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Mechanical, fracture-deformation, and tribology behavior of fillers-reinforced sisal fiber composites for lightweight automotive applications

  • Pethampalayam Karuppanan Miniappan , Sivagnanam Marimuthu EMAIL logo , Selvan Dharani Kumar , Gopal Gokilakrishnan , Shubham Sharma EMAIL logo , Changhe Li , Shashi Prakash Dwivedi and Mohamed Abbas EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: September 6, 2023
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REVIEWS ON ADVANCED MATERIALS SCIENCE
From the journal REVIEWS ON ADVANCED MATERIALS SCIENCE Volume 62 Issue 1

Abstract

The main focus of this study is on the effects of fly ash, basalt powder, and tungsten carbide (WC) on the mechanical (tensile strength, flexural strength, impact strength, and Shore D hardness) and tribology behavior of sisal fiber-reinforced composites. Using epoxy resin, the fillers (5–10 wt% of each) were mixed with sisal fiber and resin (30 wt%). A tensile strength of 86.3–112.2 MPa was observed with the addition of fly ash, basalt powder, and WC fillers. The tensile strength of S2 composite (basalt powder + epoxy resin) was 33.63% higher than that of composite without fillers. The flexural strength of S5 composite (basalt powder + WC) was found to be 166.4 MPa, which is nearly 19.95% higher than the composite without filler. The fly ash with WC (S4) and basalt powder (S5) composite showed similar impact strength (5.34 J·m−2), which was nearly 62% greater than the composites without filler. The superior hardness was noticed in S5 composite compared to all other filler-added composites. The least wear rate was noticed in S3 (WC) composites irrespective of all the loading conditions. The hybridization of fillers also enhanced the mechanical properties of sisal fiber–reinforced composites. However, single filler–reinforced composite (WC) improved the wear resistance compare to hybrid filler–reinforced composites. The inclusion of filler increases the load-carrying capability and adhesion, as determined by scanning electron microscope. The river-like pattern confirms that S2-composite failure was dominated by ductile. The least wear debris and grooved surfaces were results higher wear resistance in the hybrid filler–reinforced composites.

Keywords: sisal fiber; epoxy resin; fillers; mechanical properties; SEM

1 Introduction

Composites of synthetic fiber-reinforced polymer are used in aerospace and vehicle applications. Despite possessing strong mechanical properties and a higher resilience to environmental ageing, these fiber composites are both environmentally and humanly dangerous. Researchers are currently using natural fibers as reinforcement for polymer-based composites. Natural fibers are superior to synthetic fibers because they are durable, biodegradable, inexpensive, and lightweight [1]. These fibers are excellent while using as reinforcement materials in the production of polymer composites that are suited for a variety of lightweight applications, including aircraft seats and automobile components [2,3,4,5,6,7,8]. The disadvantages of natural fiber-reinforced composites are fiber delamination, low modulus, water absorption, and limited application to low load-bearing materials [9,10,11]. With various polymer resin matrices [12,13,14,15,16], natural fibers such as sisal, banana, cotton, ramie, jute, pineapple, kenaf, coir, and bagasse were utilized. Sisal fiber-reinforced polymer composites exhibit remarkable advantages in their mechanical properties compared to composites reinforced with other natural fibers [17]. These fibers include a greater proportion of cellulose components, which is the reason for their enhanced tensile properties, and they do not absorb moisture quickly. Sisal fibers have been widely used as reinforcement in cementitious composites [18,19] in recent years. The type of fiber–matrix bond is principally responsible for determining the qualities of sisal fibers. There are a number of factors, including surface treatment, fiber length, strengthening, and filler addition [19]. Sisal can be cultivated easily, and its timing of plantation is less [17]. A study showed that sisal fiber is extracted globally at a rate of about 4.5 million tonnes annually [20]. It comes from the leaves of the sisal plant (Agave sisalana), which is presently grown in tropical African, West Indian, and Far Eastern countries [21]. Noorunnisa Khanam et al. [22] studied the influence of chemical treatment on the mechanical behavior of sisal fiber-reinforced composites. Sisal fiber boiled in 18% aqueous NaOH exhibited improved tensile and flexural strength. The capacity of the sisal fiber to attach was enhanced by the NaOH treatment. Sisal fiber-reinforced composites did not have the same tensile strength as synthetic fiber-reinforced composites [23,24]. The natural fiber-reinforced composite was augmented with fillers to increase its mechanical qualities [17]. According to Maurya et al. [25], the addition of fly ash to sisal fiber-reinforced composites enhanced their tensile and flexural strengths. Fly ash with 46% silica displayed superior tensile and flexural characteristics with epoxy-based composites up to a 3% additive level [19]. Devaraju and Sivasamy [26] studied the effect of nanoparticles (ZrO2 and ZnO) on mechanical properties of sisal fiber composites. They concluded that the mechanical properties of ZrO2 sisal fiber composite were higher than those of ZnO sisal fiber composites. Ji et al. [27] studied the mechanical and water absorption properties of sisal fiber composite that contains fillers such as talcum powder, CaCO3, and eggshell powder. The addition of fillers improved the mechanical and water resistance properties of the sisal fiber composites. Alemayehu et al. [28] concluded that sisal fiber composite was good replacement material for vehicle body applications. Athith et al. [29] determined that natural fibers and tungsten carbide (WC) fillers enhanced the characteristics of hybrid composites (jute/sisal/E-glass). The bagasse ash-filled composite reinforced with sisal, flax, banana, and kenaf considerably enhanced the composite material’s thermal and mechanical qualities [30]. The addition of up to 3 wt% bagasse ash to composites resulted in increased tensile, flexural, and impact strengths [30]. Haldar et al. [31] evaluated the mechanical characteristics of sisal fiber-reinforced composites with and without the addition of aluminum powder. The filler substance enhances fiber–matrix adhesion and decreases void volume. Oladele et al. [32] examined the mechanical and wear properties of CaCO3-filled, sisal-fiber composites. The tensile, flexural, and hardness properties of the composite were improved by the inclusion of CaCO3 filler. However, the impact properties of composites were noticed. da Silva et al. [33] enhanced the mechanical characteristics of the sisal fiber-reinforced composites by adding silica micro-particles. Mohan and Kanny [34] observed that the addition of nanoclays to sisal fiber-reinforced composites led to a slight increase in tensile strength.

It appears that there are few studies in the literature about how fillers influence the mechanical, tribology, and physical characteristics of sisal fiber composites. But there have not been many studies done on basalt and WC filler used in sisal fiber-reinforced composites. The hybridization of filler materials such as fly ash, basalt powder, and WC with sisal fiber reinforcement has been found to be very low. In this work, organic fillers (fly ash, basalt powder) and inorganic filler (WC) were used to study their effect on the tensile, flexural, impact, hardness, and wear properties of sisal fiber-reinforced composites. In addition, the mechanical properties and tribology behavior of sisal fiber-reinforced composites are also studied, and the results are compared to those of composites without filler. The tensile fracture and wear pattern of hybrid filler-reinforced composites are also examined in detail.

2 Materials and method

Sisal fiber used as reinforcement was purchased from Go Green Products, Chennai, India. Before processing, these fibers were soaked in a 2% NaOH solution for 24 h at room temperature to improve the interfacial bonding between the fiber and matrix, which resulted in improved mechanical properties [35,36]. After that, these fibers were rinsed with distilled water and then dried in a hot oven at a temperature of 60°C. The dried fibers were chopped into 20–25 mm lengths and used in composite fabrication. The hardener (HY951) and epoxy resin (LY556) were purchased from Covai Seenu & Company in Coimbatore, India. The coal-fired fly ash was collected from power plants. The fly ash was separately ground using a ball milling machine. WC (size, 2 µm; purity, 99%) was purchased from Ultrananotech Private Limited, India. The steps followed for filler dispersion and composite manufacturing are shown in Figure 1. The filler was mixed with acetone by using a magnetic stirrer for 20 min and then a probe sonicator for 20 min. Following the addition of sufficient epoxy resin, this mixing process was carried out excessively. Finally, the hardener was mixed with epoxy + filler. Non-silicone white wax was applied inside the mold to avoid adhesion of the mixture to the mold. After applying the wax, the fiber was arranged in the mold of the compression molding machine. The epoxy + filler + hardener mixture was poured inside the mold. The operating parameters used for manufacturing all composites in this study were pressure (15 MPa) and temperature (120°C).

Figure 1 Manufacturing steps of filler reinforced composites.
Figure 1

Manufacturing steps of filler reinforced composites.

The same fabrication procedure was adopted for all six samples, and details of all the samples are listed in Table 1. The presence of filler in the S4, S5, and S6 composites was confirmed by the energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) results as shown Figure 2(a–c).

Table 1

Sample designation and compositional details

S. No Sample designation Polymer composites
1 S1 Epoxy (70 wt%) + Sisal fiber (20 wt%) + Fly ash (10 wt%)
2 S2 Epoxy (70 wt%) + Sisal fiber (20 wt%) + Basalt powder (10 wt%)
3 S3 Epoxy (70 wt%) + Sisal fiber (20 wt%) + Tungsten carbide (WC) (10 wt%)
4 S4 Epoxy (70 wt%) + Sisal fiber (20 wt%) + Fly ash (5 wt%) + Tungsten carbide (5 wt%)
5 S5 Epoxy (70 wt%) + Sisal fiber (20 wt%) + Fly ash (5 wt%) + Basalt powder (5 wt%)
6 S6 Epoxy (70 wt%) + Sisal fiber (20 wt%) + Tungsten carbide (5 wt%) + Basalt powder (5 wt%)
Figure 2 EDS results: (a) S4, (b) S5, and (c) S6.
Figure 2

EDS results: (a) S4, (b) S5, and (c) S6.

After the composites were cured, they were sliced into plates for testing. All mechanical testing samples were cut as per the ASTM standard, and cutting was done using a water jet cutting machine. Using Aimil universal testing equipment, the tensile and flexural strengths of each sample were tested in accordance with ASTM 3039 [1] and ASTM 790 [1], respectively. The impact resistance of the samples was determined using a digital Izod impact tester in accordance with ASTM D-256 [17]. Using a Shore D hardness tester, Shore D hardness testing was conducted in accordance with ASTM D2240 [1]. The dry wear test was conducted using pin-on-disc equipment (DUCOM machine) in accordance with ASTM G99 specifications. The samples measured 15 mm × 5 mm × 5 mm and were perpendicularly drilled into an EN-32 steel disc with a 50-mm track diameter. Using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), the tensile fracture and worn surfaces were studied.

3 Results

3.1 Tensile results

Figure 3(a and b) depicts the stress versus strain graph and specimens after the tensile test. Figure 4 displays the results of the evaluation of the tensile several sisal fiber polymer composites. Without the inclusion of filler components, the tensile strength of composites reinforced with sisal fiber epoxy was 83.96 MPa [37]. However, the inclusion of fly ash, basalt powder, and tungsten carbide fillers in the sisal fiber epoxy-reinforced composites boosted their tensile strength in comparison to those without fillers. Maximum tensile strength of 112.2 MPa was recorded for S2 composites with 10 wt% basalt powder, an increase of almost 33.63% compared to sisal fiber polymer composites without filler. S1 (10 wt% fly ash) and S3 (10 wt% WC) composites had the lowest tensile strength compared to the other composites. The reduced tensile strength of the S1 composites was caused by an increase in fly ash content of more than 5 wt%. Among all, the lowest tensile strength was noticed in the S3 (WC).

Figure 3 Tensile test: (a) specimens and (b) stress–strain curves.
Figure 3

Tensile test: (a) specimens and (b) stress–strain curves.

Figure 4 Tensile results.
Figure 4

Tensile results.

Due to insufficient wetting of WC during tensile loading, the interfacial adhesion between sisal fibers and matrix was weakened, resulting in decreased tensile strength. Similar cases were reported in sisal-reinforced epoxy composites [38]. The improper mixing of the fly ash and WC may be the reason for the lower strength as compared to the basalt powder. S2 (10 wt% basalt powder) had a tensile strength that was 23.43 and 30.01% higher than the S1 and S3 composites, respectively. The combined effect of two fillers in the reinforced composites (S4, S5, and S6) enhanced the tensile strength as compared with single filler-reinforced composites (S1 and S3). However, it was less than the S2 composites. Despite the presence of two fillers in the sisal fiber reinforced composites, basalt powder was the most dominant filler material, followed by fly ash and WC. The basalt with WC (S6) composites showed the second-highest tensile strength. The addition of fly ash filler to basalt (S4) and WC (S5) composites did not significantly increase the tensile strength in comparison to other composites (WC + basalt powder). Finally, it was discovered that the fly ash filler does not maintain effective load transfer during composite tensile testing [38]. Basalt powder was the most effective filler compared to other fillers used in this study. Because of repulsion, the fly ash and WC fillers’ likely agglomeration decreases as the cationic surfactant percentage increases. Inorganic also fills the matrix’s meso and microvoids, strengthening the composites’ excellent packing.

3.2 Flexural results

Figure 5(a and b) depict the stress vs strain graph and specimens after the tensile test. Figure 6 illustrates the flexural strength of several composites reinforced with sisal fiber. The flexural strength of sisal fiber-reinforced composites was 138.72 MPa without any filler [22].

Figure 5 Flexural test: (a) specimens, (b) stress–strain curves.
Figure 5

Flexural test: (a) specimens, (b) stress–strain curves.

Figure 6 Flexural results.
Figure 6

Flexural results.

The results demonstrate conclusively that fly ash, basalt powder, and WC increased the flexural strength of sisal fiber composites. The superior flexural strength of the S5 composite was found to be 166.4 MPa, which was nearly 19.95% greater than composites without the addition of filler material. The second-highest flexural strength was noticed in the S2 and S4 composites. The flexural strength of fly ash + WC reinforced composites and basal powder composites did not differ significantly. The least flexural strength was noticed in the fly ash (S1) and WC (S3) filler-reinforced composite (S1). The improved load transmission and elastic deformation of the sisal fiber-reinforced composite [17] were attributed to the increased interfacial stiffness and better adherence of fly ash powder at smaller particle sizes. Therefore, it was the primary reason for the reduced flexural strength of composites reinforced with fly ash. In addition, the addition of WC, fly ash, and basalt powder to the composites decreased their flexural strength. The accumulation of WC renders the composite more brittle and decreases the sisal fiber’s rigidity. James et al. [39] discovered that eliminating contaminants and brittle particles from sisal fiber hybrid composites increases their flexural strength.

The basalt powder filler boosted the composite’s flexural strength in comparison to other fillers. In addition to other fillers, the filler boosted the flexural strength of the composite. Basalt powder bonds sisal fiber and epoxy resin efficiently at their interfaces. Vivek and Kanthavel [30] saw a similar effect, where the flexural strength of basalt powder-reinforced natural fiber composites which were depended entirely on how well the filler stuck to the fiber and matrix. The main factor in the composite’s ability to maintain its stiffness attributes was the filler’s strong interfacial bonding with sisal fiber and epoxy resin.

3.3 Impact results

Figure 7(a and b) depicts the impact test samples and results of sisal fiber-reinforced composites with various fillers. The results clearly demonstrate that the presence of fillers increased the impact strength of the composites in comparison to composites without filler. Without fillers, Gupta and Srivastava [37] observed that the impact strength of sisal epoxy-reinforced composites was 2 kJ·m−2. S4 (fly ash + WC) and S5 (fly ash + basalt powder) composites demonstrated maximum impact strengths of 5.34 J·m−2, which were nearly twice as high as the composites without filler. Single-filler composites (S1, S2, and S3) had lower impact strength than composites with two fillers (S4 and S5). S1 and S2 composites showed the least impact strength compared to other composites. S1 (fly ash), S2 (basalt powder), S3 (WC), S4 (fly ash + WC), S5 (fly ash + basalt powder), and S6 (WC + basalt powder) improved their impact strengths by 36.10, 65.19, 47.22, 62.04, 62.54, and 53.16%, respectively. Normally, voids form during the production of composites reinforced with natural fibers [38]. These voids may increase the stress and accelerate the formation and propagation of cracks. Fillers significantly inhibit crack formation and propagation in sisal fiber-reinforced composites by effectively filling these voids.

Figure 7 Impact test: (a) samples and (b) impact results.
Figure 7

Impact test: (a) samples and (b) impact results.

Fillers can function as a connecting link between the fiber and matrix, which increases interfacial adhesion and contributes to the enhancement of impact strength. The increase in impact resistance may be attributable to the fact that fillers absorb energy due to their higher surface-to-volume ratio [33]. The reduction in impact strength in S3 was due to insufficient wetting and agglomeration.

3.4 Shore D hardness test results

Figure 8 illustrates the effect of fillers on the Shore D hardness of sisal fiber reinforced composites. The sisal fiber epoxy-reinforced composite had a Shore D hardness of 77.3 [39].

Figure 8 Shore D hardness test results.
Figure 8

Shore D hardness test results.

The addition of filler materials such as fly ash, basalt powder, and WC to the composite enhanced its hardness properties as compared with sisal fiber composites without filler. With the addition of fillers, the polymer and fiber chains are held in place, which makes the composite stiffer and harder. It was noticed that, over composites without filler, the average Shore D hardness was increased by 3.375% (S1), 11.149 % (S2), 2.15% (S3), 5.73% (S4), 9.05% (S5), and 6.86% (S6) for composites with filler added composites. Basalt filler reinforced composite showed a significant improvement as compared to fly ash and WC. The improper dispersion of WC fillers at minor loading resulted in increased inter-particle distance, which was the primary reason for inferior hardness in the S3. The decrease in hardness in the S4, S5, and S6 composites may be attributed to filler heterogeneities that result in a higher void content in the composites. Megahed et al. [40] showed comparable increases in hardness values for sisal fiber composites.

3.5 Wear test results

In this study, the dry wear test was carried out on a pin-on-disc apparatus. Figure 9(a and b) depicts the pin-on-disc apparatus and samples. The samples were subjected to the respective normal load and sliding velocities of 10, 20, and 30 N and 150, 250, and 350 rpm for the wear test.

Figure 9 (a) Pin-on-disc and (b) samples.
Figure 9

(a) Pin-on-disc and (b) samples.

Important operational parameters for the wear of polymer composites included the applied load and sliding velocity. Therefore, it was varied by a constant sliding distance of 700 m. In each combination, approximately three specimens were evaluated, and the average value was recorded. Figure 10 demonstrates that the wear rate of all sisal fiber composites rises sharply with increasing normal load and sliding velocity. S1 composites have the highest wear rate, whereas S4 composites have the lowest wear rate for all combinations of normal loads and sliding velocity. The highest wear rate was found in the S1 composite (1,450 µm) at 30 N load and 350 rpm. However, the least wear rate was obtained in the S4 composite (84 µm) at 10 N load and 150 rpm. The wear rate of S4 remains between 84 and 273 µm at lower sliding velocity (150 rpm) while the wear rate remains between 360 and 920 µm at higher sliding velocity (350 rpm) respective of the normal load (10–30 N). The sisal fiber epoxy matrix interphase was strongly incorporated by the WC with fly ash fillers, providing transfer films on the material surface that reduced wear resistance under all loading circumstances. Similar kinds of results were observed by Govindan et al. [41]. Next to S4, the least wear rate was observed in the S5 composites at lower sliding velocity (150 rpm) irrespective of normal load. However, compared to S5, the wear rate of S2 was lower at higher sliding velocity and normal load. It was confirmed that the wear behavior of the S2 composite was gradually reduced at higher loading conditions. The decrease in wear resistance of the S5 composite at higher loading conditions was mainly due to an increase in contact area and less abrasion resistance of fly ash. The wear rate of S2, S5, and S6 composites is in the range of 1020–1100 µm. The basalt powder was added to the S2, S5, and S6 composites. However, the wear rate of the S2 composite was higher than S5 and S6. The hybridization of filler material was the reason for a slight increase in the wear resistance of S5 and S6. The highest wear rate was noticed in S1 composites irrespective of all the loading conditions. S1 composites decreased the resistance to abrasion due to the inclusion of fly ash filler. This can be a result of an increase in the resin’s effective contact area and a suitable filler level in the frictional composition. The abrasion resistance of fly ash was lower than the WC and basalt powder. From the wear studies, it was determined that filler materials can lower the stress on sisal fibers and avoid thermal and mechanical breakdown of the matrix in the contact region. SEM was used to analyze the sample’s worn surfaces in order to better comprehend the likely wear process and material loss.

Figure 10 Wear rate of sisal fiber polymer composites.
Figure 10

Wear rate of sisal fiber polymer composites.

3.6 SEM tensile fracture results

Figure 11(a–c) depicts the SEM fracture surfaces of the tensile samples S1, S2, S3, and S4 of sisal fiber-reinforced composites (d).

Figure 11 Tensile fracture SEM: (a) S1, (b) S2, (c) S3, and (d) S4.
Figure 11

Tensile fracture SEM: (a) S1, (b) S2, (c) S3, and (d) S4.

A weak interfacial interaction between sisal fiber and epoxy matrix allowed the fiber to separate from the matrix. The creation of voids is one of the reasons why S1 samples have a lower tensile strength. The existence of voids confirms that the S1 sample failed to fracture in a responsible way. On the fracture surfaces of S2 samples, a river-like pattern is visible (Figure 11b). The occurrence of a river-like pattern confirms the failure was dominated by the ductile. A similar kind of failure was noticed in the graphene filler added to banyan aerial root fiber composites [1]. The cohesiveness of the matrix in the S2 sample is better, and this is confirmed by the presence of a river pattern on the fracture surface. Clearly, a portion of the fibers have been split, enhancing their load-bearing qualities. Figure 11(c) shows the fiber tear and breakage along with voids. The fiber tear and voids were the main reason for the decrease in tensile strength. The fiber breakage on the fracture surface confirmed that the adhesion between fiber and matrix was superior in the S3 sample. No fiber breakage is noticed on the S4 fracture surface. However, the presence of voids in the fracture surface was the primary reason for the drop in tensile strength, even though there was no fiber breakage or cracks.

3.7 SEM results of worn surfaces

Figure 12(a–f) depicts the worn surfaces of all sisal fiber composites subjected to maximum conditions at a normal load of 30 N and sliding velocity of 350 rpm.

Figure 12 Worn surfaces at load 30 N and speed 350 rpm: (a) S1, (b) S2, (c) S3, (d) S4, (e) S5, and (f) S6.
Figure 12

Worn surfaces at load 30 N and speed 350 rpm: (a) S1, (b) S2, (c) S3, (d) S4, (e) S5, and (f) S6.

The wear debris, cracks, and large grooved surfaces are noticeable in the S1 composite (Figure 12(a)). It confirms that a larger surface is worn due to a higher wear rate. It reveals that a larger surface was worn because the wear rate was higher. The surfaces cracking with grooved surfaces are seen in the S2 composites (Figure 12(b)). Deeply grooved grooves on the worn surfaces lead to a higher composite wear rate. Renukappa et al. [42] observed a similar sliding wear mechanism in nanoclay filler-added epoxy composites. The absence of wear debris confirmed the wear rate of S2 was less compared to S1. The worn surface of S3 composite (Figure 12(c)) was completely different from those of S1 and S2. The wear debris was found in a large portion, along with surface deformation and micro-voids. From this, it was clearly noticed that the binding of the WC filler in the epoxy resin was less than that of the other two fillers. The occurrence of surface deformation is the major cause of predominant wear in the S3 at higher loading conditions. Singh et al. [38] observed that as the normal load and sliding speed increased, the formation of surface deformation increased during the dry wear of sisal fiber composites. Figure 12(d) demonstrates the worn surface of S4 composites. Less wear debris and a smaller portion of grooved surfaces were noticed in the SEM of S4. The combination of fly ash and WC filler improved the wear resistance of sisal fiber composites, particularly under conditions of increased loading. From the worn surface, it was confirmed that during wear, both fillers prevented the matrix contact area from thermal and mechanical failures. Therefore, the wear rate of S4 composites was less than that of other composites. The surface cracks and wear debris are seen in the worn surface (Figure12(e)) of S5 composites. During high loading conditions, the influence of basalt powder in the S5 composite was high compared to fly ash. Hence, it was confirmed by the formation of scaling layers and the absence of grooved surfaces. The worn surface pattern of the S6 is similar to that of the S3, as shown in Figure 12(f). The intense surface deformation was formed due to direct contact with the composite surface on the disc. A similar kind of worn surface was noticed in Chang and Friedrich’s [43] titanium oxide filler-reinforced composites. The occurrence of wear debris in the S6 confirms that hybridization fillers such as WC and basalt powder had no effect compared to the other two composites (S4 and S5).

The automotive sector is one of the main industries where sisal fiber composites are used. These composite materials are used to make interior parts like door panels, dashboards, and seat backs [44–46]. The composites are ideal for these automotive applications because the addition of fly ash, basalt powder, and tungsten carbide enhances their mechanical strength, stiffness, and impact resistance [47–49]. Sisal is one of many natural fibers that are employed because they reduce the use of synthetic materials, which has a positive impact on the environment [50,51].

The construction sector is another application for sisal fiber composites. Building supplies like roofing sheets, wall panels, and floor tiles are made with the help of composites [52–54]. The strength, fire resistance, and thermal insulation of the composite materials are enhanced by blending fly ash, basalt powder, and tungsten carbide with sisal fibers [55–57]. They can thus withstand extreme environmental conditions and enhance buildings’ energy efficiency [58,59].

The use of sisal fiber composites in the aerospace sector is advantageous. In the production of aircraft interiors, such as cabin panels, overhead bins, and seating components, these composite materials are used [60–62]. Fly ash, basalt powder, and tungsten carbide are combined to give the composites high strength-to-weight ratio properties, resulting in lightweight yet sturdy structures [63–65]. The use of sisal fibers also helps the aerospace industry become more sustainable and reduce its carbon footprint [66–68].

Additionally, sisal fiber composites with fly ash, basalt powder, and tungsten carbide additives are used in a variety of consumer goods and sporting goods [69–71]. Items like furniture, toys, sporting goods, and musical instruments are all made using the composites. The exceptional blend of materials enhances the products’ strength, impact resistance, and aesthetic appeal [72–74].

All in all, the use of sisal fiber composites combined with fly ash, basalt powder, and tungsten carbide using the compression molding process method has a variety of applications in industries like automotive, construction, aerospace, as well as consumer goods and sporting goods [75–77]. These composites are an excellent alternative for many manufacturing applications because of their enhanced mechanical properties, environmental sustainability, and improved performance [78,79].

4 Conclusion

The sisal fiber composites were incorporated with fly ash, basalt powder, and WC using the compression molding process method, following mechanical results. Fly ash, basalt, and WC filler powders mixed with 30% sisal fiber exhibited exceptional mechanical and wear properties. The addition of base powder produced the highest tensile strength of 112.2 MPa, while the addition of WC powder produced the lowest tensile strength of 86.3 MPa. The hybrid filler-added composite had a lower tensile strength than the single filler-added composite. The agglomeration of fillers in the composite causes a reduction in the tensile strength.

  1. Similarly, 7.26, 17.64, 9.71, 18.58, 19.94, and 14.186% enhancements in flexural strength were observed with fly ash, basal powder, WC, fly ash + WC, fly ash + basalt, and WC + basalt. The hybrid filler-substituted (fly ash + basalt) sisal fiber composite was shown to have improved flexural strength.

  2. The maximum impact strength of 5.34 kJ·m−2 was observed when fly ash and basalt filler powders were substituted. The lowest impact strength was observed in the fly ash filler added sisal fiber composite.

  3. Shore D hardness was improved by 3.375% (fly ash), 11.149% (basalt), 2.15% (WC), 5.73% (fly ash + WC), 9.05% (fly ash + basalt), and 6.86% (WC + basalt) for composites with filler added.

  4. The S4 (fly ash + WC) composite is less wear resistance than the S1 composite.

  5. The tensile samples’ SEM fractography revealed the river pattern, fiber breakage, fiber tear, and pull out, confirming that the addition of filler enhanced bonding, and the tensile failure was dominated by ductile.

  6. The least wear rate of the S2 composite was higher than S5 and S6. The hybridization of filler material was the reason for a slight increase in wear resistance of S5 and S6.

  7. Wear debris in the S6 confirms that hybridization fillers such as WC and basalt powder had no effect compared to the other two composites (S4 and S5).

Acknowledgments

The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Khalid University (KKU) for funding this research through the Research Group Program Under the Grant Number: (R.G.P.2/513/44).

  1. Funding information: This research was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Khalid University (KKU) through the Research Group Program Under the Grant Number: (R.G.P.2/513/44).

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2023-02-01
Revised: 2023-05-15
Accepted: 2023-07-06
Published Online: 2023-09-06

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  63. Fabrication and performance analysis of sustainable municipal solid waste incineration fly ash alkali-activated acoustic barriers
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  65. Investigation of the mechanical properties, surface quality, and energy efficiency of a fused filament fabrication for PA6
  66. Experimental study on mechanical properties of coal gangue base geopolymer recycled aggregate concrete reinforced by steel fiber and nano-Al2O3
  67. Hybrid bio-fiber/bio-ceramic composite materials: Mechanical performance, thermal stability, and morphological analysis
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  69. Effect of rare earth Nd on the microstructural transformation and mechanical properties of 7xxx series aluminum alloys
  70. Color match evaluation using instrumental method for three single-shade resin composites before and after in-office bleaching
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  77. Luminescence and temperature-sensing properties of Li+, Na+, or K+, Tm3+, and Yb3+ co-doped Bi2WO6 phosphors
  78. Effect of molybdenum tailings aggregate on mechanical properties of engineered cementitious composites and stirrup-confined ECC stub columns
  79. Experimental study on the seismic performance of short shear walls comprising cold-formed steel and high-strength reinforced concrete with concealed bracing
  80. Failure criteria and microstructure evolution mechanism of the alkali–silica reaction of concrete
  81. Mechanical, fracture-deformation, and tribology behavior of fillers-reinforced sisal fiber composites for lightweight automotive applications
  82. UV aging behavior evolution characterization of HALS-modified asphalt based on micro-morphological features
  83. Preparation of VO2/graphene/SiC film by water vapor oxidation
  84. A semi-empirical model for predicting carbonation depth of RAC under two-dimensional conditions
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  86. Effects of freeze–thaw cycles on micro and meso-structural characteristics and mechanical properties of porous asphalt mixtures
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  91. Conductive and self-cleaning composite membranes from corn husk nanofiber embedded with inorganic fillers (TiO2, CaO, and eggshell) by sol–gel and casting processes for smart membrane applications
  92. Laser re-melting of modified multimodal Cr3C2–NiCr coatings by HVOF: Effect on the microstructure and anticorrosion properties
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  94. Thermosetting polymer composites: Manufacturing and properties study
  95. CSG compressive strength prediction based on LSTM and interpretable machine learning
  96. Axial compression behavior and stress–strain relationship of slurry-wrapping treatment recycled aggregate concrete-filled steel tube short columns
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  98. Dual-biprism-based single-camera high-speed 3D-digital image correlation for deformation measurement on sandwich structures under low velocity impact
  99. Effects of cold deformation modes on microstructure uniformity and mechanical properties of large 2219 Al–Cu alloy rings
  100. Basalt fiber as natural reinforcement to improve the performance of ecological grouting slurry for the conservation of earthen sites
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  109. Preparation of PVDF-HFP/CB/Ni nanocomposite films for piezoelectric energy harvesting
  110. Frost resistance and life prediction of recycled brick aggregate concrete with waste polypropylene fiber
  111. Synthetic leathers as a possible source of chemicals and odorous substances in indoor environment
  112. Mechanical properties of seawater volcanic scoria aggregate concrete-filled circular GFRP and stainless steel tubes under axial compression
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  114. All-dielectric tunable zero-refractive index metamaterials based on phase change materials
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  116. Research on key casting process of high-grade CNC machine tool bed nodular cast iron
  117. Latest research progress of SiCp/Al composite for electronic packaging
  118. Special Issue on 3D and 4D Printing of Advanced Functional Materials - Part I
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https://doi.org/10.1515/rams-2023-0342
Keywords for this article
sisal fiber; epoxy resin; fillers; mechanical properties; SEM
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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