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Green synthesis of Kickxia elatine-induced silver nanoparticles and their role as anti-acetylcholinesterase in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease

  • Noor Ul Huda , Hazem K. Ghneim , Fozia Fozia , Mushtaq Ahmed EMAIL logo , Nadia Mushtaq , Naila Sher , Rahmat Ali Khan , Ijaz Ahmad , Yazeed A. Al-Sheikh , John P. Giesy and Mourad A. M. Aboul-Soud EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: June 7, 2023
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Green Processing and Synthesis
From the journal Green Processing and Synthesis Volume 12 Issue 1

Abstract

The synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) by the green method is favored as compared to chemical synthesis due to their appreciable properties of less toxicity and simple synthesis. The current study designed the biosynthesis of AgNPs in one step by using the plant Kickxia elatine (KE) extract and then investigated its inhibiting activity against rat’s brain acetylcholinesterase (AChE) ex vivo. Ultraviolet spectrum at 416 nm confirmed the formation of AgNPs. X-ray diffractometer calculated size was reported to be 42.47 nm. The SEM analysis confirmed spherical-shaped AgNPs. FT-IR suggested that the phytochemical groups present in the KE extract and their nanoparticles (NPs) are responsible for the biosynthesized of NPs. EDX analysis presented that Ag was the chief element with 61.67%. Both KE extract and AgNPs showed significant anti-AChE activity at 175 µg·mL−1. Statistical analysis showed that both KE and AgNPs exhibited non-competitive type inhibition against AChE, i.e. V max decreased (34.17–68.64% and 22.29–62.10%), while K m values remained constant. It is concluded that KE and AgNPs can be considered an inhibitor of rats’ brain AChE. Furthermore, the synthesis of AgNP-based drugs can be used as a cheaper and alternative option against diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease.

Keywords: Kickxia elatine ; AgNPs; brain homogenate; acetylcholinesterase; kinetics

1 Introduction

Nanotechnology is the generation of solid nanometer-sized nanoparticles (NPs) with restricted shapes and sizes and gaining enormous attention all over the world in the last many years [1]. The importance of Nanoscience is concerned with the outstanding and unique optical, physical, and chemical properties of NPs and their use in the fields of the medicines, agriculture, cosmetics, garment, and food industries [2,3]. Recently, metallic NPs are synthesized using gold (Au), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), silver (Ag), magnesium (Mg), etc. [4]. Among NPs, AgNPs are gaining significant attention due to their small size in the range of 1–100 nm and related to the size of human body proteins [5,6]. The nanostructured AgNPs have a vital role as antimicrobial agents [7], water purifiers, surgical, and wound care products, antioxidants [8], acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors [9], and anti-diabetic agents [10,11]. Nobel AgNPs have attracted enormous attention due to their broad-spectrum application in growing demand goods such as cosmetics, textiles, electronics, biosensors, catalysts, and medicine products. The essential characteristics of biosynthesized NPs such as shape and size are particularly attributed to the type and biochemical’s constituents of selected natural sources. It is worth mentioning that no study has been reported yet examining the effects of collective biomaterials on NP fabrication and their biological activities. Thus, this research focuses on the combinative effect of abundant and low cost of marine-derived materials of biopolymer chitosan and the brown marine algae extract as an extracellular green platform on bio-fabrication of AgNPs [1].

AgNPs have attracted a great deal of interest due to their excellent antimicrobial, antioxidants, anti-Alzheimer’s disease, anticancer, and catalytic properties. The main drawback with the chemical and physical methods of AgNPs formation is that they are extremely costly and also involve the use of toxic, hazardous chemicals and they contain potential environmental and biological stakes. However, the use of harmful substances and the high-energy consumption required for the preparation of AgNPs represent disadvantages that limit their large-scale production. Currently, researchers are using green methods for the biosynthesis of AgNPs where the bio-extracts are used as mediators for the fabrication of AgNPs. These metabolites (e.g., vitamins enzymes, proteins, polysaccharides, amino acids, and organic acids) involve directly in the reduction of Ag ions to produce NPs. The secondary metabolites in the reduction of metal ions into NPs and in supporting their subsequent stability have also been postulated [12]. Recently reported plant extracts that were used for the biosynthesis of AgNPs included Urtica diocia [13], Tropaeolum majus [14], Skimmia laureola [15], Azadirachta indica [16], and Araucaria angastifolia [17].

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is associated with memory and thinking impairment, behavioral problems, and disturbance in daily living activities [6]. AD is common in old people due to irreversible neuronal loss. The deficiency of acetylcholine (ACh) in synapses of the cerebral cortex is one of the important sufferers of AD [18] and can be treated by the inhibition of AChE that hydrolyzes ACh into choline and acetate [18]. Synthetic AChE inhibitors (tacrine, donepezil, and rivastigmine) cause significant side effects [19]. Therefore, researchers have been focused on herbal inhibitors of AChE (tacrine, donepezil, and galantamine), which can be used in the treatment of AD with very less or no side effects [20].

Kickxia elatine (KE) is an annual plant used in conventional medicine as a wound-healing agent, sedative, and general tonic, and also in case of bleeding and lacrimation. Worldwide only a few species of Kickxia have been analyzed for its phytochemical constituents, which result in the isolation of flavonoids and iridoid glycosides and conferred good antiglycation activity (inhibition of α-glycosidase). [21] extracted four types of flavonoids (flavone, glycosides, pectolinarin, and acetylpectolinarin) from KE, which suggests its strong antioxidant activity and prevents the development of heart ailment, cancer, diabetes, and some other disorders like Alzheimer’s disease and dementia [22]. Linarioside extracted from Kickxia spuria, Kickxia elatine (L.) Dumort, and Kickxia commutata expressed strong anti-diabetic activities [23]. KE is one of the least explored members of Plantaginaceae. In the present project, AgNPs’ synthesis from KE was undertaken that has not been evaluated previously. The present work is based on the hypothesis that KE extract and synthesized K. elatine silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) will bear effective anti-Alzheimer’s disease activity due to the presence of biologically active ingredients in KE.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Collection and processing of KE

The KE plant was obtained from the Ghoriwala area of district Bannu, KP Pakistan, in June 2021. The plant was recognized by Dr. Tahir Iqbal, an expert taxonomist, and a voucher specimen was deposited (NH II) at the Botany Department, University of Science and Technology, Bannu. The plant was dried and powdered. About 100 g of KE was extracted with 500 mL of ethanol and concentrated with a rotary evaporator to harvest crude extract (KE). The concentrated KE was air-dried at 37°C and then stored at 4°C for further investigation.

2.2 KE-mediated AgNPs

AgNPs were synthesized using a standard procedure [24]. About 1.5 g KE crude extract was dissolved in 100 mL of deionized water. The supernatant was stored for activity. About 1,000 mL of 1 mM AgNO3 solution was prepared and adjusted the pH at 9. Furthermore, 100 mL of supernatant (1 g·100 ddH2O−1) and 1,000 mL of AgNO3 (1 mM) solution were mixed in a 1:10 ratio and incubate the mixture at 40°C. The color change to reddish-brown after 1 h is an indication of chemical reduction, i.e., the formation of AgNPs. The solution was further incubated for 24 h at 40°C. AgNPs were definite by ultraviolet–visible (UV–Vis) spectrometry between 200 and 800 nm. AgNPs were centrifuged at 14,000 rpm. The obtained pellet of NPs was dried incubator at 50°C and used for further characterization.

2.3 Size and shape optimization of AgNPs

AgNPs’ synthesis was optimized by using different intrinsic factors such as KE volume, temperature, reaction time, Ag salt molarity, pH, and stability time. To assess the effect of KE concentration on the fabrication of AgNPs, its concentration varied as 0.25, 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2 mL. AgNPs were prepared at different temperatures 20°C, 40°C, 60°C, 80°C, and 100°C and at varied time intervals (1, 2, 3, and 24 h) to estimate the effect of temperature and time. To analyze the effect of Ag salt concentration, NPs were prepared at different dilution (0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2 mM) of Ag-salt. To assess the effect of pH, AgNPs were prepared at varied pH from 5 to 12, respectively, because NPs’ synthesis is supported by both acidic and basic conditions. The NPs’ stability was checked after 24 h, 30 days, and 3 months.

2.4 Characterization of AgNP

AgNPs’ synthesis was confirmed by Shimadzu UV Spectrophotometer (UV-1800). KE and NPs were inquired for functional groups by using Nicolet iS50 FT-IR. The crystalline structure of AgNPs was examined by using the JEOL X-ray diffractometer (XRD) model (JDX-3532, Japan). SEM analysis was used to examine the morphology of AgNPs. EDX was done to know the elemental constituents of AgNPs.

2.5 Experimental animals

The study was ethically approved by the Biotechnology Ethical Committee, USTB, Bannu, Pakistan, on March 17, 2020, under reference number USTB-534/2020. The experiment was performed on male Sprague Dawley rats that were obtained from a Veterinary Research Institute, Peshawar, Pakistan. The average age of the animals was 3–3.5 months, and their weight was 310–350 g. The rats were retained in a controlled temperature well-aired room in steel cages with a 12 h dark–light period. The rats had free entree to food. Rats were not subjected to any specific treatment before slaughtering. The animals were sacrificed by cervical dislocation. The brain was excised, weighed, and washed with 50 mM phosphate buffer.

2.6 Preparation of brain homogenate (BH)

About 1 g of brain was minced and homogenized in 10 mL of 50 mM phosphate buffer and followed by centrifugation at 4°C for 10 min at 10,000 rpm in a high-speed cooling centrifuge.

2.7 Protein estimation

The protocol was used to estimate the proteins in BH. Bovine serum albumin was used as standard [25].

2.8 Anti-acetyl cholinesterase activity

AChE inhibition strength was evaluated by the methodology of Ahmed et al. [26]. The 1 mL mixture assay contained DTNB 10 mM, 50 mM phosphate buffer of pH 7.4, 100 μL of BH as an enzyme, 67 µL water, and different volumes of KE and AgNPs (75, 125, and 175 µL). The mixture was subjected to incubation for 5 min at 37°C. With the addition of substrate acetyl thiocholine (0.05–1 mM), the reaction was started. The ACh hydrolysis rate was measured every 15 s for the 90 s by the development of thiolate di-anion that reacts with DTNB. The activity of the enzyme was scrutinized by the extent of the yellow color formation. The activity was repeated in triplicate to eliminate the errors and % inhibition is calculated by the following equation:

(1) % I nhibition = C ontrol − S ample / C ontrol × 100

2.9 Kinetic determinations

For assessing the type of inhibition, kinetics studies were done. The interaction of KE, AgNPs, and enzyme BH was assessed by the double reciprocal plot [27]. 1/V was assessed at ACh (0.05–1 mM) with and without KE and its NPs. Michaelis constants (K m) were deliberated by V vs V/S [28] and 1/V vs 1/S plots [27]. The inhibition constant (K i) was calculated by Cornish-Bowden plots [34]. KI was calculated by scheming the Dixon plot [29]. IC50 was calculated by inhibition/activity vs concentration of samples.

2.10 Statistical analysis

For data analysis, a two-way analysis of variance was performed. Data were shown as mean ± standard. The graphs were drawn in Origin Pro 8.5 and Slide Write.

3 Results

3.1 UV–Vis spectroscopy of AgNPs

The aqueous extract of KE was green which changed to reddish-brown after the addition of AgNO3 solution and incubation at 40°C for 24 h. The color change was observed due to the bio-reduction of Ag+.

After chromatic observation, the AgNPs were subjected to UV–Vis spectral analysis in the range of 200–800 nm and displayed a peak at 416 nm with the absorption of 1.98 at optimal conditions as 24 h incubation time, 1.5 mL of aqueous extract concentration, 1 mM silver nitrate solution concentration, and 40°C temperature at pH 9, while the plant extract did not exhibited absorption spectrum in 200–800 nm (Figure 1).

Figure 1 The UV–Vis absorption spectrum of AgNPs at optimal conditions.
Figure 1

The UV–Vis absorption spectrum of AgNPs at optimal conditions.

3.2 Factors affecting biosynthesis of AgNPs

The AgNPs’ stability was checked after 24 h, 30 days, and 3 months. The sharp peaks at 416 and 409 nm were reported after 24 h and 30 days and confirmed the presence of AgNPs, but after 3 months, this peak becomes broader with the low absorbance of 0.50 (Figure 2a).

Figure 2 UV spectra of AgNPs at different stability periods (a), extract volume (b), time intervals (c), temperature (d), silver nitrate solution concentration (e), and pH (f).
Figure 2

UV spectra of AgNPs at different stability periods (a), extract volume (b), time intervals (c), temperature (d), silver nitrate solution concentration (e), and pH (f).

To standardize the NPs’ formation route, different volumes of KE extract varied from 0.25, 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2 mL were tested in this study, which exhibited a spectrum of absorption in the range of 200–800 nm with the increase in the intensity of peaks from 0.76 to 2.22, respectively (Figure 2b).

The UV–Vis spectra outcomes publicized a rise in the absorbance intensity of the AgNPs with time (Figure 2c). An absorption peak (390 nm) of very low intensity (0.79) appeared after 1 h of reaction, which transformed into a sharp and visible peak of 416 nm after 24 h and represented the formation of stable and spherical AgNPs.

Figure 2d shows the temperature stability of AgNPs (20–100°C) and suggests that SPR peaks became sharper by increasing the temperature from 20°C to 40°C. Further increase in temperature (up to 100°C) results in the broadening of peaks.

Assessment of the influence of AgNO3 concentration (0.5–2 mM) on AgNPs’ synthesis showed absorbance at 407, 416, 403, and 411 nm, respectively (Figure 2e).

The pH effect (5–12) on the biogenic synthesis of NPs was also evaluated (Figure 2f). At pH 5 and 6, no absorption peaks appeared. But sharp bands were detected as the pH was increased from 6 to 9. At higher pH beyond 9, broader peaks formed.

3.3 FT-IR spectroscopy of KE and synthesized AgNPs

The FT-IR spectrum of KE and AgNPs is presented in Figure 3. Different peaks were demonstrated that correspond to the different functional groups (Table 1). The various peaks reported by KE and AgNP at 3,272.72 and 3,300.39 cm−1 indicate O–H stretch, 2,916.20 and 2,922.52 cm−1 signify the C–H stretch, 2,854.45 and 2,847.93 cm−1 correspond to the OH group of carbonyl compounds of the protein, 2,174.70 and 2,181.18 cm−1 for C≡C stretch, 2,078.26 and 2,023.71 cm−1 for N═C═S stretch, 1,975.49 and 1,906.71 cm−1 indicate C═C═C stretch of allenes, 1,728.06 and 1,735.17 cm−1 resemble the C═O vibrations of conjugated aldehydes, 1,185.77 and 1,233.99 cm−1 resemble C–O stretching of alcohol, ester, ether, and carboxylic acid, 1,062.45 and 1,024.22 cm−1 represent C–N aliphatic amines, and 643.47 and 630.03 cm−1 attribute to C–Br stretch.

Figure 3 FT-IR analysis of KE and AgNPs.
Figure 3

FT-IR analysis of KE and AgNPs.

Table 1

FT-IR interpretation of KE extract (whole plant) and its silver nanoparticles

S. no. KE extract peak potion (cm−1) AgNPs peak position (cm−1) Corresponding frequency range (cm−1) Chemical bond Functional group
1 3,272.72 3,300.39 3,500–3,200 (s) O–H (stretch) Alcohol and phenol
2 2,916.20 2,922.52 3,000–2,850 (m) C–H (stretch) Alkanes
3 2,854.45 2,847.93 3,300–2,500 (m) O–H (stretch) Carboxylic acid
4 2,174.70 2,181.18 22,60–2,100 (w) C≡C (stretch) Alkynes
5 2,078.26 2,023.71 2,140–1,990 (s) N═C═S (stretch) Metal carbonyl (isothiocynate)
6 1,975.49 1,906.71 2,000–1,900 (m) C═C═C (stretch) Allene
7 1,728.06 1,735.17 1,740–1,720 (s) C═O (stretch) Conjugated Aldehyde
8 1,632.41 1,604.74 1,650–1,600 (m) C═C (stretch) Conjugated ketone and alkene
9 1,336.75 1,371.54 1,390–1,310 (m) O–H (bend) Phenols
10 1,185.77 1,233.99 1,320–1,000 (s) C–O (stretch) Alcohol, ester, ether, carboxylic acid
11 1,062.45 1,024.22 1,250–1,020 (m) C–N (stretch) Aliphatic amines
12 877.47 863.24 890–850 Aromatic compounds
13 643.47 630.03 690–515 (s) C–Br (stretch) Halo compounds

3.4 SEM of AgNPs

The nanostructure and surface morphology studies of size and shape were interpreted by SEM (Figure 4a). The outcomes showed that AgNPs are mono-dispersive with the constant arrangement in the matrix. The particle size distribution graph was deliberated by Nano Measurer software (Figure 4b), which demonstrated that 90% of AgNPs are in an average size of 50 nm.

Figure 4 SEM analysis (a) and SEM demonstrated the size (b) of AgNPs.
Figure 4

SEM analysis (a) and SEM demonstrated the size (b) of AgNPs.

3.5 XRD analysis of AgNPs

XRD exploration of AgNPs presented four strong Bragg reflections 38°, 44°, 64°, and 77° at 2θ values, which attributes to the plane of (111), (200), (220), and (311) reflections and conferring face-centered cubic crystal (FCC) structure Figure 5. The size (42.47 nm) was calculated by the Debye–Scherrer equation (Eq. 2) and presented in Table 2.

(2) D = K λ β cos θ

Figure 5 XRDpattern analysis of AgNPs.
Figure 5

XRDpattern analysis of AgNPs.

Table 2

The grain size, interplaner spacing, and lattice constant of AgNPs

S. no. 2θ Value Element hkl FMHM (β) of intense peak (radians) Particle size (D) [nm] d spacing [Å] Lattice constant (α) [Å]
1 38.07 Ag 111 0.0035 40.76 2.361 4.089
2 44.32 Ag 200 0.0033 44.71 2.041 4.083
3 64.39 Ag 220 0.0037 37.56 1.445 4.088
4 77.40 Ag 311 0.0030 46.84 1.231 4.084

3.6 EDX analysis of AgNPs

EDX was conducted for identifying the elemental constituents involved in the biosynthesis of AgNPs (Figure 6a). The EDX spectrometry indicated that AgNPs contain 61.67% of silver, 15.82% carbon, 15.65% oxygen, 4.93% sodium, 0.83% calcium, 0.82% chlorine, and 0.28 silicon by percent weight (Figure 6b). Therefore, the EDX analysis reveals the elemental composition of AgNPs.

Figure 6 EDX spectra (a) and elemental profile (b) of biosynthesized AgNPs.
Figure 6

EDX spectra (a) and elemental profile (b) of biosynthesized AgNPs.

3.7 Anti-Alzheimer’s disease activity

At ACh concentration (0.5 mM), BH acetylcholinesterase (BH-AChE) inhibition ability of KE, AgNPs, and AgNO3 was evaluated. Figure 7a represents that KE, AgNPs, and AgNO3 salt exhibited the highest 65.02%, 75.25%, and 21.68% inhibition against AChE at 175 µg·mL−1 concentration, respectively.

Figure 7 (a) In vitro ache inhibitory capability of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), KE extract, and AgNO3. (b) IC50 values of AgNPs and KE cause 50% inhibition of BH ache.
Figure 7

(a) In vitro ache inhibitory capability of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), KE extract, and AgNO3. (b) IC50 values of AgNPs and KE cause 50% inhibition of BH ache.

3.8 Calculation of IC50

The IC50 values are displayed in Figure 7b and showed IC50 values of KE and AgNPs that are 135.16 ± 1.64 and 117.76 ± 5.21 µg·mL−1, respectively, while AgNO3 salt did not cause 50% inhibition at any concentration due to a lack of phytochemicals from the plant extract.

3.9 Effects of plant and AgNPs on K m and V max

Kinetics studies revealed that both AgNPs and KE caused a non-competitive inhibition of AChE (Figure 8a and b), respectively. In such type of inhibition, V max decreased (34.17–68.64% and 22.29–62.10%) in the concentration-dependent mode for KE and AgNPs, respectively, while K m values remain constant (Table 3).

Figure 8 (a and b) Lineweaver–Burk (reciprocal of enzyme velocity vs reciprocal of ACh) plot showing the non-competitive type of inhibition (K m constant and V max decrease) caused by AgNPs and KE, respectively.
Figure 8

(a and b) Lineweaver–Burk (reciprocal of enzyme velocity vs reciprocal of ACh) plot showing the non-competitive type of inhibition (K m constant and V max decrease) caused by AgNPs and KE, respectively.

Table 3

Influence of KE and AgNPs on K m and V max of Sprague Dawley rats brain homogenate (AChE)

S. no. AgNPs KE extract
Concentration (µg) V max (µmol·min−1·mg−1 protein) % Decrease K m (mM) V max (µmol·min−1·mg−1 protein) % Decrease in V max K m (mM)
0 0.3137 0 0.037 0.1644 0 0.018
75 0.2065 34.17 0.038 0.1278 22.29 0.018
125 0.1657 47.17 0.037 0.0829 49.57 0.018
175 0.0984 68.64 0.038 0.0623 62.10 0.018

3.10 Influence of AgNPs and KE on K Iapp and V maxiapp

The effect of AgNPs and KE on K Iapp and V maxiapp was studied (Figure 9a and b) and showed that with the increase in substrate concentration (0.05–1 mM), K iapp remains constant while V maxiapp values decreased from 48.43% to 150.12% and 7.66% to 49.52%, respectively, for AgNPs and KE (Table 4).

Figure 9 (a and b) Determination of K Iapp and V maxapp for AgNPs and KE using Dixon plot for BH-AChE.
Figure 9

(a and b) Determination of K Iapp and V maxapp for AgNPs and KE using Dixon plot for BH-AChE.

Table 4

Effect of KE and AgNPs on K Iapp and V maxiapp of Sprague Dawley rats’ brain homogenate (AChE); the V maxiapp and K Iapp were calculated by Dixon plot of Figure 9a and b

S. no. AgNPs KE extract
ACh concentration (mM) V maxiapp (µmol·min−1·mg−1 protein) % Decrease in V maxiapp K Iapp (mM) V maxiapp (µmol·min−1·mg−1 protein) % Decrease in V maxiapp K Iapp (mM)
0.05 0.2563 0 45.58 0.313 0 31.098
0.1 0.3804 48.43 46.49 0.337 7.66 31.23
0.25 0.4420 72.47 47.09 0.356 13.78 31.93
0.5 0.4980 94.33 48.27 0.415 32.59 30.08
1 0.6410 150.12 46 0.468 49.52 30.43

3.11 Determination of K I, K i, and K m of AChE

The dissociation constant (K I) was calculated for AgNPs and KE as 46.69 and 30.95 µg respectively (Figure 9a and b). While the inhibitory constant (K i) was calculated to be 32 (Figure 10a) and 19 µg (Figure 10b) for AgNPs and KE, respectively. K m (Michaelis–Menten constant) was 0.018 and 0.037 mM for KE and AgNPs, respectively (Table 5).

Figure 10 (a and b) Determination of inhibitory constant (K i) for AgNPs and KE using Cornish–Bowden plots for BH-AChE.
Figure 10

(a and b) Determination of inhibitory constant (K i) for AgNPs and KE using Cornish–Bowden plots for BH-AChE.

Table 5

Study of kinetic parameters of rat BH-AChE inhibition by AgNPs and KE

Sample K i (µg) K I (µg) K m (mM) IC50 (µg·mL−1)
AgNPs 32 46.69 0.037 117.76 ± 5.21
KE 19 30.95 0.018 135.16 ± 1.64

K i – inhibition constant, K I – dissociation constant of the AChE–ACh–KE complex into the AChE–ACh complex and free KE, K m – Michaelis–Menten constant, and IC50 – 50% inhibitory concentration.

4 Discussion

Engineered nano-medicine is a fast-developing and important field that is related to the fabrication of metallic NPs by using metals like silver, gold, and platinum [30] and exhibits in the field of biomedicines, applied sciences, and material sciences. The rat’s BH-AChE inhibition by KE extract and AgNPs was done in this study. AgNPs’ characterization is an important tool for their stability, collection, bio-dispersity, and biological efficacy in the cells.

Metal-based NPs have free electrons and excitation of electrons with the light of a specific wavelength [31,32]. AgNPs have brown color due to a change in the SPR band detected by the UV–Vis spectrophotometry and appeared at 416 nm with higher absorption of 1.98 showing the reduction and stabilization of Ag+ ions in the aqueous solution. A similar absorbance band at 420 nm was reported by ref. [33] in AgNPs synthesized from M. pulegium leaves.

The size, shape, and fabrication of the AgNPs are affected by extract volume, temperature, time, AgNO3 concentration, and pH [34]. Therefore, in the current study, these parameters were studied to optimize and control the size and shape of the AgNPs and revealed the optimum conditions that produced stable and small-size AgNPs were 1.5 mL (extract concentration), 1 mM (silver nitrate salt concentration), 40°C (temperature), 24 h (reaction time), and pH 9. The current investigation is also supported by the report of [15] on Hippeastrum hybridum-induced silver NPs.

The biological activities of the silver NPs are greatly influenced by their stability. The results are supported by Jabariyan and Zanjanchi [35] who used grape juice for the biosynthesis of AgNPs and found no significant changes in the shape, position, and symmetry of the SPR absorption peak for 30 days. But after 3 months the SPR band became broader with low absorbance of 0.50 and showed that AgNPs lost their stability.

Plant extract consists of various phytochemicals such as tannins, phenols, alkaloids, flavonoids, anthocyanins, phenols, polysaccharides, and polyphenols that attribute to the reduction of Ag+ and the formation of stable and isotropic AgNPs [36]. At an optimal concentration of 1.5 mL, the sharp band (416 nm) attributes to the fabrication of small and isotropic particles. These findings are in agreement with earlier reports [37,38] that have proposed that the rise in M. pulegium leaves extract concentration is linked positively with the stability of AgNPs.

Moreover, the time influence on nanofabrication and size of AgNPs was also testified at different radiation times of 1, 2, 3, and 24 h. After 1 h of reaction, an absorption peak of 390 nm appeared at very low intensity, which transformed into a sharp and visible peak of 416 nm after 24 h suggesting the enhancement of synthesized NPs and complete reduction of Ag ions into stable and spherical AgNPs. Thus, to get maximum- and small-sized NPs, the optimum time was suggested to be 24 h. Awwad and Salem [39] reported 60 min for stable mulberry leaves extract-based AgNPs.

Generally, the NPs are prepared at room temperature, but the reaction is very slow and a long time is required for a complete reaction at room temperature. Therefore, the rate of reaction can be accelerated by elevating the temperature. The SPR peaks became sharper by raising the temperature from 20°C to 40°C suggesting that an increase in temperature up to 40°C led to a complete and rapid reduction of Ag+ and ultimately uniform nucleation of Ag nuclei that result in the formation of small-sized NPs [40]. Furthermore, an increase in temperature up to 100°C resulted in the broadening of peaks and revealed the biosynthesis of large-sized NPs. The AgNPs tend to be poly-dispersed with the increase in temperature beyond 40°C [41].

In the current study, the various concentrations of AgNO3 were tested to get the optimum size of AgNPs (Figure 2e) and revealed that at a concentration of 0.5 mM silver nitrate was deficient for the fabrication of NPs. Interestingly, a 1 mM concentration of AgNO3 supported the rapid formation of minute-sized silver NPs. Thus, a very little amount of AgNO3 salt is required for the biosynthesis of potential and ideal-size AgNPs. With further increase in reactant concentration (1.5–2 mM), the rate of reduction of Ag ion will decrease and the accumulation of AgNO3 makes the mixture solution foggy that subsequently resulting in broad peaks. The broad peak indicates large-size NPs [42]. The broad peak indicates large-size NPs. Kaya et al. [43] reported that small nanometer-sized NPs are biologically more active.

One of the important parameters is pH, which affects the rate of biosynthesis of NPs by changing the electrical load of phytochemicals and alternatively affects the capping and stabilizing ability of Ag ions [44]. Khan et al. [45] reviewed that the size of NPs is probably higher in the acidic medium as compared to the basic media. In the present report, the sharp SPR bands were detected as the pH was increased from 6 to 9 and indicated the biosynthesis of isotropic and stable AgNPs in the basic medium. The alkaline condition assisted in the reduction of biomolecules present in extracts. At higher pH beyond 9, formations of broader peaks indicate large-size NPs. Thus, a pH study showed that the fabrication of AgNPs is enhanced by basic conditions while repressed by acid conditions [46].

FT-IR analysis identifies the existence of phyto-molecules, which account for Ag metal reduction and their collaboration with the stabilization and capping of AgNPs. FT-IR analysis confirmed various bond stretches at their respective peaks of KE and AgNPs, which conferred the presence of polyhydroxy, carboxyl, phenol, lipids, proteins, alkynes, amide, aliphatic amines, halo compounds, alkene, etc. The phenolic and alcoholic compounds are potentially stabilizing mediators involved in the reduction of AgNPs [47]. The carbonyl compounds of proteins attribute to the stabilization of AgNPs by capping them [48]. In the present study, FT-IR confirmed the interaction between biomolecules and different functional groups of KE extract in the reduction and biosynthesis of AgNPs. Thus, from the IR spectrum, it may be presumed that these biomolecules are involved in the stabilization and capping of AgNPs [49].

The morphological studies of size and shape were interpreted by SEM and showed that AgNPs are mono-dispersive with uniform alignment in the matrix. The grain sizes of the NPs valued from the SEM (50 nm) are comparable to XRD data (42.47 nm). The results are consistence with an earlier report in which AgNPs synthesized using Morus alba leaf are spherical with sizes ranging below 50 nm [50].

XRD investigation of AgNPs presented the four strong Bragg reflections that correspond to the pure silver metal with FCC symmetry. These results are in line with earlier reports by [51] where AgNPs synthesized from Euphorbia serpens were FCC crystals of 50 nm size and similar diffraction planes were observed. Hublikar et al. [52] reported that Carissa carandas L. leaf-synthesized AgNPs are crystalline with crystallite sizes 35 and 30 nm at 25°C and 60°C, respectively.

EDX analysis gives information concerning the participation of elements in the reduction of Ag+ both qualitatively and quantitatively [53]. The quantitative profile of elements indicated that AgNPs contain an appreciable and high percentage of silver, followed by carbon, oxygen, sodium, calcium, chlorine, and silicon. The silver showed a high-intensity peak at 3 keV due to SPR and confirmed the complete reduction of Ag+ to AgNPs [53]. The presence of carbon and oxygen corresponds to an aromatic compound that gives stability to reduced Ag [54,55].

Neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease occur due to a low level of the neurotransmitter ACh or a high level of AChE [56]. The enzyme AChE catalyzes the hydrolysis of ACh after its liberation at the cholinergic synapses to return to its resting state after activation [57] and results in the reduction of contact time between the postsynaptic membrane and neurotransmitter ACh. Thus, delaying the transfer of information that leads to memory loss. Therefore, the main therapeutic approach in the prevention of Alzheimer’s disease involved the increasing level of ACh and controlling the activity of AChE by using reversible inhibitors of AChE that will balance the cholinergic system and allow more contact time for information transformation through neurons [56,58]. The effects of silver ions and AgNPs against AChE were also studied in vivo by [46] in which they used three different doses of the synthesized AgNPs and revealed decreased AChE activity. Currently, we confirmed the inhibition of Sprague rat’s BH-AChE by KE extract, AgNPs, and AgNO3 (Figure 7a) and found that at a fixed 0.5 mM concentration of substrate (ACh), KE, KE-NPs, and AgNO3 exhibited 65.02%, 75.25%, and 21.68% inhibition at 175 μg·mL−1, respectively. The IC50 values of AgNPs (117.76 ± 5.21 μg·mL−1) are significantly higher as compared to KE (117.76 ± 5.21 μg·mL−1) and suggest that reduced AChE activity by AgNPs might be due to quercetin in the extract that is responsible for capping off the nanofabricated NPs. Abdelhafez et al. [59] reported a decrease in AChE activity in rats treated with biosynthesized AgNPs and are in best agreement with our present study.

According to kinetic studies, both KE and AgNPs inhibit AChE in a non-competitive mode (K m remains constant while V max decreased). In such a type of inhibition, the KE and AgNPs bind to an allosteric site and alternatively decline the efficacy of the enzyme [60]. The release of silver ions by AgNPs due to surface oxidation might be the possible mode of action as it increases interaction with AChE and subsequently inhibits its activity [61,62]. AgNPs are more effective compared to plant extract due to their morphology [63–65].

5 Conclusion

KE, an indigenous plant found in abundance in Pakistan, has been successfully utilized for the biosynthesis of simple, quick, colloidal, and stable AgNPs. The NPs were characterized by UV–Vis spectroscopy, SEM, FT-IR, EDX, and XRD analysis. AgNPs were also scrutinized for anti-AChE activities in BH and showed good inhibitory enzymatic properties as compared to their respective KE extract and AgNO3. Thus, it may be concluded that green-synthesized AgNPs can be used as a cheaper and alternative option against AD disease.

  1. Funding information: This research was funded through the Researchers Supporting Project (RSPD2023R816), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  2. Author contributions: Noor Ul Huda: formal analysis, investigation, methodology, writing – original draft; Hazem K. Ghneim: data curation, funding acquisition, methodology, writing – review and editing; Fozia Fozia: formal analysis, validation, writing – review and editing; Mushtaq Ahmed: formal analysis, project administration, supervision, writing – review and editing; Nadia Mushtaq: resources, writing – review and editing; Naila Sher: writing – original draft; Rahmat Ali Khan: writing – original draft; Ijaz Ahmad: project administration, writing – review and editing; Yazeed A. Al-Sheikh: writing – original draft; John P. Giesy: writing – original draft; Mourad A. M. Aboul-Soud: funding acquisition, writing – review and editing.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: All the relevant data is provided in the article.

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Received: 2023-02-18
Revised: 2023-04-04
Accepted: 2023-05-08
Published Online: 2023-06-07

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  62. Silica-titania mesoporous silicas of MCM-41 type as effective catalysts and photocatalysts for selective oxidation of diphenyl sulfide by H2O2
  63. Biosynthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles from molted feathers of Pavo cristatus and their antibiofilm and anticancer activities
  64. Clean preparation of rutile from Ti-containing mixed molten slag by CO2 oxidation
  65. Synthesis and characterization of Pluronic F-127-coated titanium dioxide nanoparticles synthesized from extracts of Atractylodes macrocephala leaf for antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties
  66. Effect of pretreatment with alkali on the anaerobic digestion characteristics of kitchen waste and analysis of microbial diversity
  67. Ameliorated antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer properties by Plectranthus vettiveroides root extract-mediated green synthesis of chitosan nanoparticles
  68. Microwave-accelerated pretreatment technique in green extraction of oil and bioactive compounds from camelina seeds: Effectiveness and characterization
  69. Studies on the extraction performance of phorate by aptamer-functionalized magnetic nanoparticles in plasma samples
  70. Investigation of structural properties and antibacterial activity of AgO nanoparticle extract from Solanum nigrum/Mentha leaf extracts by green synthesis method
  71. Green fabrication of chitosan from marine crustaceans and mushroom waste: Toward sustainable resource utilization
  72. Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
  73. The enhanced adsorption properties of phosphorus from aqueous solutions using lanthanum modified synthetic zeolites
  74. Separation of graphene oxides of different sizes by multi-layer dialysis and anti-friction and lubrication performance
  75. Visible-light-assisted base-catalyzed, one-pot synthesis of highly functionalized cinnolines
  76. The experimental study on the air oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid with Co–Mn–Br system
  77. Highly efficient removal of tetracycline and methyl violet 2B from aqueous solution using the bimetallic FeZn-ZIFs catalyst
  78. A thermo-tolerant cellulase enzyme produced by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens M7, an insight into synthesis, optimization, characterization, and bio-polishing activity
  79. Exploration of ketone derivatives of succinimide for their antidiabetic potential: In vitro and in vivo approaches
  80. Ultrasound-assisted green synthesis and in silico study of 6-(4-(butylamino)-6-(diethylamino)-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)oxypyridazine derivatives
  81. A study of the anticancer potential of Pluronic F-127 encapsulated Fe2O3 nanoparticles derived from Berberis vulgaris extract
  82. Biogenic synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Consolida orientalis flowers: Identification, catalytic degradation, and biological effect
  83. Initial assessment of the presence of plastic waste in some coastal mangrove forests in Vietnam
  84. Adsorption synergy electrocatalytic degradation of phenol by active oxygen-containing species generated in Co-coal based cathode and graphite anode
  85. Antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, and cytotoxicity activities of the aqueous extract of Syzygium aromaticum-mediated synthesized novel silver nanoparticles
  86. Synthesis of a silica matrix with ZnO nanoparticles for the fabrication of a recyclable photodegradation system to eliminate methylene blue dye
  87. Natural polymer fillers instead of dye and pigments: Pumice and scoria in PDMS fluid and elastomer composites
  88. Study on the preparation of glycerylphosphorylcholine by transesterification under supported sodium methoxide
  89. Wireless network handheld terminal-based green ecological sustainable design evaluation system: Improved data communication and reduced packet loss rate
  90. The optimization of hydrogel strength from cassava starch using oxidized sucrose as a crosslinking agent
  91. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Saccharum officinarum leaf extract for antiviral paint
  92. Study on the reliability of nano-silver-coated tin solder joints for flip chips
  93. Environmentally sustainable analytical quality by design aided RP-HPLC method for the estimation of brilliant blue in commercial food samples employing a green-ultrasound-assisted extraction technique
  94. Anticancer and antimicrobial potential of zinc/sodium alginate/polyethylene glycol/d-pinitol nanocomposites against osteosarcoma MG-63 cells
  95. Nanoporous carbon@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite as a green absorbent for the adsorptive removal of Hg(ii) from aqueous solutions
  96. Characterization of silver sulfide nanoparticles from actinobacterial strain (M10A62) and its toxicity against lepidopteran and dipterans insect species
  97. Phyto-fabrication and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Withania somnifera: Investigating antioxidant potential
  98. Effect of e-waste nanofillers on the mechanical, thermal, and wear properties of epoxy-blend sisal woven fiber-reinforced composites
  99. Magnesium nanohydroxide (2D brucite) as a host matrix for thymol and carvacrol: Synthesis, characterization, and inhibition of foodborne pathogens
  100. Synergistic inhibitive effect of a hybrid zinc oxide-benzalkonium chloride composite on the corrosion of carbon steel in a sulfuric acidic solution
  101. Review Articles
  102. Role and the importance of green approach in biosynthesis of nanopropolis and effectiveness of propolis in the treatment of COVID-19 pandemic
  103. Gum tragacanth-mediated synthesis of metal nanoparticles, characterization, and their applications as a bactericide, catalyst, antioxidant, and peroxidase mimic
  104. Green-processed nano-biocomposite (ZnO–TiO2): Potential candidates for biomedical applications
  105. Reaction mechanisms in microwave-assisted lignin depolymerisation in hydrogen-donating solvents
  106. Recent progress on non-noble metal catalysts for the deoxydehydration of biomass-derived oxygenates
  107. Rapid Communication
  108. Phosphorus removal by iron–carbon microelectrolysis: A new way to achieve phosphorus recovery
  109. Special Issue: Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications (Guest Editors: Arpita Roy and Fernanda Maria Policarpo Tonelli)
  110. Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications
  111. Nano-encapsulated tanshinone IIA in PLGA-PEG-COOH inhibits apoptosis and inflammation in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury
  112. Green fabrication of silver nanoparticles using Melia azedarach ripened fruit extract, their characterization, and biological properties
  113. Green-synthesized nanoparticles and their therapeutic applications: A review
  114. Antioxidant, antibacterial, and cytotoxicity potential of synthesized silver nanoparticles from the Cassia alata leaf aqueous extract
  115. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Callisia fragrans leaf extract and its anticancer activity against MCF-7, HepG2, KB, LU-1, and MKN-7 cell lines
  116. Algae-based green AgNPs, AuNPs, and FeNPs as potential nanoremediators
  117. Green synthesis of Kickxia elatine-induced silver nanoparticles and their role as anti-acetylcholinesterase in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease
  118. Phytocrystallization of silver nanoparticles using Cassia alata flower extract for effective control of fungal skin pathogens
  119. Antibacterial wound dressing with hydrogel from chitosan and polyvinyl alcohol from the red cabbage extract loaded with silver nanoparticles
  120. Leveraging of mycogenic copper oxide nanostructures for disease management of Alternaria blight of Brassica juncea
  121. Nanoscale molecular reactions in microbiological medicines in modern medical applications
  122. Synthesis and characterization of ZnO/β-cyclodextrin/nicotinic acid nanocomposite and its biological and environmental application
  123. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles via Taxus wallichiana Zucc. plant-derived Taxol: Novel utilization as anticancer, antioxidation, anti-inflammation, and antiurolithic potential
  124. Recyclability and catalytic characteristics of copper oxide nanoparticles derived from bougainvillea plant flower extract for biomedical application
  125. Phytofabrication, characterization, and evaluation of novel bioinspired selenium–iron (Se–Fe) nanocomposites using Allium sativum extract for bio-potential applications
  126. Erratum
  127. Erratum to “Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)”
https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2023-0060
Keywords for this article
Kickxia elatine; AgNPs; brain homogenate; acetylcholinesterase; kinetics
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Value-added utilization of coal fly ash and recycled polyvinyl chloride in door or window sub-frame composites
  3. High removal efficiency of volatile phenol from coking wastewater using coal gasification slag via optimized adsorption and multi-grade batch process
  4. Evolution of surface morphology and properties of diamond films by hydrogen plasma etching
  5. Removal efficiency of dibenzofuran using CuZn-zeolitic imidazole frameworks as a catalyst and adsorbent
  6. Rapid and efficient microwave-assisted extraction of Caesalpinia sappan Linn. heartwood and subsequent synthesis of gold nanoparticles
  7. The catalytic characteristics of 2-methylnaphthalene acylation with AlCl3 immobilized on Hβ as Lewis acid catalyst
  8. Biodegradation of synthetic PVP biofilms using natural materials and nanoparticles
  9. Rutin-loaded selenium nanoparticles modulated the redox status, inflammatory, and apoptotic pathways associated with pentylenetetrazole-induced epilepsy in mice
  10. Optimization of apigenin nanoparticles prepared by planetary ball milling: In vitro and in vivo studies
  11. Synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Origanum onites leaves: Cytotoxic, apoptotic, and necrotic effects on Capan-1, L929, and Caco-2 cell lines
  12. Exergy analysis of a conceptual CO2 capture process with an amine-based DES
  13. Construction of fluorescence system of felodipine–tetracyanovinyl–2,2′-bipyridine complex
  14. Excellent photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B over Bi2O3 supported on Zn-MOF nanocomposites under visible light
  15. Optimization-based control strategy for a large-scale polyhydroxyalkanoates production in a fed-batch bioreactor using a coupled PDE–ODE system
  16. Effectiveness of pH and amount of Artemia urumiana extract on physical, chemical, and biological attributes of UV-fabricated biogold nanoparticles
  17. Geranium leaf-mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their transcriptomic effects on Candida albicans
  18. Synthesis, characterization, anticancer, anti-inflammatory activities, and docking studies of 3,5-disubstituted thiadiazine-2-thiones
  19. Synthesis and stability of phospholipid-encapsulated nano-selenium
  20. Putative anti-proliferative effect of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) seed and its nano-formulation
  21. Enrichment of low-grade phosphorites by the selective leaching method
  22. Electrochemical analysis of the dissolution of gold in a copper–ethylenediamine–thiosulfate system
  23. Characterisation of carbonate lake sediments as a potential filler for polymer composites
  24. Evaluation of nano-selenium biofortification characteristics of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.)
  25. Quality of oil extracted by cold press from Nigella sativa seeds incorporated with rosemary extracts and pretreated by microwaves
  26. Heteropolyacid-loaded MOF-derived mesoporous zirconia catalyst for chemical degradation of rhodamine B
  27. Recovery of critical metals from carbonatite-type mineral wastes: Geochemical modeling investigation of (bio)hydrometallurgical leaching of REEs
  28. Photocatalytic properties of ZnFe-mixed oxides synthesized via a simple route for water remediation
  29. Attenuation of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate-induced hepatic and renal toxicity by naringin nanoparticles in a rat model
  30. Novel in situ synthesis of quaternary core–shell metallic sulfide nanocomposites for degradation of organic dyes and hydrogen production
  31. Microfluidic steam-based synthesis of luminescent carbon quantum dots as sensing probes for nitrite detection
  32. Transformation of eggshell waste to egg white protein solution, calcium chloride dihydrate, and eggshell membrane powder
  33. Preparation of Zr-MOFs for the adsorption of doxycycline hydrochloride from wastewater
  34. Green nanoarchitectonics of the silver nanocrystal potential for treating malaria and their cytotoxic effects on the kidney Vero cell line
  35. Carbon emissions analysis of producing modified asphalt with natural asphalt
  36. An efficient and green synthesis of 2-phenylquinazolin-4(3H)-ones via t-BuONa-mediated oxidative condensation of 2-aminobenzamides and benzyl alcohols under solvent- and transition metal-free conditions
  37. Chitosan nanoparticles loaded with mesosulfuron methyl and mesosulfuron methyl + florasulam + MCPA isooctyl to manage weeds of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
  38. Synergism between lignite and high-sulfur petroleum coke in CO2 gasification
  39. Facile aqueous synthesis of ZnCuInS/ZnS–ZnS QDs with enhanced photoluminescence lifetime for selective detection of Cu(ii) ions
  40. Rapid synthesis of copper nanoparticles using Nepeta cataria leaves: An eco-friendly management of disease-causing vectors and bacterial pathogens
  41. Study on the photoelectrocatalytic activity of reduced TiO2 nanotube films for removal of methyl orange
  42. Development of a fuzzy logic model for the prediction of spark-ignition engine performance and emission for gasoline–ethanol blends
  43. Micro-impact-induced mechano-chemical synthesis of organic precursors from FeC/FeN and carbonates/nitrates in water and its extension to nucleobases
  44. Green synthesis of strontium-doped tin dioxide (SrSnO2) nanoparticles using the Mahonia bealei leaf extract and evaluation of their anticancer and antimicrobial activities
  45. A study on the larvicidal and adulticidal potential of Cladostepus spongiosus macroalgae and green-fabricated silver nanoparticles against mosquito vectors
  46. Catalysts based on nickel salt heteropolytungstates for selective oxidation of diphenyl sulfide
  47. Powerful antibacterial nanocomposites from Corallina officinalis-mediated nanometals and chitosan nanoparticles against fish-borne pathogens
  48. Removal behavior of Zn and alkalis from blast furnace dust in pre-reduction sinter process
  49. Environmentally friendly synthesis and computational studies of novel class of acridinedione integrated spirothiopyrrolizidines/indolizidines
  50. The mechanisms of inhibition and lubrication of clean fracturing flowback fluids in water-based drilling fluids
  51. Adsorption/desorption performance of cellulose membrane for Pb(ii)
  52. A one-pot, multicomponent tandem synthesis of fused polycyclic pyrrolo[3,2-c]quinolinone/pyrrolizino[2,3-c]quinolinone hybrid heterocycles via environmentally benign solid state melt reaction
  53. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using durian rind extract and optical characteristics of surface plasmon resonance-based optical sensor for the detection of hydrogen peroxide
  54. Electrochemical analysis of copper-EDTA-ammonia-gold thiosulfate dissolution system
  55. Characterization of bio-oil production by microwave pyrolysis from cashew nut shells and Cassia fistula pods
  56. Green synthesis methods and characterization of bacterial cellulose/silver nanoparticle composites
  57. Photocatalytic research performance of zinc oxide/graphite phase carbon nitride catalyst and its application in environment
  58. Effect of phytogenic iron nanoparticles on the bio-fortification of wheat varieties
  59. In vitro anti-cancer and antimicrobial effects of manganese oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the Glycyrrhiza uralensis leaf extract on breast cancer cell lines
  60. Preparation of Pd/Ce(F)-MCM-48 catalysts and their catalytic performance of n-heptane isomerization
  61. Green “one-pot” fluorescent bis-indolizine synthesis with whole-cell plant biocatalysis
  62. Silica-titania mesoporous silicas of MCM-41 type as effective catalysts and photocatalysts for selective oxidation of diphenyl sulfide by H2O2
  63. Biosynthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles from molted feathers of Pavo cristatus and their antibiofilm and anticancer activities
  64. Clean preparation of rutile from Ti-containing mixed molten slag by CO2 oxidation
  65. Synthesis and characterization of Pluronic F-127-coated titanium dioxide nanoparticles synthesized from extracts of Atractylodes macrocephala leaf for antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties
  66. Effect of pretreatment with alkali on the anaerobic digestion characteristics of kitchen waste and analysis of microbial diversity
  67. Ameliorated antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer properties by Plectranthus vettiveroides root extract-mediated green synthesis of chitosan nanoparticles
  68. Microwave-accelerated pretreatment technique in green extraction of oil and bioactive compounds from camelina seeds: Effectiveness and characterization
  69. Studies on the extraction performance of phorate by aptamer-functionalized magnetic nanoparticles in plasma samples
  70. Investigation of structural properties and antibacterial activity of AgO nanoparticle extract from Solanum nigrum/Mentha leaf extracts by green synthesis method
  71. Green fabrication of chitosan from marine crustaceans and mushroom waste: Toward sustainable resource utilization
  72. Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
  73. The enhanced adsorption properties of phosphorus from aqueous solutions using lanthanum modified synthetic zeolites
  74. Separation of graphene oxides of different sizes by multi-layer dialysis and anti-friction and lubrication performance
  75. Visible-light-assisted base-catalyzed, one-pot synthesis of highly functionalized cinnolines
  76. The experimental study on the air oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid with Co–Mn–Br system
  77. Highly efficient removal of tetracycline and methyl violet 2B from aqueous solution using the bimetallic FeZn-ZIFs catalyst
  78. A thermo-tolerant cellulase enzyme produced by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens M7, an insight into synthesis, optimization, characterization, and bio-polishing activity
  79. Exploration of ketone derivatives of succinimide for their antidiabetic potential: In vitro and in vivo approaches
  80. Ultrasound-assisted green synthesis and in silico study of 6-(4-(butylamino)-6-(diethylamino)-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)oxypyridazine derivatives
  81. A study of the anticancer potential of Pluronic F-127 encapsulated Fe2O3 nanoparticles derived from Berberis vulgaris extract
  82. Biogenic synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Consolida orientalis flowers: Identification, catalytic degradation, and biological effect
  83. Initial assessment of the presence of plastic waste in some coastal mangrove forests in Vietnam
  84. Adsorption synergy electrocatalytic degradation of phenol by active oxygen-containing species generated in Co-coal based cathode and graphite anode
  85. Antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, and cytotoxicity activities of the aqueous extract of Syzygium aromaticum-mediated synthesized novel silver nanoparticles
  86. Synthesis of a silica matrix with ZnO nanoparticles for the fabrication of a recyclable photodegradation system to eliminate methylene blue dye
  87. Natural polymer fillers instead of dye and pigments: Pumice and scoria in PDMS fluid and elastomer composites
  88. Study on the preparation of glycerylphosphorylcholine by transesterification under supported sodium methoxide
  89. Wireless network handheld terminal-based green ecological sustainable design evaluation system: Improved data communication and reduced packet loss rate
  90. The optimization of hydrogel strength from cassava starch using oxidized sucrose as a crosslinking agent
  91. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Saccharum officinarum leaf extract for antiviral paint
  92. Study on the reliability of nano-silver-coated tin solder joints for flip chips
  93. Environmentally sustainable analytical quality by design aided RP-HPLC method for the estimation of brilliant blue in commercial food samples employing a green-ultrasound-assisted extraction technique
  94. Anticancer and antimicrobial potential of zinc/sodium alginate/polyethylene glycol/d-pinitol nanocomposites against osteosarcoma MG-63 cells
  95. Nanoporous carbon@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite as a green absorbent for the adsorptive removal of Hg(ii) from aqueous solutions
  96. Characterization of silver sulfide nanoparticles from actinobacterial strain (M10A62) and its toxicity against lepidopteran and dipterans insect species
  97. Phyto-fabrication and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Withania somnifera: Investigating antioxidant potential
  98. Effect of e-waste nanofillers on the mechanical, thermal, and wear properties of epoxy-blend sisal woven fiber-reinforced composites
  99. Magnesium nanohydroxide (2D brucite) as a host matrix for thymol and carvacrol: Synthesis, characterization, and inhibition of foodborne pathogens
  100. Synergistic inhibitive effect of a hybrid zinc oxide-benzalkonium chloride composite on the corrosion of carbon steel in a sulfuric acidic solution
  101. Review Articles
  102. Role and the importance of green approach in biosynthesis of nanopropolis and effectiveness of propolis in the treatment of COVID-19 pandemic
  103. Gum tragacanth-mediated synthesis of metal nanoparticles, characterization, and their applications as a bactericide, catalyst, antioxidant, and peroxidase mimic
  104. Green-processed nano-biocomposite (ZnO–TiO2): Potential candidates for biomedical applications
  105. Reaction mechanisms in microwave-assisted lignin depolymerisation in hydrogen-donating solvents
  106. Recent progress on non-noble metal catalysts for the deoxydehydration of biomass-derived oxygenates
  107. Rapid Communication
  108. Phosphorus removal by iron–carbon microelectrolysis: A new way to achieve phosphorus recovery
  109. Special Issue: Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications (Guest Editors: Arpita Roy and Fernanda Maria Policarpo Tonelli)
  110. Biomolecules-derived synthesis of nanomaterials for environmental and biological applications
  111. Nano-encapsulated tanshinone IIA in PLGA-PEG-COOH inhibits apoptosis and inflammation in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury
  112. Green fabrication of silver nanoparticles using Melia azedarach ripened fruit extract, their characterization, and biological properties
  113. Green-synthesized nanoparticles and their therapeutic applications: A review
  114. Antioxidant, antibacterial, and cytotoxicity potential of synthesized silver nanoparticles from the Cassia alata leaf aqueous extract
  115. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Callisia fragrans leaf extract and its anticancer activity against MCF-7, HepG2, KB, LU-1, and MKN-7 cell lines
  116. Algae-based green AgNPs, AuNPs, and FeNPs as potential nanoremediators
  117. Green synthesis of Kickxia elatine-induced silver nanoparticles and their role as anti-acetylcholinesterase in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease
  118. Phytocrystallization of silver nanoparticles using Cassia alata flower extract for effective control of fungal skin pathogens
  119. Antibacterial wound dressing with hydrogel from chitosan and polyvinyl alcohol from the red cabbage extract loaded with silver nanoparticles
  120. Leveraging of mycogenic copper oxide nanostructures for disease management of Alternaria blight of Brassica juncea
  121. Nanoscale molecular reactions in microbiological medicines in modern medical applications
  122. Synthesis and characterization of ZnO/β-cyclodextrin/nicotinic acid nanocomposite and its biological and environmental application
  123. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles via Taxus wallichiana Zucc. plant-derived Taxol: Novel utilization as anticancer, antioxidation, anti-inflammation, and antiurolithic potential
  124. Recyclability and catalytic characteristics of copper oxide nanoparticles derived from bougainvillea plant flower extract for biomedical application
  125. Phytofabrication, characterization, and evaluation of novel bioinspired selenium–iron (Se–Fe) nanocomposites using Allium sativum extract for bio-potential applications
  126. Erratum
  127. Erratum to “Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-P-ethyl on weed control, growth, and yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)”
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