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Green-processed nano-biocomposite (ZnO–TiO2): Potential candidates for biomedical applications

  • Naireen Ahmed , Kiran Tanveer , Zohaib Younas , Tayyaba Yousaf , Muhammad Ikram EMAIL logo , Naveed Iqbal Raja , Zia-ur-Rehman Mashwani EMAIL logo , Saad Alghamdi , Issa Saad Al-Moraya and Nashwa Talaat Shesha
Published/Copyright: July 29, 2023
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Green Processing and Synthesis
From the journal Green Processing and Synthesis Volume 12 Issue 1

Abstract

Nanotechnology investigates different promising methodologies in the space of material sciences on a sub-atomic level. Novel methodologies are expected for the accomplishment of protected and successful helpful medicines past the traditional ones, and society needs new prerequisites for innovations, moving towards perfect and green innovation improvement. This review study deals with topics related to green nanotechnology for the investigation of different assays such as anticancer, antidiabetic, anti-larval, and microbial. The confirmation of nanocomposite will be conformed using scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction to determine the size, shape, and supporting material to stabilize and cap the agent. However, the biomedical application of the ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposite is also discussed. Furthermore, to their remarkable biocompatibility, ZnO/TiO2 has shown significant potential in bio-imaging, tissue engineering, and drug delivery. The biological activities of the green-produced nanoparticles are strong and they are employed in several biological applications across various assays. The current review covers the creation and most recent developments of bio-nanocomposite materials from plant sources (such as leaves, stems, bark, roots, rhizomes, fruits, flowers, and seeds), as well as their anti-cancer, diabetes-related, and anti-larval activities. This is followed by a thorough discussion of their mechanisms of action.

Keywords: nanotechnology; nanocomposites; biomedical applications and assays

1 Introduction

Science and engineering of nanotechnology involve designing, synthesizing, and analyzing materials and devices that have a functional structure at least on the nanoscale scale, which is one billionth of a meter. Materials and tools are needed for this. In these sizes, control over the fundamental properties of a material or device depends on taking into account the individual molecules and interacting groups of molecules. Macroscopic properties can be accessed by using a molecular structure that can be controlled [1]. It has been uncommon for nanotechnology to be used and advanced in the field of construction and building materials. Nanotechnology in concrete is still at the beginning of its commercial use, and few products have been successfully marketed from nanotechnology [2]. A nanotechnology product consists of creating, processing, characterizing, and preparing devices, systems, and methods of production with dimensions ranging from 0.1 to 100 nm, and exhibiting novel and significantly enhanced physical, chemical, and biological properties, functions, phenomena, and processes The application of nanotechnology in nanocomposites, nano-biotechnology, nano-systems, nano-electronics, and nanostructured materials is the most popular today (Figure 1). Because of the excellent thermal conductivity, nonlinear optical characteristics, and electrochemical reactivity of nanoparticles (NPs), which would enable application areas, NP research has attracted considerable attention [3].

Figure 1 The pictorial overview of the study representing the biomedical applications of ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites and their mechanistic actions.
Figure 1

The pictorial overview of the study representing the biomedical applications of ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites and their mechanistic actions.

1.1 Nanocomposites

In a bid to enhance dynamic performance, one or more separate NPs are mixed with the matrix material in nanocomposites. Metals (such as iron, titanium, and magnesium) and ceramics (such as alumina, glass, and porcelain) are the most often exploited materials as a matrix in nanocomposites (such as epoxy, nylon, polyepoxide, and polyetherimide) [4]. The NPs may be categorized as natural, unintentional, or man-made nanomaterials depending on their journey. Nanomaterials that occur naturally or were created by natural processes are present in the environment (e.g., volcanic dust, lunar dust, magneto-tactic bacteria, minerals, etc.). Incidental NPs are produced as a result of artificial industrial activities (e.g., coal combustion, welding fumes, etc.). In order to produce nanomaterials with the required form and size, smaller subunits can be assembled by crystal growth, chemical synthesis, or by lithographically etching a big sample to produce NPs [5]. A distinct type of material known as “bio-nanocomposites” is composed of an inorganic nano moiety and naturally occurring polymers (biopolymers) (BNCs). Nano-biocomposites (NCs), “green composites,” or alternatively, “bio-hybrids” are other labels for the concept known as “bio-nanocomposite,” which was first used in 2004. Bio-nanocomposites are noteworthy for their nanoscale dispersion with sizes smaller than 1,000 nm.

1.2 Zinc NPs

Zinc is a trace element that is vital for all life [6]. Zinc toxicity can occur in plants if the concentration exceeds safe limits, and it is important to emphasize the trace concentration required by plants for optimal growth. The optimal concentration of zinc in the soil for most plants typically ranges from 2 to 30 parts per million (ppm), depending on the plant species. It is important to note that different plants have varying zinc requirements and certain plants may tolerate higher levels than others. Soil testing can help determine zinc levels and guide appropriate fertilization practices for specific plants [7]. Food made from plants and animals contain zinc but they also commonly include significant amounts of phytate. Since phytates are so tightly connected to six zinc ions, the digestive system cannot absorb them. Inorganic feed-grade zinc, chelated organic acids and amino acids, zinc oxide, zinc chloride, and inorganic feed-grade zinc can all be included in chicken diets. Zinc deficiency has been attributed to slow chicken growth, frizzed feathers, shorter and thicker legs, and bigger hocks [8]. This molecule affects the immune system, synthesis of nucleic acids, cell division, protein synthesis, protein and carbohydrate metabolism, and enzymatic activity in living beings. Zinc serves as a cofactor for the enzymes that produce alanine aminotransferase (ALT), gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST). ZnO has received a lot of attention in purification applications due to its non-toxicity, low cost, increased chemical stability, and larger band gap (3.2 eV). Nevertheless, during their single uses, certain serious issues like photocorrosion and rapid electron–hole recombination arise, which greatly reduce their photoactivity and photostability [9]. Moreover, due to the huge band gap energy, only a small portion of UV light (less than 5% of solar radiation) is utilized in photocatalytic activities [10]. Moreover, it cannot absorb electromagnetic spectrum-derived visual light. In order to deal with these unexpected scenarios, a variety of approaches are being researched, including dye sensitization, the production of ZnO NPs with metal or non-metal bases, and the modification of ZnO NPs by the addition of other metal oxides. Moreover, it is hypothesized that the coupling of semiconductor oxides creates a situation that allows for advantageous redox interactions with the absorbed surface species and enhances the capacity of the photocatalysts to absorb radiation over a wider spectrum of wavelengths.

1.3 TiO2 NPs

Adding TiO2 to ZnO to create a nanocomposite system is one of the useful coupling methods. The trapped centers on the ZnO surface, which are important for charge recombination and decreased photocatalytic activity, are significantly reduced by this composite system, which also demonstrates greater stability and more substantial chemical activity [11]. Once more, the nanocomposites show the type-II band offset, where the valence band and conduction band of TiO2 are both lower than those of ZnO, allowing the nanocomposite to maintain the separation of the photo-generated electrons and holes [12]. Many studies on ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites have previously been published in order to determine their potential effects and applications in photocatalytic processes; however, these studies are undertaken from slightly different angles (Figure 1) [13].

2 Synthesis of ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites

Several synthesis techniques are often utilized and appropriate for creating nanocomposites. In general, three basic categories may be used to categorize nanocomposites (Figure 2):

  1. Physical techniques

  2. Chemical techniques

  3. Biological techniques

Figure 2 Different methods of the synthesis of nanocomposites.
Figure 2

Different methods of the synthesis of nanocomposites.

3 Physical methods of synthesis of ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites

Physical synthesis methods of nanocomposites involve the manipulation and assembly of NPs or nanoscale components to form a composite material (Figure 2). These methods typically utilize physical forces, such as mechanical, thermal, or electromagnetic energy, to achieve the desired structure.

3.1 Condensation method

The condensation method of NP synthesis involves the formation of NPs through the condensation of precursor materials. It typically involves vapor-phase reactions, where the precursors are evaporated and then cooled or reacted to form NPs. This method allows control over the size, composition, and morphology of the NPs produced [14].

  1. Inert gas condensation (IGC): In IGC, a high-pressure gas is used to evaporate the precursor material, which is then rapidly cooled in a controlled manner. This causes the condensation of the precursor vapor into NPs. The NPs are typically collected on a substrate or in a collection chamber [15].

  2. Chemical vapor condensation (CVC): CVC involves the reaction of precursor gases to form NPs. The precursors are introduced into a reaction chamber where they react and condense into NPs upon cooling. This method allows for the synthesis of a wide range of materials [16].

  3. Flame synthesis: Flame synthesis is a method that involves the combustion of precursor materials in a flame to generate NPs. The precursor materials are typically introduced into a burner or torch, where they react and form NPs in the flame. The NPs are then collected downstream [17].

  4. Laser ablation: Laser ablation is a technique where a high-power laser is used to vaporize a target material, resulting in the formation of NPs. The laser energy causes the ablation of the target material, and the vapor rapidly cools and condenses into NPs. This method enables the synthesis of NPs without the use of additional chemical precursors [18].

  5. Evaporation method: The evaporation method of NP synthesis involves the evaporation of a precursor material followed by the condensation of the vapor to form NPs. This method is typically conducted in a controlled environment to ensure the desired size, composition, and morphology of the NPs [19].

  6. Physical vapor deposition (PVD): PVD is a widely used evaporation method for NP synthesis. It involves the evaporation of solid precursor material in a vacuum chamber. The vaporized material then condenses onto a substrate or collection surface, forming NPs. Various PVD techniques, such as thermal evaporation and electron beam evaporation, can be employed for NP synthesis [20].

  7. Thermal evaporation: Thermal evaporation is a PVD technique where a solid precursor material is heated to its vaporization temperature. The resulting vapor then condenses onto a cooler surface, forming NPs. Thermal evaporation allows for the synthesis of a wide range of NP materials and is commonly used for metallic NPs [21].

  8. Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE): MBE is a specialized form of the evaporation method used to synthesize high-quality thin films and nanostructures. It involves the controlled evaporation of precursor molecules, which then condense onto a substrate in an ultra-high vacuum environment. MBE allows precise control over the growth process and can produce epitaxial NPs [22].

  9. Laser ablation: Laser ablation, as mentioned earlier, can also be considered an evaporation method. In laser ablation, a high-power laser is used to vaporize a target material. The laser energy causes the evaporation of the material, which then condenses into NPs. Laser ablation allows for the synthesis of a wide range of NP materials without the use of additional precursors [23].

4 Chemical methods of synthesis of ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites

The chemical synthesis of nanocomposites involves the formation of composite materials through chemical reactions between different components, such as NPs, polymers, or other molecular precursors (Figure 3). This method allows for precise control over the composition, structure, and properties of the resulting nanocomposite [24].

Figure 3 Pictoral view of physical and chemical synthesis of NPs.
Figure 3

Pictoral view of physical and chemical synthesis of NPs.

4.1 In situ polymerization

In in situ polymerization, NPs are synthesized within a polymer matrix through a chemical reaction. The monomers or pre-polymers are mixed with the NP precursors, and polymerization occurs in the presence of the NPs. This method enables the formation of well-dispersed NPs throughout the polymer matrix [25].

4.2 Hydrolysis

Hydrolysis methods are commonly used for the synthesis of nanocomposites, especially those involving metal oxide NPs. In this process, metal salts or precursors are hydrolyzed in the presence of a dispersing agent or a matrix material to form nanoscale particles. The hydrolysis reaction typically involves the reaction of the metal precursor with water or a hydroxyl-containing compound, resulting in the formation of metal hydroxides or oxide NPs [26]. The researchers utilized a hydrolysis-based method to synthesize metal oxide nanocomposites with enhanced catalytic properties. The process involved the hydrolysis of metal salts, such as metal chlorides or nitrates, in the presence of a dispersing agent and a stabilizing agent. The hydrolysis reaction was carried out by adding a controlled amount of water to the metal precursor solution under specific pH and temperature conditions. The resulting metal hydroxide NPs were then further processed to convert them into metal oxide NPs through calcination or other thermal treatments [27]. These NPs were then incorporated into a matrix material to form the nanocomposite.

4.3 Thermolysis

Thermolysis is a method used for the synthesis of nanocomposites, which are materials composed of NPs dispersed within a matrix. In thermolysis, high temperatures are employed to drive chemical reactions and facilitate the formation of the nanocomposite structure. The first step is to choose the desired NPs that will be incorporated into the nanocomposite. These NPs can be metallic, oxide, or organic in nature, depending on the specific application and properties required. A matrix material is selected, which acts as a host or binder for the NPs. The matrix can be a polymer, ceramic, metal, or a combination of these materials. The mixed precursor material is subjected to controlled heating at high temperatures. The thermolysis process involves the decomposition of the precursor matrix, leading to the release of volatile species and the formation of a solid nanocomposite structure. The high temperatures promote chemical reactions, phase transformations, and the diffusion of NPs within the matrix [28].

4.4 Oxidation–reduction method

The oxidation–reduction method is a widely used technique for the synthesis of nanocomposites. In this method, metal NPs or nanowires are typically reduced from metal salts or precursors in the presence of a reducing agent. The synthesis of magnetic nanocomposites by combining the oxidation–reduction method with the sol–gel process. They discuss the effects of various synthesis parameters on the morphology and magnetic properties of the resulting nanocomposites [29].

4.5 Precipitation method

The precipitation method for synthesizing nanocomposites involves the formation of NPs through precipitation within a matrix material. The desired NPs and the matrix material are based on the desired properties of the nanocomposite. Factors such as compatibility, size, shape, and surface chemistry are considered. Precursor solutions for both the NPs and the matrix material are prepared. These precursors are typically in the form of soluble salts or complexes that can be dissolved in a suitable solvent. The precipitation reaction is initiated by introducing a precipitating agent or by changing the reaction conditions (e.g., pH, temperature, concentration). This leads to the formation of insoluble NPs within the solution. The resulting nanocomposite suspension is typically washed to remove any impurities or byproducts. Afterward, the nanocomposite can be isolated and dried to obtain the final solid product [30].

5 Biological synthesis of ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites

It is challenging to manage the stability, growth, and aggregation of particles during chemical synthesis; hence, capping agents are needed to stabilize the NP size. Plant extracts for nanocomposites have received a lot of research lately. Due to its eco-friendliness and accessibility, the biosynthesis of metallic NPs is becoming more and more popular. In contrast, the chemical technique is linked to biological risks and environmental damage. High stability is exhibited from metallic NPs produced by biological agents, such as fungi, plants, bacteria, and other microbes [31]. Green chemistry’s core principles also include that an appropriate method for producing NPs should maximize energy use, minimize waste discharge, and use sources of clean energy [32]. As a result, the active bio-component for the green synthesis process must be created using plants, microbes, bio-polymers, and waste materials, along with low heating purposes and secure solvents [33]. It has been demonstrated that microorganisms are significant nano-factories with enormous potential as environmentally friendly and cost-effective tools for avoiding toxic, harsh chemicals, and the high energy demand for physiochemical synthesis. Due to a variety of reductase enzymes that are capable of reducing metal salts to metal NPs with a narrow size distribution and, consequently, less polydispersity, microorganisms can accumulate heavy metals and detoxify them [34]. Additionally, fungi outperform bacteria in terms of metal tolerance and uptake capabilities, particularly when it comes to the high wall-binding capacity of metal salts combined with fungal biomass for the high-yield production of NPs [35]. Plants, green growth, parasite, yeast, or microorganisms are not many organic specialists present in nature. The design and presence of orchestrated NPs are not set in stone by the idea of natural elements. The fascinating variety of NP shapes and sizes is the result of the wide variety of biological entities, which serve as a blueprint for the development of NPs. Uniquely, viruses are used to create artificial nanocrystals like zinc sulfide, silicon dioxide, ferrous oxide, and cadmium sulfide. Green chemistry is interested in semiconductor NPs like zinc sulfide and cadmium sulfide, and the electronics industry is doing a lot of research into how to make them. For several years, researchers have looked into making nanomaterials from whole viruses [36]. Microbes are promising options for the production of NPs because they can reduce metal ions. A variety of bacterial species are used to make metallics and other NPs. Prokaryotes and actinomycetes are generally utilized in the blend of metals/metal oxide NPs [37]. The plant separates have more noteworthy advantages than microorganisms for a blend of green NPs because it is a one-step process, nonpathogenic, and savvy process (Figure 4) [38].

Figure 4 Biological synthesis of ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites.
Figure 4

Biological synthesis of ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites.

6 ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites

ZnO/TiO2 bio-nanocomposites are a type of composite material that incorporates zinc oxide (ZnO) and titanium dioxide (TiO2) NPs within a biopolymer matrix. Due to their special qualities and possible uses in biomedicine, they have attracted a lot of interest recently. ZnO/TiO2 bio-nanocomposites can be synthesized using various methods, incorporating in situ polymerization, melt blending, and solution mixing. Solution mixing involves the dispersion of ZnO and TiO2 NPs in a solvent followed by mixing with a biopolymer solution. Melt blending involves the mixing of ZnO and TiO2 NPs with a biopolymer in the molten state. In situ polymerization involves the formation of a biopolymer matrix in the presence of ZnO and TiO2 NPs, characterization, and biomedical applications of ZnO/TiO2 bio-nanocomposites [39]. ZnO and TiO2 are well-known photocatalytic materials, capable of harnessing light energy to catalyze chemical reactions. The combination of ZnO and TiO2 NPs in a nanocomposite can enhance photocatalytic activity, making it effective for applications like water purification, air pollution control, and self-cleaning surfaces. The ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposite can be utilized in electronic and optoelectronic devices [40]. The presence of ZnO NPs enhances the electrical conductivity of the composite, while TiO2 NPs provide desirable optical properties. This combination makes it suitable for applications like solar cells, sensors, and photovoltaic devices. ZnO NPs have been widely studied for their antibacterial and antimicrobial properties [41]. By incorporating ZnO NPs into the TiO2 matrix, the resulting nanocomposite can exhibit enhanced antimicrobial activity, making it useful for applications in healthcare, food packaging, and antimicrobial coatings. The ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposite can also be explored for energy storage applications. Both ZnO and TiO2 possess good electrochemical properties, and their combination in a nanocomposite can lead to improved energy storage capacity and cycling stability, making it suitable for use in batteries and supercapacitors [42].

7 Characterization of ZnO/TiO2 bio-nanocomposites

ZnO/TiO2 bio-nanocomposites must be characterized in order to learn about their physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and thermal analysis are methods used to characterize ZnO/TiO2 bio-nanocomposites [43]. SEM is used to characterize the size and morphological studies of nanocomposites. X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) is used to detect the metallic nature of particle study, the size of atoms, and the arrangement of atoms and molecules in materials, and as it penetrates deep, it can provide information about the bulk structure. UV-visible spectroscopy is used to monitor the rough kinetics of the ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposite synthesis. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is used to compare the intensity of infrared light to the wavelength of light and features of chemical functional groups' vibration [44]. The electron micrographs of the ZnO–TiO2 nanocomposite were obtained at the nanometre scale with an amplification of 38,700× at room temperature. The size of the NPs ranges from 50 to 200 nm. The size of ZnO–TiO2 NPs range from 60 to 200 nm, and the nanosheet thicknesses were found to be between 50 and 100 nm. The X-beam diffraction (XRD) designs acquired utilizing an X-sprightly, expert scientific XRD framework show the degree of crystallization of the sample in a powder structure. The frequency of the source utilized was 1.54 Å [45]. The XRD analysis detects materials as ZnO–TiO2 powder at room temperature and uncovers that the sample contains ZnTiO3 with slight debasement of sulfate hydrate. This peak has an FWHM of 0.192° and a d-spacing of 1.48. Scherrer's formula indicates that the smallest possible particle size is 50 nm. Due to the overlap of several bands assigned to the Ti–O–Ti and Ti–O vibration modes, the FTIR spectrum of TiO2 has a broad band between 470 and 865 cm−1 [46]. The Ti–O stretching is responsible for the intense peak near 675 cm−1. The stretching mode of Zn–O is responsible for the major characteristic peaks that were observed in ZnO between 460 and 540 cm−1 [47]. The stretching and bending vibrations of H–O–H and O–H showed signals in the ranges of 3,000–3,800 and 1,600–1,650 cm−1 by the peaks that were observed between 1,600 and 700 cm−1 [48]. The diffuse reflectance spectra (DRS) were measured between 300 and 700 nm. From the DRS, TiO2, ZnO, B−ZnO, ZnO/TiO2, and B−ZnO/TiO2 photocatalysts show optical ingestion at 400 nm. At visible wavelengths, the photocatalysts’ reflectance is high. A fast increase in reflectance has been noticed for TiO2, ZnO, B−ZnO, ZnO/TiO2, and B−ZnO/TiO2 at the retention edge at 414, 440, 430, 455, and 411 nm, respectively [40].

8 Biosafety of nanocomposites

Nanocomposites are materials that consist of a combination of NPs and a matrix material. They have gained significant attention in various fields due to their unique properties and potential applications. However, when it comes to biosafety, it is crucial to assess the potential risks associated with the use of nanocomposites to ensure their safe utilization [49]. Nanocomposites can be designed to be biosafe through a careful selection of materials and their surface modifications. Nanocomposites are composed of inherently biocompatible materials, meaning they have a low risk of causing harm to living organisms. Biocompatible materials, such as certain polymers or ceramics, have been extensively studied and tested for their compatibility with biological systems [50]. Nanocomposites can be surface-modified to enhance their biosafety (Figure 5). Surface modifications can involve coating the NPs or nanofillers with biocompatible materials, such as polymers or bioactive molecules, to prevent direct contact between the NPs and the surrounding biological environment. This surface modification can reduce potential toxicity and improve the overall biosafety of the nanocomposite. Nanocomposites can be designed to encapsulate or deliver bioactive substances, such as drugs or growth factors, in a controlled manner [51]. This controlled release capability allows for the targeted delivery of therapeutic agents while minimizing their systemic exposure and potential toxicity. Nanocomposites can be engineered to have specific sizes and surface properties that enhance their biosafety. By controlling the size and surface charge of NPs, for example, it is possible to minimize their interaction with cells or tissues and reduce the risk of adverse biological effects. Some nanocomposites can be designed to be biodegradable, meaning they can break down over time into non-toxic byproducts that can be easily eliminated from the body. Biodegradable nanocomposites are particularly useful in medical applications, as they can gradually degrade and be replaced by natural tissue during the healing process [52].

Figure 5 The pictorial overview of the study representing the biosafety of nanocomposites.
Figure 5

The pictorial overview of the study representing the biosafety of nanocomposites.

9 Biomedical applications of ZnO/TiO2 bio-nanocomposites

Biomedical applications of ZnO/TiO2 bio-nanocomposites include antimicrobial activity, medicine delivery, tissue engineering, and biosensors. ZnO and TiO2 NPs have been shown to produce antibacterial effects against a range of microorganisms, including bacteria and fungi. ZnO/TiO2 bio-nanocomposites can be used as antibacterial agents and as coatings for medical equipment to heal wounds and prevent infections [53].

9.1 Applications of ZnO NPs

Rubber, biosensors, food additives, pigments, and electrical materials are just a few of the industries that have exploited ZnO NPs. Several research projects have shown how ZnO NPs influence bacteria. An ammonium carbonate solution and zinc acetate solution were used in the experiment to create the precursors of ZnO NPs. NPs of ZnO were formed during calcination. It is possible to increase the compatibility of ZnO NPs with organic matrix by treating their surface with oleic acid. As a result of chemical interactions between surface hydroxylic groups and organic molecules of ZnO NPs, covalent bonds were formed. ZnO NPs, however, are shielded by silica. An interfacial chemical interaction between ZnO NPs and SiO2 significantly inhibited the catalytic activity of ZnO NPs [54]. Zinc oxide has outstanding chemical and physical properties, which include a high electrochemical coupling coefficient, a broad spectrum of radiation absorption, and outstanding chemical stability. Many methods have been used to generate ZnO NPs. The chemical and physical properties of ZnO NPs, comprising their size, size dispersity, shape, surface state, crystal structure, organization onto a support, and dispensability, are crucial for a variety of applications. As a result, several production strategies have been developed [55] and employed a managed precipitation strategy. Zinc acetate and ammonium carbonate were used to precipitate zinc oxide (Zn(CH3COO)2‧H2O). A simple precipitation method was used to produce zinc oxide by Lanje et al. [56]. The manufacturing of ZnO NPs must only require one step and should be done on a large scale without unwanted impurities. Zinc (Zn) is an essential nutrient for the human body, but it is important to note that excessive amounts of zinc can indeed be toxic. Zinc is required for various biological processes, such as enzyme function, immune system support, and wound healing. However, like many other nutrients, it follows a U-shaped dose–response relationship, meaning that both deficiency and excess can be detrimental. Zinc oxide NPs are used in a variety of dental procedures, including restorative dentistry, endodontics, regenerative endodontics, periodontics, prosthodontics, orthodontics, oral medicine, diagnosis of cancer, dental implantology, preventive dentistry, and biomedical waste management [57]. Zinc oxide (ZnO) NPs have shown promise as an option in contrast to titanium oxide (TiO2) NPs in energy preservation and move applications like batteries, sun-powered cells, semiconductors, photocatalysis, decontamination, and biosensing [58]. As of late, metal oxide NPs have been broadly read up as nano-antibiotics for improved sanitization, especially for drug-safe microbes and parasites [59]. Under bright (UV) light, these particles intercede with oxidative pressure in microorganisms [60]. Although ZnO is a Zn-based compound commonly perceived as protected by the US Food and Medication Administration [61], the safety of ZnO NPs needs to be affirmed. It is necessary to investigate and reduce exposure risks to the environment and human health as well [62].

9.2 Application of TiO2 NPs

The solid chemical structure, biocompatibility, and physical, optical, and electrical properties of titanium make it a very popular material. Its photocatalytic characteristics have been employed in several environmental applications to remove contaminants from both water and the air [53]. There are three different mineral forms of titanium dioxide: anatase, rutile, and brookite [63]. Antase TiO2 serves primarily as a photocatalyst under UV irradiation and has a crystalline structure similar to that of a tetragonal sphere (with dipyramidal shapes). Further, rutile-type tetragonal TiO2 crystals are seen (with prismatic habit). This specific titanium is mostly used as a white paint pigment. The orthorhombic structure of brookite-type TiO2 is crystalline. As a result, TiO2 is a versatile substance that finds use in a variety of materials, including sunscreen creams and paint pigments [64], among others; it is also used in solar cells, capacitors, 1–9 electrochemical electrodes, and even as a culinary flavoring agent and in toothpaste [65]. TiO2 nanoparticles is frequently preferred in the anatase form due to its strong photocatalytic activity, greater specific area, non-toxicity, photochemical stability, and consumers on the basis. Moreover, the negative conduction band edge potential is greater (photo-generated electrons have larger potential energy) [66]. Because of their separate physical and chemical characteristics, titanium dioxide (TiO2) and zinc oxide (ZnO) NPs are commonly utilized in bio-nanocomposites. It has been established that ZnO and TiO2 NPs have antibacterial activity, making them desirable candidates for coatings on medical equipment for wound healing. Additionally, ZnO/TiO2 bio-nanocomposites have shown promise in drug delivery, tissue engineering, and biosensor applications [66]. In drug delivery, ZnO/TiO2 bio-nanocomposites can be used to deliver drugs to specific sites in the body, providing targeted and controlled release. ZnO/TiO2 bio-nanocomposites have been shown to enhance the uptake and release of drugs, providing improved therapeutic efficacy [67]. In tissue engineering, ZnO/TiO2 bio-nanocomposites can be used as scaffolds for tissue regeneration. The inclusion of ZnO and TiO2 NPs in the biopolymer matrix can improve the mechanical strength and biocompatibility of the scaffolds [68]. ZnO/TiO2 bio-nanocomposites can also be used as biosensors for the detection of biomolecules, providing high sensitivity and selectivity. The incorporation of ZnO and TiO2 NPs in the biopolymer matrix can improve the performance of the biosensors, providing improved detection limits and response times [69]. ZnO/TiO2 bio-nanocomposites have several potential applications in biomedicine. In antimicrobial applications, they can be used as antibacterial agents in wound healing and as coatings for medical devices to prevent infections. In drug delivery, ZnO/TiO2 bio-nanocomposites can be used to deliver drugs to specific sites in the body, providing targeted and controlled release. In tissue engineering, they can be used as scaffolds for tissue regeneration, improving the mechanical strength and biocompatibility of the scaffolds. In biosensors, they can be used to detect biomolecules with high sensitivity and selectivity [70]. Overall, ZnO/TiO2 bio-nanocomposites have shown great promise in biomedicine due to their unique properties and potential applications. Further research is needed to optimize their performance for specific applications and to ensure their safety and biocompatibility for clinical use [71].

10 Antimicrobial activity of ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites

Strong antimicrobial activity against a variety of pathogens, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses, has been reported for ZnO/TiO2 bio-nanocomposites. The antimicrobial properties of ZnO/TiO2 bio-nanocomposites arise from the unique physical and chemical properties of the NPs, which can damage the microbial cell membrane and disrupt cellular processes [72]. ZnO and TiO2 NPs exhibit antimicrobial activity through different mechanisms (Figure 6). ZnO NPs release zinc ions (Zn2+) when in contact with moisture, which can induce oxidative stress, disrupt cellular functions, and damage the microbial cell membrane. TiO2 NPs generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), mainly hydroxyl radicals, upon exposure to UV light, which can damage the microbial DNA and proteins [73]. The combination of ZnO and TiO2 in a nanocomposite form can lead to synergistic effects, resulting in enhanced antimicrobial activity. The presence of both materials can generate a broader spectrum of ROS, leading to increased damage to microbial cells. Additionally, the ZnO component can help enhance the photocatalytic activity of TiO2, improving its efficiency in generating ROS [74]. Several studies have demonstrated the antimicrobial activity of ZnO/TiO2 bio-nanocomposites in various applications. For example, in wound healing, ZnO/TiO2 bio-nanocomposites have been shown to effectively reduce the growth of bacteria and promote wound healing. In dental applications, ZnO/TiO2 bio-nanocomposites have been shown to inhibit the growth of oral bacteria and prevent the formation of biofilms. In medical device coatings, ZnO/TiO2 bio-nanocomposites have been shown to prevent bacterial attachment and growth on the device surface, reducing the risk of infection [75]. The antimicrobial activity of ZnO/TiO2 bio-nanocomposites can be evaluated using various methods, such as disk diffusion assays, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) assays, and time-kill assays. These assays can provide valuable information on the effectiveness of the bio-nanocomposites against specific microorganisms and the optimal dosage required for their use. It is important to note that while ZnO/TiO2 bio-nanocomposites have strong antimicrobial activity, their potential cytotoxicity and long-term effects on human health need to be carefully evaluated. Additionally, it is essential to ensure that the bio-nanocomposites are biocompatible and do not cause adverse effects on the host tissue [76]. The antimicrobial efficacy of silicate/(ZnO–TiO2) NCMs was tested using the disc diffusion test technique. Silicate/(ZnO–TiO2) NCM dispersions were briefly dipped into tiny filter paper discs (sterile discs), where they were allowed to completely dry. A nutrient agar plate’s surface was evenly covered with a 100 L overnight-grown bacterial solution discs were positioned across from the bacteria on the side containing silicate/(ZnO–TiO2) NCM. To adhere the sheets to the agar, 3 L of sterile water was put on top of them. After 24 h of incubation at 37/28°C for the respective bacterial and fungal plates, the inhibitory zone encircling the disc was identified [10]. Antibacterial activities against Gram-positive bacteria, such as Staphylococcus species, and Gram-negative bacteria, such as E. coli, were also found in NPs derived from Hibiscus rosa-sinensis extract and ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites. An extract of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis was used to create zinc oxide NPs that represent low antibacterial inhibition zones of E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus, respectively, were created using an extract of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis. The inhibitory zone of the created ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposite has also been enhanced to increase its potency against S. aureus and E. coli, respectively [77].

Figure 6 ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites enter in the bacteria cell cycle by damaging the bacterial membrane producing ROS in cytoplasm. By interacting with mitochondrial membrane causing dysfunction and aside there is DNA destruction and protein damage that cause inhibition of the electron transport chain leading to bacterial cell death.
Figure 6

ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites enter in the bacteria cell cycle by damaging the bacterial membrane producing ROS in cytoplasm. By interacting with mitochondrial membrane causing dysfunction and aside there is DNA destruction and protein damage that cause inhibition of the electron transport chain leading to bacterial cell death.

11 Antidiabetic activity of ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites

The anti-diabetic and antioxidant properties of ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites have been investigated. ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites were synthesized and their antioxidant and anti-diabetic properties were assessed. Both the ferric-reducing antioxidant power assay and the DPPH radical scavenging assay demonstrated the nanocomposites' substantial antioxidant activity in vitro. In addition, the enzymes amylase and glucosidase, which are involved in the digestion of carbohydrates, were inhibited by the nanocomposites, exhibiting antidiabetic activity. In the opinion of scientists, ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites might be employed as a natural substitute for pharmaceutical anti-inflammatory and antioxidant medications [78]. The potential antidiabetic activity of ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats was evaluated (Figure 7). The nanocomposites were administered orally for 21 days [79], and their effects on blood glucose levels and antioxidant status were measured. The results showed that the nanocomposites significantly reduced blood glucose levels and improved the antioxidant status in diabetic rats. The authors suggested that the antidiabetic and antioxidant effects of the nanocomposites could be attributed to their ability to scavenge free radicals and regulate glucose metabolism [80]. ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites were evaluated for their ability to protect pancreatic beta cells from oxidative stress. The nanocomposites were found to reduce oxidative stress and increase cell viability in beta cells exposed to hydrogen peroxide. The authors suggested that the nanocomposites could have potential therapeutic applications in the treatment of diabetes by protecting pancreatic beta cells from oxidative damage [71].

Figure 7 Demonstration that the synthesized plant-mediated ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposite after characterization was injected into diabetic mice can cause different functions in mice.
Figure 7

Demonstration that the synthesized plant-mediated ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposite after characterization was injected into diabetic mice can cause different functions in mice.

12 Anticancer activity of ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites

ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites have been studied for their potential anticancer activity. In a 2017 study, ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites were created and tested for their anticancer efficacy against human breast cancer cells in Materials Science and Engineering C (MCF-7). The proliferation and migration of MCF-7 cells were shown to be substantially inhibited by the nanocomposites, which also caused considerable cell death (Figure 8). The scientists hypothesized that the nanocomposites’ capacity to produce ROS and cause cancer cells to apoptosis may be the cause of their anticancer actions [81]. The anticancer activity of four non-additive cell cultures, human breast adenocarcinoma cell line (MD-231), Chinese hamster ovary cells (CHO), human cervical cancer cell line (HeLa), and Mus musculus cutaneous melanoma cell line, was evaluated using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT assay; B16-F10). Each well obtained different quantities of the control (PBS) and the nanocomposites (1, 3, 10, 30, and 100 g·mL−1). The incubation period was 24 h at 37°C with 5% CO2. After incubation, wells were rinsed twice with PBS before even being added to 100 L of MTT and incubated for 4 h. The formazan crystals that had formed as a consequence of the mitochondrial action were removed using acidified isopropanol (0.1% Tris-HCl in isopropanol). The samples were analyzed at 562 nm using a plate reader. Experiments were carried out in duplicate and each was performed five times to account for pipetting errors. Only samples that were 1:1 ZNP/TNP were utilized in this experiment [82]. Another study, published in the International Bio-deterioration & Biodegradation, in 2020, evaluated the potential anticancer activity of ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites against human lung cancer cells (A549). The nanocomposites were found to induce significant cell death in A549 cells, as well as inhibit their proliferation and colony formation. The authors suggested that the anticancer activity of the nanocomposites could be attributed to their ability to generate ROS and induce DNA damage in cancer cells [83]. In a study published in the Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry in 2019, ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites were evaluated for their potential anticancer activity against human cervical cancer cells (HeLa). The nanocomposites were found to induce significant cell death in HeLa cells, as well as inhibit their proliferation and migration. The authors suggested that the anticancer activity of the nanocomposites could be attributed to their ability to generate ROS and induce apoptosis in cancer cells [84].

Figure 8 ZnO and TiO2 nanocomposites have anticancer properties. There are several ways that nanocomposites may destroy cancer cells after they have attached to them. Cell death can result via anti-proliferation, growth inhibition, depolarization, cellular lysis, and blebbing production.
Figure 8

ZnO and TiO2 nanocomposites have anticancer properties. There are several ways that nanocomposites may destroy cancer cells after they have attached to them. Cell death can result via anti-proliferation, growth inhibition, depolarization, cellular lysis, and blebbing production.

Overall, these studies suggest that ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites have potential anticancer activity by inducing apoptosis and inhibiting the proliferation and migration of cancer cells. However, further studies are needed to fully evaluate their efficacy and safety in animal models and human subjects, as well as to optimize their synthesis and properties for anticancer applications. In a medium containing 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), penicillin (100 U·mL−1), and streptomycin (10 mg·L−1), the HeLa and L-929 cell lines were grown. These cells were grown in an incubator with 5% CO2 at 37°C. After being trypsinized in culture flows for 70–80% of the cell growth for each cell line, the cells were then plated on 96-well plates. Using Skehan’s MTT colorimetric test technique, the in vitro cytotoxicity of TiO2/ZnO NCs, TiO2, and ZnO NPs on HeLa and L-929 cell lines was evaluated. TiO2 is a topic of great discussion and research. It has several distinguishing characteristics, making it a desirable chemical in the biomedical sector. ZnO was not widely used until recently, even though its use in biological applications has greatly increased interest in the material recently. This study’s focus was on these two NPs and their combined performance, which generated a lot of attention from the medical community [85].

13 Anti-larval activity

Michael et al. [86] initially proposed the brine shrimp test, which Ghufran et al. later refined [87]. This test is a useful instrument for determining several dangerous chemicals. It has long been used to investigate the cytotoxicity of dental materials, pesticides, heavy metals, plant extracts, and fungal toxins [88]. The ability to separate the biologically active chemicals from the plant extract is a useful technique [89]. Currently, many scientists are interested in the cytotoxicity of nanomaterials towards Artemia salina larvae. Since the test only needs a minimal quantity of NPs, this method is very simple, inexpensive, and attractive. Several animal models are being used for in vivo testing to examine the cytotoxicity of NP exposure. The methods used to expose people to NPs are injection-, dermal-, pulmonary-, and oral-based [90]. Scientists used in vitro methods to assess the cytotoxicity of NPs (Table 1), since in vivo investigations are expensive and time-consuming. The toxicity of different substances is now often examined in pharmaceutical research using a kind of brine shrimp called Artemia salina [91]. As there is no necessity for sterile preparations in this situation, A. salina tests may be used in place of the more doubtful MTT assay or animal serum may be used [92]. Since Michael and his colleagues created the brine shrimp assay in 1959, several laboratories have used it as a technique for an immediate assessment of toxicity [86,93]. As shown in and exploited for toxicity testing, Artemia is a useful test organism due to its low cost, ease of usage, and speedy screening methodology. Brine shrimp eggs are collected for the cytotoxic test on brine shrimp. After that, the eggs are kept at 28°C for a while. Artificial saltwater and a light source heated to 37°C are used to hasten egg hatching. Using 96-well plates, this technique worked. Using a Pasteur pipette, newborn nauplii are selected and added to each well. The test sample is placed in each well and the volume is adjusted. The brine shrimp are taken from 96-well plates after being left for 24 h, and they are then counted under a microscope. After a 24-h incubation period, the proportion of dead shrimp in each well is calculated [94].

Table 1

Cytotoxicity activity against different chemically synthesized NPs

Chemically synthesized NPs Size of NPs Morphology of NPs Dose Activity References
Silver NPs 30–40 nm Spherical 2–12 nM AgNP levels increased, mortality increased, nauplii comprised more apoptotic and DNA-damaged cells, and hatching rates decreased [96]
Zn and ZnO 40–200 nm Spherical 10, 50, and 100 mg‧L−1 Zn Zn NPs caused more toxicity than ZnO NPs mortality [97]
Nickel oxide (NiO) 40–60 nm — 0.2–50 mg‧L−1 NiO NPs were more durable and put nauplii at greater oxidative stress [98]
Cobalt oxide (CoO) <100 nm — 0.2–50 mg‧L−1 CoO NPs significantly dissolved and reduced the oxidative stress in nauplii [98]
ZnO–TiO2 45.2 nm — 0.1–1.0 mg‧L−1 Significant effects [99]
Tin(iv) oxide SnO2 − 61 nm — 0.01–1.0 mg‧L−1 Although the larvae’s cholinesterase and glutathione-S-transferase activity were greatly reduced, no death occurred; instead, the disruption of behavior and biochemical reactions occurred [100]
TiO2 and AgTiO2 −2 to 143 and 1–232 TiO2 consists of large aggregates with small pores when compared to AgTiO2 1 mg‧L−1 The mortality rate in nauplii increased noticeably with exposure periods and concentrations, with TiO2 being less damaging to them than AgTiO2 [101]
Au and Ag Several concentrations Has practical experience in fundamental chemical, material, toxicological, and statistical principles, nanotechnology and nano-toxicology [102]
Iron(ii, iii) oxide (Fe3O4) 20–30 nm 0.01–1.0 mg‧L−1 After exposure to Fe3O4 NP, catalase and cholinesterase activity significantly improved not inducing any mortality [100]
Cerium(iv) oxide (CeO2) 50–105 nm 0.01–1.0 mg‧L−1 Did not cause any death in the larvae but significantly lowered the larvae’s swimming speed [100]

Researchers have tested the cytotoxicity of chemical raw NPs on brine shrimp. On these NPs and their interactions with brine shrimp, there is a plethora of frameworks to promote. By chemical synthesis, Madhav et al. [95] produced spherical ZnO NPs with an average diameter of 114.36 nm. This study shows that when established NPs interact with Artemia salina, they are hazardous (oxidative stress is generated and a significant disruptor of proteolytic enzymes). The increasing mortality rate provided proof that zinc oxide NPs had cytotoxic effects. This investigation additionally demonstrated that NPs had an irregular form and an average size of 63.13 nm [103]. Also, the potential anti-larval activity of ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites against mosquito larvae has been investigated. ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites were created and tested for their larvicidal action against the Aedes aegypti mosquito, which transmits dengue fever, in research that was published in Environmental Chemical Engineering in 2018. At a concentration of 50 ppm, the nanocomposites were shown to have significant larvicidal action, resulting in 100% larval death. The potential of the nanocomposites to damage the mosquito larvae's cellular membrane and cause their death, according to the authors, maybe the cause of their larvicidal action [104]. Another study, published in the Journal of Cluster Science in 2020, evaluated the potential anti-larval activity of ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites against the malaria vector mosquito Anopheles stephensi. At a concentration of 100 ppm, the nanocomposites were shown to exhibit strong anti-larval action, resulting in 100% death of the larvae. The anti-larval activity of the nanocomposites, according to authors, might be attributable to their capacity to prevent mosquito larvae from growing and developing [105]. ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites were tested for their larvicidal effectiveness against the filariasis vector mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus in research that was published in Journal of Hazardous Materials in 2021. At a concentration of 20 ppm, the nanocomposites were shown to exhibit considerable larvicidal action, leading in 100% larval death. According to the authors, the capacity of the nanocomposites to damage the mosquito larvae’s nervous system and prevent their capacity to generate certain proteins may be the cause of their larvicidal effect [106].

14 Conclusion

Generally, it is believed that the ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposite synthesis can be accomplished via physical, chemical, and biological processes but biological methods are safer, more environmentally friendly, and more affordable than physical and chemical approaches. In a biological process, plant-based ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites, and following synthesis, character analysis is performed. Nanocomposites can be used for many biological applications after characterization. The number of biomedical applications in diverse processes, such as medication administration, biosensors, tissue engineering, and gene delivery, is growing daily. ZnO/TiO2 can be a potent substitute for antibiotics and a clever weapon against many drug-resistant microorganisms because of its toxicity qualities. The findings of this analysis should facilitate future investigations into novel methodological and clinical connections in this field.

  1. Funding information: The authors state no funding is involved.

  2. Author contributions: Naireen Ahmed Kiran Tanveer, Zohaib Younas, Tayyaba Yousaf, and Muhammad Ikram: devised the study; Naireen Ahmad, Kiran Tanveer, Zohaib Younas, and Tayyaba Yousaf: wrote the first draft; Muhammad Ikram, Zia-Ur-Rehman Mashwani, and Naveed Iqbal Raja: edited and reviewed the manuscript; Saad Alghamdi, Issa Saad Al-Moraya, and Nashwa Talaat Shesha: revised the manuscript; and Naveed Iqbal Raja and Zia-Ur-Rehman Mashwani: provided guidance and supervision. All authors reviewed and endorsed the final version of the manuscript for submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: No data was used for research described in this article.

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Received: 2023-05-04
Revised: 2023-06-17
Accepted: 2023-07-03
Published Online: 2023-07-29

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2023-0076
Keywords for this article
nanotechnology; nanocomposites; biomedical applications and assays
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Value-added utilization of coal fly ash and recycled polyvinyl chloride in door or window sub-frame composites
  3. High removal efficiency of volatile phenol from coking wastewater using coal gasification slag via optimized adsorption and multi-grade batch process
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  16. Effectiveness of pH and amount of Artemia urumiana extract on physical, chemical, and biological attributes of UV-fabricated biogold nanoparticles
  17. Geranium leaf-mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their transcriptomic effects on Candida albicans
  18. Synthesis, characterization, anticancer, anti-inflammatory activities, and docking studies of 3,5-disubstituted thiadiazine-2-thiones
  19. Synthesis and stability of phospholipid-encapsulated nano-selenium
  20. Putative anti-proliferative effect of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) seed and its nano-formulation
  21. Enrichment of low-grade phosphorites by the selective leaching method
  22. Electrochemical analysis of the dissolution of gold in a copper–ethylenediamine–thiosulfate system
  23. Characterisation of carbonate lake sediments as a potential filler for polymer composites
  24. Evaluation of nano-selenium biofortification characteristics of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.)
  25. Quality of oil extracted by cold press from Nigella sativa seeds incorporated with rosemary extracts and pretreated by microwaves
  26. Heteropolyacid-loaded MOF-derived mesoporous zirconia catalyst for chemical degradation of rhodamine B
  27. Recovery of critical metals from carbonatite-type mineral wastes: Geochemical modeling investigation of (bio)hydrometallurgical leaching of REEs
  28. Photocatalytic properties of ZnFe-mixed oxides synthesized via a simple route for water remediation
  29. Attenuation of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate-induced hepatic and renal toxicity by naringin nanoparticles in a rat model
  30. Novel in situ synthesis of quaternary core–shell metallic sulfide nanocomposites for degradation of organic dyes and hydrogen production
  31. Microfluidic steam-based synthesis of luminescent carbon quantum dots as sensing probes for nitrite detection
  32. Transformation of eggshell waste to egg white protein solution, calcium chloride dihydrate, and eggshell membrane powder
  33. Preparation of Zr-MOFs for the adsorption of doxycycline hydrochloride from wastewater
  34. Green nanoarchitectonics of the silver nanocrystal potential for treating malaria and their cytotoxic effects on the kidney Vero cell line
  35. Carbon emissions analysis of producing modified asphalt with natural asphalt
  36. An efficient and green synthesis of 2-phenylquinazolin-4(3H)-ones via t-BuONa-mediated oxidative condensation of 2-aminobenzamides and benzyl alcohols under solvent- and transition metal-free conditions
  37. Chitosan nanoparticles loaded with mesosulfuron methyl and mesosulfuron methyl + florasulam + MCPA isooctyl to manage weeds of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
  38. Synergism between lignite and high-sulfur petroleum coke in CO2 gasification
  39. Facile aqueous synthesis of ZnCuInS/ZnS–ZnS QDs with enhanced photoluminescence lifetime for selective detection of Cu(ii) ions
  40. Rapid synthesis of copper nanoparticles using Nepeta cataria leaves: An eco-friendly management of disease-causing vectors and bacterial pathogens
  41. Study on the photoelectrocatalytic activity of reduced TiO2 nanotube films for removal of methyl orange
  42. Development of a fuzzy logic model for the prediction of spark-ignition engine performance and emission for gasoline–ethanol blends
  43. Micro-impact-induced mechano-chemical synthesis of organic precursors from FeC/FeN and carbonates/nitrates in water and its extension to nucleobases
  44. Green synthesis of strontium-doped tin dioxide (SrSnO2) nanoparticles using the Mahonia bealei leaf extract and evaluation of their anticancer and antimicrobial activities
  45. A study on the larvicidal and adulticidal potential of Cladostepus spongiosus macroalgae and green-fabricated silver nanoparticles against mosquito vectors
  46. Catalysts based on nickel salt heteropolytungstates for selective oxidation of diphenyl sulfide
  47. Powerful antibacterial nanocomposites from Corallina officinalis-mediated nanometals and chitosan nanoparticles against fish-borne pathogens
  48. Removal behavior of Zn and alkalis from blast furnace dust in pre-reduction sinter process
  49. Environmentally friendly synthesis and computational studies of novel class of acridinedione integrated spirothiopyrrolizidines/indolizidines
  50. The mechanisms of inhibition and lubrication of clean fracturing flowback fluids in water-based drilling fluids
  51. Adsorption/desorption performance of cellulose membrane for Pb(ii)
  52. A one-pot, multicomponent tandem synthesis of fused polycyclic pyrrolo[3,2-c]quinolinone/pyrrolizino[2,3-c]quinolinone hybrid heterocycles via environmentally benign solid state melt reaction
  53. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using durian rind extract and optical characteristics of surface plasmon resonance-based optical sensor for the detection of hydrogen peroxide
  54. Electrochemical analysis of copper-EDTA-ammonia-gold thiosulfate dissolution system
  55. Characterization of bio-oil production by microwave pyrolysis from cashew nut shells and Cassia fistula pods
  56. Green synthesis methods and characterization of bacterial cellulose/silver nanoparticle composites
  57. Photocatalytic research performance of zinc oxide/graphite phase carbon nitride catalyst and its application in environment
  58. Effect of phytogenic iron nanoparticles on the bio-fortification of wheat varieties
  59. In vitro anti-cancer and antimicrobial effects of manganese oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the Glycyrrhiza uralensis leaf extract on breast cancer cell lines
  60. Preparation of Pd/Ce(F)-MCM-48 catalysts and their catalytic performance of n-heptane isomerization
  61. Green “one-pot” fluorescent bis-indolizine synthesis with whole-cell plant biocatalysis
  62. Silica-titania mesoporous silicas of MCM-41 type as effective catalysts and photocatalysts for selective oxidation of diphenyl sulfide by H2O2
  63. Biosynthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles from molted feathers of Pavo cristatus and their antibiofilm and anticancer activities
  64. Clean preparation of rutile from Ti-containing mixed molten slag by CO2 oxidation
  65. Synthesis and characterization of Pluronic F-127-coated titanium dioxide nanoparticles synthesized from extracts of Atractylodes macrocephala leaf for antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties
  66. Effect of pretreatment with alkali on the anaerobic digestion characteristics of kitchen waste and analysis of microbial diversity
  67. Ameliorated antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer properties by Plectranthus vettiveroides root extract-mediated green synthesis of chitosan nanoparticles
  68. Microwave-accelerated pretreatment technique in green extraction of oil and bioactive compounds from camelina seeds: Effectiveness and characterization
  69. Studies on the extraction performance of phorate by aptamer-functionalized magnetic nanoparticles in plasma samples
  70. Investigation of structural properties and antibacterial activity of AgO nanoparticle extract from Solanum nigrum/Mentha leaf extracts by green synthesis method
  71. Green fabrication of chitosan from marine crustaceans and mushroom waste: Toward sustainable resource utilization
  72. Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
  73. The enhanced adsorption properties of phosphorus from aqueous solutions using lanthanum modified synthetic zeolites
  74. Separation of graphene oxides of different sizes by multi-layer dialysis and anti-friction and lubrication performance
  75. Visible-light-assisted base-catalyzed, one-pot synthesis of highly functionalized cinnolines
  76. The experimental study on the air oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid with Co–Mn–Br system
  77. Highly efficient removal of tetracycline and methyl violet 2B from aqueous solution using the bimetallic FeZn-ZIFs catalyst
  78. A thermo-tolerant cellulase enzyme produced by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens M7, an insight into synthesis, optimization, characterization, and bio-polishing activity
  79. Exploration of ketone derivatives of succinimide for their antidiabetic potential: In vitro and in vivo approaches
  80. Ultrasound-assisted green synthesis and in silico study of 6-(4-(butylamino)-6-(diethylamino)-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)oxypyridazine derivatives
  81. A study of the anticancer potential of Pluronic F-127 encapsulated Fe2O3 nanoparticles derived from Berberis vulgaris extract
  82. Biogenic synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Consolida orientalis flowers: Identification, catalytic degradation, and biological effect
  83. Initial assessment of the presence of plastic waste in some coastal mangrove forests in Vietnam
  84. Adsorption synergy electrocatalytic degradation of phenol by active oxygen-containing species generated in Co-coal based cathode and graphite anode
  85. Antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, and cytotoxicity activities of the aqueous extract of Syzygium aromaticum-mediated synthesized novel silver nanoparticles
  86. Synthesis of a silica matrix with ZnO nanoparticles for the fabrication of a recyclable photodegradation system to eliminate methylene blue dye
  87. Natural polymer fillers instead of dye and pigments: Pumice and scoria in PDMS fluid and elastomer composites
  88. Study on the preparation of glycerylphosphorylcholine by transesterification under supported sodium methoxide
  89. Wireless network handheld terminal-based green ecological sustainable design evaluation system: Improved data communication and reduced packet loss rate
  90. The optimization of hydrogel strength from cassava starch using oxidized sucrose as a crosslinking agent
  91. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Saccharum officinarum leaf extract for antiviral paint
  92. Study on the reliability of nano-silver-coated tin solder joints for flip chips
  93. Environmentally sustainable analytical quality by design aided RP-HPLC method for the estimation of brilliant blue in commercial food samples employing a green-ultrasound-assisted extraction technique
  94. Anticancer and antimicrobial potential of zinc/sodium alginate/polyethylene glycol/d-pinitol nanocomposites against osteosarcoma MG-63 cells
  95. Nanoporous carbon@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite as a green absorbent for the adsorptive removal of Hg(ii) from aqueous solutions
  96. Characterization of silver sulfide nanoparticles from actinobacterial strain (M10A62) and its toxicity against lepidopteran and dipterans insect species
  97. Phyto-fabrication and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Withania somnifera: Investigating antioxidant potential
  98. Effect of e-waste nanofillers on the mechanical, thermal, and wear properties of epoxy-blend sisal woven fiber-reinforced composites
  99. Magnesium nanohydroxide (2D brucite) as a host matrix for thymol and carvacrol: Synthesis, characterization, and inhibition of foodborne pathogens
  100. Synergistic inhibitive effect of a hybrid zinc oxide-benzalkonium chloride composite on the corrosion of carbon steel in a sulfuric acidic solution
  101. Review Articles
  102. Role and the importance of green approach in biosynthesis of nanopropolis and effectiveness of propolis in the treatment of COVID-19 pandemic
  103. Gum tragacanth-mediated synthesis of metal nanoparticles, characterization, and their applications as a bactericide, catalyst, antioxidant, and peroxidase mimic
  104. Green-processed nano-biocomposite (ZnO–TiO2): Potential candidates for biomedical applications
  105. Reaction mechanisms in microwave-assisted lignin depolymerisation in hydrogen-donating solvents
  106. Recent progress on non-noble metal catalysts for the deoxydehydration of biomass-derived oxygenates
  107. Rapid Communication
  108. Phosphorus removal by iron–carbon microelectrolysis: A new way to achieve phosphorus recovery
  109. Special Issue: Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications (Guest Editors: Arpita Roy and Fernanda Maria Policarpo Tonelli)
  110. Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications
  111. Nano-encapsulated tanshinone IIA in PLGA-PEG-COOH inhibits apoptosis and inflammation in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury
  112. Green fabrication of silver nanoparticles using Melia azedarach ripened fruit extract, their characterization, and biological properties
  113. Green-synthesized nanoparticles and their therapeutic applications: A review
  114. Antioxidant, antibacterial, and cytotoxicity potential of synthesized silver nanoparticles from the Cassia alata leaf aqueous extract
  115. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Callisia fragrans leaf extract and its anticancer activity against MCF-7, HepG2, KB, LU-1, and MKN-7 cell lines
  116. Algae-based green AgNPs, AuNPs, and FeNPs as potential nanoremediators
  117. Green synthesis of Kickxia elatine-induced silver nanoparticles and their role as anti-acetylcholinesterase in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease
  118. Phytocrystallization of silver nanoparticles using Cassia alata flower extract for effective control of fungal skin pathogens
  119. Antibacterial wound dressing with hydrogel from chitosan and polyvinyl alcohol from the red cabbage extract loaded with silver nanoparticles
  120. Leveraging of mycogenic copper oxide nanostructures for disease management of Alternaria blight of Brassica juncea
  121. Nanoscale molecular reactions in microbiological medicines in modern medical applications
  122. Synthesis and characterization of ZnO/β-cyclodextrin/nicotinic acid nanocomposite and its biological and environmental application
  123. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles via Taxus wallichiana Zucc. plant-derived Taxol: Novel utilization as anticancer, antioxidation, anti-inflammation, and antiurolithic potential
  124. Recyclability and catalytic characteristics of copper oxide nanoparticles derived from bougainvillea plant flower extract for biomedical application
  125. Phytofabrication, characterization, and evaluation of novel bioinspired selenium–iron (Se–Fe) nanocomposites using Allium sativum extract for bio-potential applications
  126. Erratum
  127. Erratum to “Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)”
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