and human lung cancer cell line, but were less effective against the Vero cell line in vitro.

,

Acknowledgements

This work was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research (DSR), University of Jeddah, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, under Grant No. UJ-22-DR-103. The authors, therefore, acknowledge with thanks the technical and financial support from DSR.

  1. Funding information: This work was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research (DSR), University of Jeddah, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, under Grant No. UJ-22-DR-103. The authors, therefore, acknowledge with thanks the technical and financial support from DSR.

  2. Author contributions: H.A.S.: investigation, writing, resources, and reviewing. R.A.H.: conceptualization, data analysis, validation, writing, and reviewing. N.M.A.: investigation, writing, and resources. M.S.A.: methodology, writing, and reviewing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2023-09-05
Accepted: 2024-01-02
Published Online: 2024-02-03

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Green polymer electrolyte and activated charcoal-based supercapacitor for energy harvesting application: Electrochemical characteristics
  3. Research on the adsorption of Co2+ ions using halloysite clay and the ability to recover them by electrodeposition method
  4. Simultaneous estimation of ibuprofen, caffeine, and paracetamol in commercial products using a green reverse-phase HPTLC method
  5. Isolation, screening and optimization of alkaliphilic cellulolytic fungi for production of cellulase
  6. Functionalized gold nanoparticles coated with bacterial alginate and their antibacterial and anticancer activities
  7. Comparative analysis of bio-based amino acid surfactants obtained via Diels–Alder reaction of cyclic anhydrides
  8. Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles on yellow phosphorus slag and its application in organic coatings
  9. Exploring antioxidant potential and phenolic compound extraction from Vitis vinifera L. using ultrasound-assisted extraction
  10. Manganese and copper-coated nickel oxide nanoparticles synthesized from Carica papaya leaf extract induce antimicrobial activity and breast cancer cell death by triggering mitochondrial caspases and p53
  11. Insight into heating method and Mozafari method as green processing techniques for the synthesis of micro- and nano-drug carriers
  12. Silicotungstic acid supported on Bi-based MOF-derived metal oxide for photodegradation of organic dyes
  13. Synthesis and characterization of capsaicin nanoparticles: An attempt to enhance its bioavailability and pharmacological actions
  14. Synthesis of Lawsonia inermis-encased silver–copper bimetallic nanoparticles with antioxidant, antibacterial, and cytotoxic activity
  15. Facile, polyherbal drug-mediated green synthesis of CuO nanoparticles and their potent biological applications
  16. Zinc oxide-manganese oxide/carboxymethyl cellulose-folic acid-sesamol hybrid nanomaterials: A molecularly targeted strategy for advanced triple-negative breast cancer therapy
  17. Exploring the antimicrobial potential of biogenically synthesized graphene oxide nanoparticles against targeted bacterial and fungal pathogens
  18. Biofabrication of silver nanoparticles using Uncaria tomentosa L.: Insight into characterization, antibacterial activities combined with antibiotics, and effect on Triticum aestivum germination
  19. Membrane distillation of synthetic urine for use in space structural habitat systems
  20. Investigation on mechanical properties of the green synthesis bamboo fiber/eggshell/coconut shell powder-based hybrid biocomposites under NaOH conditions
  21. Green synthesis of magnesium oxide nanoparticles using endophytic fungal strain to improve the growth, metabolic activities, yield traits, and phenolic compounds content of Nigella sativa L.
  22. Estimation of greenhouse gas emissions from rice and annual upland crops in Red River Delta of Vietnam using the denitrification–decomposition model
  23. Synthesis of humic acid with the obtaining of potassium humate based on coal waste from the Lenger deposit, Kazakhstan
  24. Ascorbic acid-mediated selenium nanoparticles as potential antihyperuricemic, antioxidant, anticoagulant, and thrombolytic agents
  25. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Illicium verum extract: Optimization and characterization for biomedical applications
  26. Antibacterial and dynamical behaviour of silicon nanoparticles influenced sustainable waste flax fibre-reinforced epoxy composite for biomedical application
  27. Optimising coagulation/flocculation using response surface methodology and application of floc in biofertilisation
  28. Green synthesis and multifaceted characterization of iron oxide nanoparticles derived from Senna bicapsularis for enhanced in vitro and in vivo biological investigation
  29. Potent antibacterial nanocomposites from okra mucilage/chitosan/silver nanoparticles for multidrug-resistant Salmonella Typhimurium eradication
  30. Trachyspermum copticum aqueous seed extract-derived silver nanoparticles: Exploration of their structural characterization and comparative antibacterial performance against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria
  31. Microwave-assisted ultrafine silver nanoparticle synthesis using Mitragyna speciosa for antimalarial applications
  32. Green synthesis and characterisation of spherical structure Ag/Fe2O3/TiO2 nanocomposite using acacia in the presence of neem and tulsi oils
  33. Green quantitative methods for linagliptin and empagliflozin in dosage forms
  34. Enhancement efficacy of omeprazole by conjugation with silver nanoparticles as a urease inhibitor
  35. Residual, sequential extraction, and ecological risk assessment of some metals in ash from municipal solid waste incineration, Vietnam
  36. Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using the mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) leaf extract: Comparative preliminary in vitro antibacterial study
  37. Simultaneous determination of lesinurad and febuxostat in commercial fixed-dose combinations using a greener normal-phase HPTLC method
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  39. Optimization of biomass durian peel as a heterogeneous catalyst in biodiesel production using microwave irradiation
  40. Thermal treatment impact on the evolution of active phases in layered double hydroxide-based ZnCr photocatalysts: Photodegradation and antibacterial performance
  41. Preparation of silymarin-loaded zein polysaccharide core–shell nanostructures and evaluation of their biological potentials
  42. Preparation and characterization of composite-modified PA6 fiber for spectral heating and heat storage applications
  43. Preparation and electrocatalytic oxygen evolution of bimetallic phosphates (NiFe)2P/NF
  44. Rod-shaped Mo(vi) trichalcogenide–Mo(vi) oxide decorated on poly(1-H pyrrole) as a promising nanocomposite photoelectrode for green hydrogen generation from sewage water with high efficiency
  45. Green synthesis and studies on citrus medica leaf extract-mediated Au–ZnO nanocomposites: A sustainable approach for efficient photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B dye in aqueous media
  46. Cellulosic materials for the removal of ciprofloxacin from aqueous environments
  47. The analytical assessment of metal contamination in industrial soils of Saudi Arabia using the inductively coupled plasma technology
  48. The effect of modified oily sludge on the slurry ability and combustion performance of coal water slurry
  49. Eggshell waste transformation to calcium chloride anhydride as food-grade additive and eggshell membranes as enzyme immobilization carrier
  50. Synthesis of EPAN and applications in the encapsulation of potassium humate
  51. Biosynthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles from Cedrela toona leaf extracts: An exploration into their antibacterial, anticancer, and antioxidant potential
  52. Enhancing mechanical and rheological properties of HDPE films through annealing for eco-friendly agricultural applications
  53. Immobilisation of catalase purified from mushroom (Hydnum repandum) onto glutaraldehyde-activated chitosan and characterisation: Its application for the removal of hydrogen peroxide from artificial wastewater
  54. Sodium titanium oxide/zinc oxide (STO/ZnO) photocomposites for efficient dye degradation applications
  55. Effect of ex situ, eco-friendly ZnONPs incorporating green synthesised Moringa oleifera leaf extract in enhancing biochemical and molecular aspects of Vicia faba L. under salt stress
  56. Biosynthesis and characterization of selenium and silver nanoparticles using Trichoderma viride filtrate and their impact on Culex pipiens
  57. Photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes and biological potentials of biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the polar extract of Cyperus scariosus R.Br. (Cyperaceae)
  58. Assessment of antiproliferative activity of green-synthesized nickel oxide nanoparticles against glioblastoma cells using Terminalia chebula
  59. Chlorine-free synthesis of phosphinic derivatives by change in the P-function
  60. Anticancer, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities of nanoemulsions based on water-in-olive oil and loaded on biogenic silver nanoparticles
  61. Study and mechanism of formation of phosphorus production waste in Kazakhstan
  62. Synthesis and stabilization of anatase form of biomimetic TiO2 nanoparticles for enhancing anti-tumor potential
  63. Microwave-supported one-pot reaction for the synthesis of 5-alkyl/arylidene-2-(morpholin/thiomorpholin-4-yl)-1,3-thiazol-4(5H)-one derivatives over MgO solid base
  64. Screening the phytochemicals in Perilla leaves and phytosynthesis of bioactive silver nanoparticles for potential antioxidant and wound-healing application
  65. Graphene oxide/chitosan/manganese/folic acid-brucine functionalized nanocomposites show anticancer activity against liver cancer cells
  66. Nature of serpentinite interactions with low-concentration sulfuric acid solutions
  67. Multi-objective statistical optimisation utilising response surface methodology to predict engine performance using biofuels from waste plastic oil in CRDi engines
  68. Microwave-assisted extraction of acetosolv lignin from sugarcane bagasse and electrospinning of lignin/PEO nanofibres for carbon fibre production
  69. Biosynthesis, characterization, and investigation of cytotoxic activities of selenium nanoparticles utilizing Limosilactobacillus fermentum
  70. Highly photocatalytic materials based on the decoration of poly(O-chloroaniline) with molybdenum trichalcogenide oxide for green hydrogen generation from Red Sea water
  71. Highly efficient oil–water separation using superhydrophobic cellulose aerogels derived from corn straw
  72. Beta-cyclodextrin–Phyllanthus emblica emulsion for zinc oxide nanoparticles: Characteristics and photocatalysis
  73. Assessment of antimicrobial activity and methyl orange dye removal by Klebsiella pneumoniae-mediated silver nanoparticles
  74. Influential eradication of resistant Salmonella Typhimurium using bioactive nanocomposites from chitosan and radish seed-synthesized nanoselenium
  75. Antimicrobial activities and neuroprotective potential for Alzheimer’s disease of pure, Mn, Co, and Al-doped ZnO ultra-small nanoparticles
  76. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles from Bauhinia variegata and their biological applications
  77. Synthesis and optimization of long-chain fatty acids via the oxidation of long-chain fatty alcohols
  78. Eminent Red Sea water hydrogen generation via a Pb(ii)-iodide/poly(1H-pyrrole) nanocomposite photocathode
  79. Green synthesis and effective genistein production by fungal β-glucosidase immobilized on Al2O3 nanocrystals synthesized in Cajanus cajan L. (Millsp.) leaf extracts
  80. Green stability-indicating RP-HPTLC technique for determining croconazole hydrochloride
  81. Green synthesis of La2O3–LaPO4 nanocomposites using Charybdis natator for DNA binding, cytotoxic, catalytic, and luminescence applications
  82. Eco-friendly drugs induce cellular changes in colistin-resistant bacteria
  83. Tangerine fruit peel extract mediated biogenic synthesized silver nanoparticles and their potential antimicrobial, antioxidant, and cytotoxic assessments
  84. Green synthesis on performance characteristics of a direct injection diesel engine using sandbox seed oil
  85. A highly sensitive β-AKBA-Ag-based fluorescent “turn off” chemosensor for rapid detection of abamectin in tomatoes
  86. Green synthesis and physical characterization of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) derived from the methanol extract of Euphorbia dracunculoides Lam. (Euphorbiaceae) with enhanced biosafe applications
  87. Detection of morphine and data processing using surface plasmon resonance imaging sensor
  88. Effects of nanoparticles on the anaerobic digestion properties of sulfamethoxazole-containing chicken manure and analysis of bio-enzymes
  89. Bromic acid-thiourea synergistic leaching of sulfide gold ore
  90. Green chemistry approach to synthesize titanium dioxide nanoparticles using Fagonia Cretica extract, novel strategy for developing antimicrobial and antidiabetic therapies
  91. Green synthesis and effective utilization of biogenic Al2O3-nanocoupled fungal lipase in the resolution of active homochiral 2-octanol and its immobilization via aluminium oxide nanoparticles
  92. Eco-friendly RP-HPLC approach for simultaneously estimating the promising combination of pentoxifylline and simvastatin in therapeutic potential for breast cancer: Appraisal of greenness, whiteness, and Box–Behnken design
  93. Use of a humidity adsorbent derived from cockleshell waste in Thai fried fish crackers (Keropok)
  94. One-pot green synthesis, biological evaluation, and in silico study of pyrazole derivatives obtained from chalcones
  95. Bio-sorption of methylene blue and production of biofuel by brown alga Cystoseira sp. collected from Neom region, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
  96. Synthesis of motexafin gadolinium: A promising radiosensitizer and imaging agent for cancer therapy
  97. The impact of varying sizes of silver nanoparticles on the induction of cellular damage in Klebsiella pneumoniae involving diverse mechanisms
  98. Microwave-assisted green synthesis, characterization, and in vitro antibacterial activity of NiO nanoparticles obtained from lemon peel extract
  99. Rhus microphylla-mediated biosynthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles for enhanced antibacterial and antibiofilm efficacy
  100. Harnessing trichalcogenide–molybdenum(vi) sulfide and molybdenum(vi) oxide within poly(1-amino-2-mercaptobenzene) frameworks as a photocathode for sustainable green hydrogen production from seawater without sacrificial agents
  101. Magnetically recyclable Fe3O4@SiO2 supported phosphonium ionic liquids for efficient and sustainable transformation of CO2 into oxazolidinones
  102. A comparative study of Fagonia arabica fabricated silver sulfide nanoparticles (Ag2S) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) with distinct antimicrobial, anticancer, and antioxidant properties
  103. Visible light photocatalytic degradation and biological activities of Aegle marmelos-mediated cerium oxide nanoparticles
  104. Physical intrinsic characteristics of spheroidal particles in coal gasification fine slag
  105. Exploring the effect of tea dust magnetic biochar on agricultural crops grown in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contaminated soil
  106. Crosslinked chitosan-modified ultrafiltration membranes for efficient surface water treatment and enhanced anti-fouling performances
  107. Study on adsorption characteristics of biochars and their modified biochars for removal of organic dyes from aqueous solution
  108. Zein polymer nanocarrier for Ocimum basilicum var. purpurascens extract: Potential biomedical use
  109. Green synthesis, characterization, and in vitro and in vivo biological screening of iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe3O4) generated with hydroalcoholic extract of aerial parts of Euphorbia milii
  110. Novel microwave-based green approach for the synthesis of dual-loaded cyclodextrin nanosponges: Characterization, pharmacodynamics, and pharmacokinetics evaluation
  111. Bi2O3–BiOCl/poly-m-methyl aniline nanocomposite thin film for broad-spectrum light-sensing
  112. Green synthesis and characterization of CuO/ZnO nanocomposite using Musa acuminata leaf extract for cytotoxic studies on colorectal cancer cells (HCC2998)
  113. Review Articles
  114. Materials-based drug delivery approaches: Recent advances and future perspectives
  115. A review of thermal treatment for bamboo and its composites
  116. An overview of the role of nanoherbicides in tackling challenges of weed management in wheat: A novel approach
  117. An updated review on carbon nanomaterials: Types, synthesis, functionalization and applications, degradation and toxicity
  118. Special Issue: Emerging green nanomaterials for sustainable waste management and biomedical applications
  119. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using mature-pseudostem extracts of Alpinia nigra and their bioactivities
  120. Special Issue: New insights into nanopythotechnology: current trends and future prospects
  121. Green synthesis of FeO nanoparticles from coffee and its application for antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-oxidation activity
  122. Dye degradation activity of biogenically synthesized Cu/Fe/Ag trimetallic nanoparticles
  123. Special Issue: Composites and green composites
  124. Recent trends and advancements in the utilization of green composites and polymeric nanocarriers for enhancing food quality and sustainable processing
  125. Retraction
  126. Retraction of “Biosynthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles from Cedrela toona leaf extracts: An exploration into their antibacterial, anticancer, and antioxidant potential”
  127. Retraction of “Photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes and biological potentials of biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the polar extract of Cyperus scariosus R.Br. (Cyperaceae)”
  128. Retraction to “Green synthesis on performance characteristics of a direct injection diesel engine using sandbox seed oil”
https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2023-0170
Keywords for this article
Azotobacter chroococcum; alginate; gold nanoparticles; cancer cell line; bacteria
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Green polymer electrolyte and activated charcoal-based supercapacitor for energy harvesting application: Electrochemical characteristics
  3. Research on the adsorption of Co2+ ions using halloysite clay and the ability to recover them by electrodeposition method
  4. Simultaneous estimation of ibuprofen, caffeine, and paracetamol in commercial products using a green reverse-phase HPTLC method
  5. Isolation, screening and optimization of alkaliphilic cellulolytic fungi for production of cellulase
  6. Functionalized gold nanoparticles coated with bacterial alginate and their antibacterial and anticancer activities
  7. Comparative analysis of bio-based amino acid surfactants obtained via Diels–Alder reaction of cyclic anhydrides
  8. Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles on yellow phosphorus slag and its application in organic coatings
  9. Exploring antioxidant potential and phenolic compound extraction from Vitis vinifera L. using ultrasound-assisted extraction
  10. Manganese and copper-coated nickel oxide nanoparticles synthesized from Carica papaya leaf extract induce antimicrobial activity and breast cancer cell death by triggering mitochondrial caspases and p53
  11. Insight into heating method and Mozafari method as green processing techniques for the synthesis of micro- and nano-drug carriers
  12. Silicotungstic acid supported on Bi-based MOF-derived metal oxide for photodegradation of organic dyes
  13. Synthesis and characterization of capsaicin nanoparticles: An attempt to enhance its bioavailability and pharmacological actions
  14. Synthesis of Lawsonia inermis-encased silver–copper bimetallic nanoparticles with antioxidant, antibacterial, and cytotoxic activity
  15. Facile, polyherbal drug-mediated green synthesis of CuO nanoparticles and their potent biological applications
  16. Zinc oxide-manganese oxide/carboxymethyl cellulose-folic acid-sesamol hybrid nanomaterials: A molecularly targeted strategy for advanced triple-negative breast cancer therapy
  17. Exploring the antimicrobial potential of biogenically synthesized graphene oxide nanoparticles against targeted bacterial and fungal pathogens
  18. Biofabrication of silver nanoparticles using Uncaria tomentosa L.: Insight into characterization, antibacterial activities combined with antibiotics, and effect on Triticum aestivum germination
  19. Membrane distillation of synthetic urine for use in space structural habitat systems
  20. Investigation on mechanical properties of the green synthesis bamboo fiber/eggshell/coconut shell powder-based hybrid biocomposites under NaOH conditions
  21. Green synthesis of magnesium oxide nanoparticles using endophytic fungal strain to improve the growth, metabolic activities, yield traits, and phenolic compounds content of Nigella sativa L.
  22. Estimation of greenhouse gas emissions from rice and annual upland crops in Red River Delta of Vietnam using the denitrification–decomposition model
  23. Synthesis of humic acid with the obtaining of potassium humate based on coal waste from the Lenger deposit, Kazakhstan
  24. Ascorbic acid-mediated selenium nanoparticles as potential antihyperuricemic, antioxidant, anticoagulant, and thrombolytic agents
  25. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Illicium verum extract: Optimization and characterization for biomedical applications
  26. Antibacterial and dynamical behaviour of silicon nanoparticles influenced sustainable waste flax fibre-reinforced epoxy composite for biomedical application
  27. Optimising coagulation/flocculation using response surface methodology and application of floc in biofertilisation
  28. Green synthesis and multifaceted characterization of iron oxide nanoparticles derived from Senna bicapsularis for enhanced in vitro and in vivo biological investigation
  29. Potent antibacterial nanocomposites from okra mucilage/chitosan/silver nanoparticles for multidrug-resistant Salmonella Typhimurium eradication
  30. Trachyspermum copticum aqueous seed extract-derived silver nanoparticles: Exploration of their structural characterization and comparative antibacterial performance against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria
  31. Microwave-assisted ultrafine silver nanoparticle synthesis using Mitragyna speciosa for antimalarial applications
  32. Green synthesis and characterisation of spherical structure Ag/Fe2O3/TiO2 nanocomposite using acacia in the presence of neem and tulsi oils
  33. Green quantitative methods for linagliptin and empagliflozin in dosage forms
  34. Enhancement efficacy of omeprazole by conjugation with silver nanoparticles as a urease inhibitor
  35. Residual, sequential extraction, and ecological risk assessment of some metals in ash from municipal solid waste incineration, Vietnam
  36. Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using the mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) leaf extract: Comparative preliminary in vitro antibacterial study
  37. Simultaneous determination of lesinurad and febuxostat in commercial fixed-dose combinations using a greener normal-phase HPTLC method
  38. A greener RP-HPLC method for quaternary estimation of caffeine, paracetamol, levocetirizine, and phenylephrine acquiring AQbD with stability studies
  39. Optimization of biomass durian peel as a heterogeneous catalyst in biodiesel production using microwave irradiation
  40. Thermal treatment impact on the evolution of active phases in layered double hydroxide-based ZnCr photocatalysts: Photodegradation and antibacterial performance
  41. Preparation of silymarin-loaded zein polysaccharide core–shell nanostructures and evaluation of their biological potentials
  42. Preparation and characterization of composite-modified PA6 fiber for spectral heating and heat storage applications
  43. Preparation and electrocatalytic oxygen evolution of bimetallic phosphates (NiFe)2P/NF
  44. Rod-shaped Mo(vi) trichalcogenide–Mo(vi) oxide decorated on poly(1-H pyrrole) as a promising nanocomposite photoelectrode for green hydrogen generation from sewage water with high efficiency
  45. Green synthesis and studies on citrus medica leaf extract-mediated Au–ZnO nanocomposites: A sustainable approach for efficient photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B dye in aqueous media
  46. Cellulosic materials for the removal of ciprofloxacin from aqueous environments
  47. The analytical assessment of metal contamination in industrial soils of Saudi Arabia using the inductively coupled plasma technology
  48. The effect of modified oily sludge on the slurry ability and combustion performance of coal water slurry
  49. Eggshell waste transformation to calcium chloride anhydride as food-grade additive and eggshell membranes as enzyme immobilization carrier
  50. Synthesis of EPAN and applications in the encapsulation of potassium humate
  51. Biosynthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles from Cedrela toona leaf extracts: An exploration into their antibacterial, anticancer, and antioxidant potential
  52. Enhancing mechanical and rheological properties of HDPE films through annealing for eco-friendly agricultural applications
  53. Immobilisation of catalase purified from mushroom (Hydnum repandum) onto glutaraldehyde-activated chitosan and characterisation: Its application for the removal of hydrogen peroxide from artificial wastewater
  54. Sodium titanium oxide/zinc oxide (STO/ZnO) photocomposites for efficient dye degradation applications
  55. Effect of ex situ, eco-friendly ZnONPs incorporating green synthesised Moringa oleifera leaf extract in enhancing biochemical and molecular aspects of Vicia faba L. under salt stress
  56. Biosynthesis and characterization of selenium and silver nanoparticles using Trichoderma viride filtrate and their impact on Culex pipiens
  57. Photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes and biological potentials of biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the polar extract of Cyperus scariosus R.Br. (Cyperaceae)
  58. Assessment of antiproliferative activity of green-synthesized nickel oxide nanoparticles against glioblastoma cells using Terminalia chebula
  59. Chlorine-free synthesis of phosphinic derivatives by change in the P-function
  60. Anticancer, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities of nanoemulsions based on water-in-olive oil and loaded on biogenic silver nanoparticles
  61. Study and mechanism of formation of phosphorus production waste in Kazakhstan
  62. Synthesis and stabilization of anatase form of biomimetic TiO2 nanoparticles for enhancing anti-tumor potential
  63. Microwave-supported one-pot reaction for the synthesis of 5-alkyl/arylidene-2-(morpholin/thiomorpholin-4-yl)-1,3-thiazol-4(5H)-one derivatives over MgO solid base
  64. Screening the phytochemicals in Perilla leaves and phytosynthesis of bioactive silver nanoparticles for potential antioxidant and wound-healing application
  65. Graphene oxide/chitosan/manganese/folic acid-brucine functionalized nanocomposites show anticancer activity against liver cancer cells
  66. Nature of serpentinite interactions with low-concentration sulfuric acid solutions
  67. Multi-objective statistical optimisation utilising response surface methodology to predict engine performance using biofuels from waste plastic oil in CRDi engines
  68. Microwave-assisted extraction of acetosolv lignin from sugarcane bagasse and electrospinning of lignin/PEO nanofibres for carbon fibre production
  69. Biosynthesis, characterization, and investigation of cytotoxic activities of selenium nanoparticles utilizing Limosilactobacillus fermentum
  70. Highly photocatalytic materials based on the decoration of poly(O-chloroaniline) with molybdenum trichalcogenide oxide for green hydrogen generation from Red Sea water
  71. Highly efficient oil–water separation using superhydrophobic cellulose aerogels derived from corn straw
  72. Beta-cyclodextrin–Phyllanthus emblica emulsion for zinc oxide nanoparticles: Characteristics and photocatalysis
  73. Assessment of antimicrobial activity and methyl orange dye removal by Klebsiella pneumoniae-mediated silver nanoparticles
  74. Influential eradication of resistant Salmonella Typhimurium using bioactive nanocomposites from chitosan and radish seed-synthesized nanoselenium
  75. Antimicrobial activities and neuroprotective potential for Alzheimer’s disease of pure, Mn, Co, and Al-doped ZnO ultra-small nanoparticles
  76. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles from Bauhinia variegata and their biological applications
  77. Synthesis and optimization of long-chain fatty acids via the oxidation of long-chain fatty alcohols
  78. Eminent Red Sea water hydrogen generation via a Pb(ii)-iodide/poly(1H-pyrrole) nanocomposite photocathode
  79. Green synthesis and effective genistein production by fungal β-glucosidase immobilized on Al2O3 nanocrystals synthesized in Cajanus cajan L. (Millsp.) leaf extracts
  80. Green stability-indicating RP-HPTLC technique for determining croconazole hydrochloride
  81. Green synthesis of La2O3–LaPO4 nanocomposites using Charybdis natator for DNA binding, cytotoxic, catalytic, and luminescence applications
  82. Eco-friendly drugs induce cellular changes in colistin-resistant bacteria
  83. Tangerine fruit peel extract mediated biogenic synthesized silver nanoparticles and their potential antimicrobial, antioxidant, and cytotoxic assessments
  84. Green synthesis on performance characteristics of a direct injection diesel engine using sandbox seed oil
  85. A highly sensitive β-AKBA-Ag-based fluorescent “turn off” chemosensor for rapid detection of abamectin in tomatoes
  86. Green synthesis and physical characterization of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) derived from the methanol extract of Euphorbia dracunculoides Lam. (Euphorbiaceae) with enhanced biosafe applications
  87. Detection of morphine and data processing using surface plasmon resonance imaging sensor
  88. Effects of nanoparticles on the anaerobic digestion properties of sulfamethoxazole-containing chicken manure and analysis of bio-enzymes
  89. Bromic acid-thiourea synergistic leaching of sulfide gold ore
  90. Green chemistry approach to synthesize titanium dioxide nanoparticles using Fagonia Cretica extract, novel strategy for developing antimicrobial and antidiabetic therapies
  91. Green synthesis and effective utilization of biogenic Al2O3-nanocoupled fungal lipase in the resolution of active homochiral 2-octanol and its immobilization via aluminium oxide nanoparticles
  92. Eco-friendly RP-HPLC approach for simultaneously estimating the promising combination of pentoxifylline and simvastatin in therapeutic potential for breast cancer: Appraisal of greenness, whiteness, and Box–Behnken design
  93. Use of a humidity adsorbent derived from cockleshell waste in Thai fried fish crackers (Keropok)
  94. One-pot green synthesis, biological evaluation, and in silico study of pyrazole derivatives obtained from chalcones
  95. Bio-sorption of methylene blue and production of biofuel by brown alga Cystoseira sp. collected from Neom region, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
  96. Synthesis of motexafin gadolinium: A promising radiosensitizer and imaging agent for cancer therapy
  97. The impact of varying sizes of silver nanoparticles on the induction of cellular damage in Klebsiella pneumoniae involving diverse mechanisms
  98. Microwave-assisted green synthesis, characterization, and in vitro antibacterial activity of NiO nanoparticles obtained from lemon peel extract
  99. Rhus microphylla-mediated biosynthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles for enhanced antibacterial and antibiofilm efficacy
  100. Harnessing trichalcogenide–molybdenum(vi) sulfide and molybdenum(vi) oxide within poly(1-amino-2-mercaptobenzene) frameworks as a photocathode for sustainable green hydrogen production from seawater without sacrificial agents
  101. Magnetically recyclable Fe3O4@SiO2 supported phosphonium ionic liquids for efficient and sustainable transformation of CO2 into oxazolidinones
  102. A comparative study of Fagonia arabica fabricated silver sulfide nanoparticles (Ag2S) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) with distinct antimicrobial, anticancer, and antioxidant properties
  103. Visible light photocatalytic degradation and biological activities of Aegle marmelos-mediated cerium oxide nanoparticles
  104. Physical intrinsic characteristics of spheroidal particles in coal gasification fine slag
  105. Exploring the effect of tea dust magnetic biochar on agricultural crops grown in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contaminated soil
  106. Crosslinked chitosan-modified ultrafiltration membranes for efficient surface water treatment and enhanced anti-fouling performances
  107. Study on adsorption characteristics of biochars and their modified biochars for removal of organic dyes from aqueous solution
  108. Zein polymer nanocarrier for Ocimum basilicum var. purpurascens extract: Potential biomedical use
  109. Green synthesis, characterization, and in vitro and in vivo biological screening of iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe3O4) generated with hydroalcoholic extract of aerial parts of Euphorbia milii
  110. Novel microwave-based green approach for the synthesis of dual-loaded cyclodextrin nanosponges: Characterization, pharmacodynamics, and pharmacokinetics evaluation
  111. Bi2O3–BiOCl/poly-m-methyl aniline nanocomposite thin film for broad-spectrum light-sensing
  112. Green synthesis and characterization of CuO/ZnO nanocomposite using Musa acuminata leaf extract for cytotoxic studies on colorectal cancer cells (HCC2998)
  113. Review Articles
  114. Materials-based drug delivery approaches: Recent advances and future perspectives
  115. A review of thermal treatment for bamboo and its composites
  116. An overview of the role of nanoherbicides in tackling challenges of weed management in wheat: A novel approach
  117. An updated review on carbon nanomaterials: Types, synthesis, functionalization and applications, degradation and toxicity
  118. Special Issue: Emerging green nanomaterials for sustainable waste management and biomedical applications
  119. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using mature-pseudostem extracts of Alpinia nigra and their bioactivities
  120. Special Issue: New insights into nanopythotechnology: current trends and future prospects
  121. Green synthesis of FeO nanoparticles from coffee and its application for antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-oxidation activity
  122. Dye degradation activity of biogenically synthesized Cu/Fe/Ag trimetallic nanoparticles
  123. Special Issue: Composites and green composites
  124. Recent trends and advancements in the utilization of green composites and polymeric nanocarriers for enhancing food quality and sustainable processing
  125. Retraction
  126. Retraction of “Biosynthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles from Cedrela toona leaf extracts: An exploration into their antibacterial, anticancer, and antioxidant potential”
  127. Retraction of “Photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes and biological potentials of biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the polar extract of Cyperus scariosus R.Br. (Cyperaceae)”
  128. Retraction to “Green synthesis on performance characteristics of a direct injection diesel engine using sandbox seed oil”
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