Home Synthetic leathers as a possible source of chemicals and odorous substances in indoor environment
Article Open Access

Synthetic leathers as a possible source of chemicals and odorous substances in indoor environment

  • Petr Čech , Zuzana Paschová , Milan Gaff EMAIL logo , Haitao Li and František Kačík
Published/Copyright: December 14, 2023
Download Article (PDF)
Become an author with De Gruyter Brill
Submit Manuscript Author Information
REVIEWS ON ADVANCED MATERIALS SCIENCE
From the journal REVIEWS ON ADVANCED MATERIALS SCIENCE Volume 62 Issue 1

Abstract

This article deals with volatile organic substances (VOCs) and odours that can be released into the indoor environment from synthetic leathers that are part of upholstered furniture. The primary task of this study was to provide a detailed analysis of selected synthetic leathers and assess their emission characteristics, including odour substances. VOC emissions were determined using the test chamber method (ČSN EN ISO 16000-9) at a temperature of 23°C and a relative humidity of 50%. The emitted compounds were adsorbed by standard stainless steel tubes with Tenax TA sorbent. VOCs were analysed by thermal desorption and gas chromatography with mass spectrometry The properties of odours were tested using a Sniffer 9000 device, which was directly connected to a gas chromatograph with a flame ionization detector. The dominant substances (with the highest concentration) that were emitted by samples of tested synthetic leathers include toluene (118.2 µg·m−3), 1,2-propanediol (46.2 µg·m−3), and limonene (153.0 µg·m−3). Ohio synthetic leather produced the most unpleasantness hedonic tone (-4) from all evaluated materials.

Keywords: synthetic upholstery leathers; VOCs; odours; indoor air; test chamber; hedonic tone

1 Introduction

At present, when a certain comfort is required from the perspective of indoor air quality in interiors, emissions of odorous substances released from furniture, building materials, and interior accessories are becoming a big problem [1]. There are very often problems with unexplained odours in the working environment of offices, public interiors, and residential buildings [2]. Today, both public and private buildings are constructed with a reinforced structure, including an airtight cover, to prevent heat loss due to air infiltration [3], and they are also usually equipped with a mechanical ventilation system. The building materials and building processes used have been modified to meet the highest airtightness requirements. The listed building materials met the requirements of the French Thermal Regulations 2005 (RT 2005) for buildings (air tightness less than 0.8 m3·h−1 m−2 under 4 Pa and annual conventional primary energy consumption less than 150 k·Wh·m−2·year−1) [4]. The consequences of these changes affect indoor air quality [5].

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are particularly interesting among indoor air pollutants due to their levels in indoor air and their adverse effects on human health, and some of them may be toxic [6,7]. There are several internal sources of VOC emissions, including decorative materials (paints, adhesives, wallpapers, carpet, etc.), furniture (wood-based panels, leather, plastics, veneered particleboards, etc.), and human activities (cooking, smoking, emissions from the human body, etc.) [8,9,10,11,12].

VOCs are a large group of various compounds, including natural compounds such as terpenes and alcohols, as well as carbonyl compounds such as ketones, aldehydes, ethers, aromatic hydrocarbons, and acids, which are the main pollutants present in indoor air [13].

Among internal pollutants, VOCs are of particular concern due to their adverse health effects [14]. Some of them can be odour-active, which depends on the type of chemical substance and its concentration [15]. Particularly, strong odorants can affect the perception of indoor air quality [16]. Unpleasant scents can cause a variety of human side reactions, including annoyance, increased mental stress, headaches, and other health problems [17]. Adverse health effects associated with exposure to VOCs include skin irritation, asthma, cardiovascular disease, and cancer [18].

Odour substances are not necessarily associated with adverse health effects. Unpleasant odours have often been considered a potential risk to human health rather than direct triggers of health effects. Certain chemicals that produce odours are potentially harmful (formaldehyde, styrene, and α-pinene) [19]. Common sources of indoor smells are heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems, when there is a transfer of pollutants, including VOCs and odorous substances [20].

Internal sources of odours (carpets, furniture, interior finishes, cigarettes, detergents, insecticides, and human body odours) have their own characteristics and chemical composition [21,22].

Olfactory methods have been widely used to quantify odour intensity. The activity of odorous VOCs can be evaluated using the odour activity value (OAV), which is the ratio of measured concentration values to the odour threshold [23]. The definition of odour threshold is the minimum identifiable odour or recognition threshold [24]. The compound with the largest OAV is considered to be the main odour source.

Interior furnishings such as furniture and wood panelling usually emit formaldehyde [25], which is characterized as sharp and irritating; new carpets release 4-phenylcyclohexene (by-product of a polymerization process in some carpet backing). In addition, some chemicals that are often present in the interior can act in specific ways and produce high-intensity odours. Many VOCs with different odour characteristics can easily evaporate into the air and turn into an odour source (wood-based products). The presence of odours may cause some people to suspect harmful exposure [26]. These chemicals include aromatics (toluene, styrene, and xylene), aldehydes (formaldehyde, acetaldehyde), and terpenes (α-pinene and limonene). Thus, there is a relationship between the perceived smell and the chemical composition within it [27].

Félix et al. described the identification of VOCs from wood-plastic composites (WPCs) performed using gas chromatography with mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) in conjunction with olfactometric analysis. The odour profile was described as sweet and waxy, which was characteristic of WPC. Acetylfuran, acetic acids, and aldehydes were the most identified odorants [28].

Sources of smell in the interior are non-specific, intermittent, and slightly intense. It is therefore very difficult to characterize internal smells and identify their sources. Nevertheless, the characterization of scents (qualitative and quantitative) can help identify sources of pollution, and it plays an important role in the assessment of indoor air quality due to the higher sensitivity of humans to smells [29,30].

In the interior, VOC emissions are examined not only from furniture and upholstered products, but also from other appliances. Ontañón et al. [31], for example, dealt with the smell of dishwashers. Liu et al. [32] monitored the use of a combination of GC-MS and olfactometry and the reduction of VOC emissions from wood after the removal of the substances causing unpleasant odours by solvent extraction. Another study dealt with the issue of odorous substances in inflatable water toys and devices for teaching swimming, which cause a characteristic odour and are potentially harmful [33].

As the aforementioned overview shows, great attention has been paid to VOC analyses in indoor air. However, a more comprehensive analytical approach is needed for the evaluation of the quality of the indoor environment more objectively. Therefore, the analytical method GC-MS/O was used in this study. This study aimed to identify the key odorant compounds released from four synthetic leathers and find out the effect of time on the change of hedonic tone. The data obtained can be used to create the odour database of synthetic leathers. The following study provides information on possible sources of unpleasant odours in the interior (e.g., upholstered furniture), which reduce indoor air quality and may be the cause of sick building syndrome.

2 Materials and methods

This study deals with the issue of the quality of the indoor environment from the perspective of a toxic and odour microclimate. The main purpose of this work is to compare upholstery materials (synthetic leather) in terms of possible load of VOCs. These materials, used in the production of upholstered furniture [34], can be a source of indoor VOC substances and can also emit an unpleasant odour.

The influence of various factors (the type of synthetic leather, material composition, surface treatment of materials, surface weight, etc.) on the amount of VOC emissions was studied in this work. In addition, it is possible to hypothesize whether the major and minor component of emissions is influenced by the type of material (type of synthetic leather) and the time factor (time since the beginning of the chamber test).

Based on the qualitative parameters listed in Table 1, the tested materials were selected from the common production process and formatted to the required size (710 × 710 mm). The mentioned upholstery materials are commonly used in public interiors.

Table 1

Qualitative parameters of synthetic leather samples

Name of synthetic leather Material compositions Producer Surface weight (g·m−2) Date of starting chamber test
Foundation material Surface
Ohio 210 50% polyester 100% polyurethane TENA TEX TRADE Ltd. 480 25.02.2020
40% cotton
10% viscose
Tibet 123 81% polyester 100% polyurethane TENA TEX TRADE Ltd. 450 25.03.2020
15% cotton
4% viscose
Vento 4 100% polyester 100% polyvinyl chloride TENA TEX TRADE Ltd. 700 25.04.2020
Vinytol 780 50% polyester 100% polyvinyl chloride SVITAP Ltd. 780 25.05.2020
50% cotton

In a stainless-steel test chamber (VOC Test 1000, producer: Smýkal Ltd.) with a volume of 1 m3, a constant temperature of 23.0°C is maintained with an accuracy of ±1.0°C, with the option to change the temperature setting in a range from +15 to +45°C. Relative humidity (RH) is maintained at 50% with an accuracy of ±3% and with the option of setting it in the range of 40–65% RH. The test chamber is equipped with an air exchange (1 m3·h−1) and air humidification system. Air flow over the surface of the tested object is uniform at a speed of 0.1–0.3 m·s−1. The test chamber is gas-tight without overpressure, with the exception of the air inlet and outlet.

The temperature is measured and controlled by a PT 100 sensor in an indirect cooling bath. Humidity is measured and controlled by a capacitive sensor. The evaluated temperature and humidity data are shown on the control system display. Automatic evaluation and control of the amount of air exchange can also be checked on the display of the control unit.

Each synthetic leather sample was carefully wrapped in aluminium foil and transported to a testing laboratory. Prior to the actual measurement, the sample was immediately placed in a test chamber with defined conditions (temperature, humidity, air flow, air exchange in the chamber) pursuant to standard ČSN EN ISO 16000-9 after unpacking.

Subsequently, the VOC emissions emitted by the test sample were collected using sorption tubes with Tenax TA sorbent (porous polymer based on 2,6-diphenyl oxide with a grain size of 0.18–0.25 mm) [35]. The sorption tube with the captured emission sample was analysed by a gas chromatograph and mass spectrometry with thermal desorption (TD-GC-MS). This methodological principle is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Development diagram of individual steps of quantitative determination of VOC emissions (a) and olfactometric assessment (b).
Figure 1

Development diagram of individual steps of quantitative determination of VOC emissions (a) and olfactometric assessment (b).

2.1 Methodology of qualitative and quantitative determination of VOC emissions

VOC emissions from the tested materials were determined on a qualitative and quantitative level. For selected representatives of VOCs, the exact concentration of the substance in units of µg·m−3 was determined. The assessment of the total VOC (TVOC) parameter was also an integral part.

The tested materials were monitored depending on the elapsed time since the beginning of the chamber test in time intervals of 1, 3, 7, and 28 days, while the test sample was stored continuously in the chamber for 28 days.

After this time, the sample was removed from the chamber, repacked in aluminium foil, and stored in the test specimen warehouse under laboratory conditions (a temperature of 23°C, a humidity of 50%) until the emission measurement after 120 days.

2.2 Sampling

VOC emissions from the tested material stored in the test chamber (a volume of 1 m3) were taken using a diaphragm pump (Gilian LFS-113, Sensidyne) and a sorption tube (1/4″ diameter 3 and 1/2″ length stainless standard tubes with 200 mg of sorbent Tenax TA) in parallel (a sampling rate of 100 mL·min−1, a time of 40 min). Breakthrough volumes for sorbent Tenax have been tested, and the recommended sampling of air volume (4 L) was intended according to the requirements of the standards (ČSN EN ISO 16017-1, ISO 16000-6). The sample was analysed on a gas chromatograph (HP 6890, Agilent) equipped with a mass selective detector (MSD 5973, Agilent) after thermal desorption at 250°C for 3 min (TD4, Scientific Instrument Services). The device is equipped with an HP-5ms capillary column (column length of 30 m, internal diameter of 0.25 mm, film thickness of 1 μm, Agilent). The identification of compounds (Table 2) was performed using retention times (RTs) and by a comparison with the spectra of the GC-MS data library (NIST 05).

Table 2

VOC emissions from synthetic leather Ohio 210

VOCs RT [min] Time dependence [days]
1 3 7 28 120
Average of result ± expanded measurement uncertainty [µg·m−3]
Butanal 2.926 4.5 ± 1.4 3.3 ± 1.0 2.7 ± 0.8 2.1 ± 0.6 1.5 ± 0.5
Ethyl acetate 3.838 6.9 ± 2.1 5.1 ± 1.5 4.2 ± 1.3 3.6 ± 1.1 2.4 ± 0.7
Crotonaldehyde 5.210 3.0 ± 0.9 2.4 ± 0.7 1.8 ± 0.5 1.5 ± 0.5 1.2 ± 0.4
Benzene 5.622 8.7 ± 2.6 6.6 ± 2.0 5.4 ± 1.6 4.5 ± 1.4 3.0 ± 0.9
1-Methoxy-2-propanol 6.094 6.3 ± 1.9 4.8 ± 1.4 3.9 ± 1.2 3.3 ± 1.0 2.1 ± 0.6
Pentanal 6.808 13.8 ± 4.1 10.5 ± 3.2 8.7 ± 2.6 6.9 ± 2.1 4.8 ± 1.4
Trichloroethylene 6.955 0.6 ± 0.2 0.6 ± 0.2 0.3 ± 0.09 0.3 ± 0.09 0.3 ± 0.09
Toluene 9.356 88.8 ± 26.6 67.5 ± 20.3 55.2 ± 16.5 45.3 ± 13.6 30.6 ± 9.2
Hexanal 10.153 23.1 ± 6.9 17.7 ± 5.3 14.4 ± 4.3 11.7 ± 3.5 8.1 ± 2.4
Tetrachloroethylene 10.562 0.6 ± 0.2 0.6 ± 0.2 0.3 ± 0.1 0.3 ± 0.1 0.3 ± 0.1
n-Butyl acetate 10.588 9.3 ± 2.8 7.2 ± 2.2 5.7 ± 1.7 4.8 ± 1.4 3.3 ± 1.0
Furfural 11.169 1.8 ± 0.5 1.5 ± 0.5 1.2 ± 0.4 0.9 ± 0.3 0.6 ± 0.2
Ethylbenzene 12.048 8.1 ± 2.4 6.3 ± 1.9 5.1 ± 1.5 4.2 ± 1.3 2.7 ± 0.8
1,2-Propanediol 12.229 46.2 ± 13.9 35.1 ± 10.5 27.6 ± 8.3 23.7 ± 7.1 15.9 ± 4.8
m,p-Xylene 12.478 27.0 ± 8.1 20.4 ± 6.1 16.8 ± 5.0 13.8 ± 4.1 9.3 ± 2.8
Styrene 12.833 2.4 ± 0.7 1.8 ± 0.5 1.5 ± 0.5 1.2 ± 0.4 0.9 ± 0.3
Cyclohexanone 12.897 2.7 ± 0.8 2.1 ± 0.6 1.8 ± 0.5 1.2 ± 0.4 0.6 ± 0.2
o-Xylene 12.909 9.9 ± 3.0 7.5 ± 2.3 6.3 ± 1.9 5.1 ± 1.5 3.6 ± 1.1
Heptanal 12.996 0.6 ± 0.2 0.6 ± 0.2 0.3 ± 0.09 0.3 ± 0.09 0.3 ± 0.09
2-Butoxyethanol 13.088 1.8 ± 0.5 1.5 ± 0.5 1.2 ± 0.4 0.9 ± 0.3 0.6 ± 0.2
α-Pinene 13.987 12.6 ± 3.8 9.6 ± 2.9 7.8 ± 2.3 6.3 ± 1.9 4.2 ± 1.3
Camphene 14.403 1.8 ± 0.5 1.5 ± 0.5 1.2 ± 0.4 0.9 ± 0.3 0.6 ± 0.2
Benzaldehyde 14.576 4.5 ± 1.4 3.3 ± 1.0 2.7 ± 0.8 2.1 ± 0.6 1.5 ± 0.5
3-Ethyltoluene 14.595 3.9 ± 1.2 3.0 ± 0.9 2.4 ± 0.7 1.8 ± 0.5 1.2 ± 0.4
4-Ethyltoluene 14.638 1.2 ± 0.4 0.9 ± 0.3 0.9 ± 0.3 0.6 ± 0.2 0.3 ± 0.1
1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene 14.755 3.9 ± 1.2 3.0 ± 0.9 2.4 ± 0.7 1.8 ± 0.5 1.2 ± 0.4
Phenol 14.872 2.4 ± 0.7 1.8 ± 0.5 1.5 ± 0.5 1.2 ± 0.4 0.9 ± 0.3
β-Pinene 15.079 3.0 ± 0.9 2.4 ± 0.7 1.8 ± 0.5 1.5 ± 0.5 1.2 ± 0.4
2-Ethyltoluene 15.093 2.4 ± 0.7 1.8 ± 0.5 1.5 ± 0.5 1.2 ± 0.4 0.9 ± 0.3
Myrcene 15.145 0.6 ± 0.2 0.6 ± 0.2 0.3 ± 0.09 0.3 ± 0.09 0.1 ± 0.03
1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene 15.377 3.0 ± 0.9 2.4 ± 0.7 1.8 ± 0.5 1.5 ± 0.5 1.2 ± 0.4
Octanal 15.388 8.1 ± 2.4 6.3 ± 1.9 5.1 ± 1.5 4.2 ± 1.3 2.7 ± 0.8
α-Phellandrene 15.647 1.2 ± 0.4 0.9 ± 0.3 0.9 ± 0.3 0.6 ± 0.2 0.3 ± 0.1
3-δ-Carene 15.793 5.7 ± 1.7 4.2 ± 1.3 3.6 ± 1.1 3.0 ± 0.9 1.8 ± 0.5
1,4-Dichlorbenzene 15.863 0.6 ± 0.2 0.6 ± 0.2 0.3 ± 0.09 0.3 ± 0.09 0.3 ± 0.09
1,2,3-Trimethylbenzene 16.083 1.8 ± 0.5 1.5 ± 0.5 1.2 ± 0.4 0.9 ± 0.3 0.6 ± 0.2
Limonene 16.175 153.0 ± 45.9 116.7 ± 35.0 95.4 ± 28.6 78.3 ± 23.5 52.8 ± 15.8
γ-Terpinene 16.796 0.6 ± 0.2 0.6 ± 0.2 0.3 ± 0.09 0.3 ± 0.09 0.3 ± 0.09
Nonanal 17.577 4.5 ± 1.4 3.3 ± 1.0 2.7 ± 0.8 2.1 ± 0.6 1.5 ± 0.5
Decanal 19.594 7.5 ± 2.3 5.7 ± 1.7 4.8 ± 1.4 3.9 ± 1.2 2.7 ± 0.8
Bornyl acetate 21.360 0.6 ± 0.2 0.6 ± 0.2 0.3 ± 0.09 0.3 ± 0.09 0.1 ± 0.03
TVOCMS 1,644 ± 493 1,251 ± 375 1,026 ± 308 840 ± 252 567 ± 170

The TVOC parameter was determined as the sum of the concentration of the identified and unidentified VOCs eluting between and including n-hexane and n-hexadecane on a gas chromatographic column (5% phenyl/95% methyl polysiloxane phase) [36]. All peaks in the retention interval of n-hexane and n-hexadecane are integrated in the total ionic current chromatogram. The peak area of the deuterated o-xylene – internal standard (D10-X) is subtracted from the sum of the areas of all peaks. This one was added to the sample to check the yield of the method. The resulting TVOC was then quantified after conversion to a toluene calibration curve.

2.3 Olfactometric assessment method with the Sniffer 9000 device

Sniffer 9000 (Brechbühler AG) was directly connected to a gas chromatograph (HP 4890, Agilent) with a flame ionization detector (FID). Samples of the VOC mixture were separated into individual compounds in a capillary column (HP-5ms). The stream of separated components is divided into two parts. One exit continues to the FID detector and the other to the Sniffer 9000, evenly in a 1:1 ratio to both systems. The part of the substances that continues to be assessed for the assessor’s olfactory system is still heated and moistened with demineralized water. These measures serve for maximum separation and olfactometric resolution of the assessed substances as well as the olfactory comfort of the assessor. The below methodical procedure is shown in Figure 2b.

Figure 2 Comparison of concentration values of selected substances and the TVOC parameter emitted from tested materials: (a) toluene, (b) 1,2-propanediol, (c) limonene, and (d) TVOC parameter.
Figure 2

Comparison of concentration values of selected substances and the TVOC parameter emitted from tested materials: (a) toluene, (b) 1,2-propanediol, (c) limonene, and (d) TVOC parameter.

2.4 Determining the hedonic tone of individual VOCs contained in the mixture

The hedonic tone (sensory assessment of olfactory perception from the perspective of pleasant/unpleasant smell) for individual substances is determined using Sniffer 9000. By combining a gas chromatograph and Sniffer 9000, it is possible to divide the individual substances contained in the mixture of the assessed air and dose them for evaluation separately depending on the RT of the assessed compound. Selected assessors determine the hedonic tone of individual substances according to the scale of description of hedonic load using a recording device that is part of it. At the same time, time data (RT) with the nature of smell and pleasantness, expressed by the sign/+/ or unpleasantness expressed by the sign/−/, are recorded in the prepared tables. The output is a so-called olfactogram (graph of perceptions with RTs). By overlaying it with the chromatogram, we assign the identified substance to the individual records.

2.5 Statistical analysis

For evaluating the results, analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used. Based on the P-level value and Fisher’s F tests, it was determined whether a factor affected the values of the monitored characteristics. Diagrams were constructed for the 95% confidence interval, reflecting the significance level of 0.05 (P < 0.05), and the results were verified with Duncan’s tests.

3 Results and discussion

The present study focused on the issue of VOC emissions from synthetic leathers used to produce furniture or interior accessories. Emissions of VOCs from different types of synthetic upholstery leathers, depending on the factors monitored, were assessed with a GC-MS analysis. VOC emissions from test samples were measured as a function of time [37,38,39,40].

The experimental part of this research task assessed the tested materials from several points of view:

  • determination of the impact of the material composition (foundation/surface) of synthetic leather on the amount of VOC emissions,

  • determination of the impact of the surface weight of synthetic leather (g·m−2) on the amount of VOC emissions,

  • olfactometric assessment of synthetic leathers based on the determination of the hedonic tone of the odour.

Based on relevant literature sources [41,42,43,44,45], individual VOCs that can be released from upholstery materials used in upholstered furniture have been selected.

Figure 4(a–d) shows the values for the three dominant volatiles that occurred in all samples – toluene, 1,2-propanediol, and limonene (Figure 4a–c), and for the sum of TVOC (Figure 4d).

Figure 3 Majority composition of chemical substances from tested materials: (a) pentanal, (b) hexanal, (c) m,p-xylene, and (d) α-pinene.
Figure 3

Majority composition of chemical substances from tested materials: (a) pentanal, (b) hexanal, (c) m,p-xylene, and (d) α-pinene.

The model data of VOC emissions from synthetic leather sample (Ohio 210) are shown in Table 2. The given table gives the average concentration values (from two parallel determinations) of the individual monitored VOC representatives from the sample that emitted the most emissions.

The concentration values of selected substances were measured depending on the time since the beginning of the chamber test (1, 3, 7, 28, and 120 days).

The results of the multifactor ANOVA evaluating the effect of individual monitored factors: material (synthetic leathers) and time (1, 3, 7, 28, and 120 days from the start of the chamber test), as well as their interaction on the concentrations of the dominant monitored substances (toluene, 1,2-propanediol, limonene, and TVOC), can be considered statistically very significant in all observed cases based on the level of significance P and Fisher’s F test (Figure 2a–d).

The highest concentration of selected majority compounds (except toluene) was found in Ohio synthetic leather when measured after day 1. Figure 2a–d shows the decrease in concentrations of monitored substances since the beginning of the chamber test. A similar trend can be seen for the TVOC.

Table 2 shows that more than 40 individual VOCs released from synthetic leather samples were assessed, including several types of aromatic substances, aldehydes, terpenes, and typical chemicals from natural and synthetic leathers, such as propylene glycol-1-methyl ether (synonym: 1-methoxy-2-propanol, CAS No. 107-98-2), propylene glycol (synonym: 1,2-propanediol, CAS No. 57-55-6).

The measured data show that the substances with the highest concentrations were limonene or toluene. However, one of the major compounds found in our VOC collection of tested coating materials was 1,2-propanediol. It is used in the surface treatment process, and it acts as a coalescing substance in the application of coatings [46]. Synthetic leather also emitted minor amounts of 1-methoxy-2-propanol. This compound is widely used in primers, high-viscosity spray paints, and binders in formulated topcoats as constitutive additives, and it is mainly used in final leather surface finishes [47,48,49,50].

3.1 Majority and minority composition of chemical substances in upholstery materials

Emission volatility can be divided into several groups depending on their emitted quantity. The first group of major volatile compounds consists of those with a high content of the substance in the sample. These are concentrations of tens or over a hundred of µg·m−3. The second group consists of minority substances, in concentrations of units, eventual tens of µg·m−3. The last group consists of trace elements with a concentration of <10 µg·m−3. This concentration represents five times the maximum concentration of an individual substance (limit value) in the background values of the test chamber [51] (ČSN EN ISO 16000-9, 2007). Figures 3 and 4 show the major and minor compounds.

Figure 4 Minority composition of chemical substances from tested materials. (a) ethyl acetate, (b) benzene, (c) 1-methoxy-2-propanol, (d) n-butyl acetate, (e) ethylbenzene, (f) o-xylene, (g) octanal, and (h) decanal.
Figure 4

Minority composition of chemical substances from tested materials. (a) ethyl acetate, (b) benzene, (c) 1-methoxy-2-propanol, (d) n-butyl acetate, (e) ethylbenzene, (f) o-xylene, (g) octanal, and (h) decanal.

Based on the performed statistical analysis (multi-factor ANOVA) and the determined level of significance P and Fisher’s F test, it can be stated that the monitored factors (type of material and time) and their interaction, affecting the monitored parameter – the majority share of VOC emissions (concentration of pentanal, hexanal, m,p-xylene, and α-pinene) – from the evaluated synthetic leather samples, are statistically highly significant (Figure 3a–d).

Figure 3 presents the data of species composition of VOCs from synthetic leathers. The monitored substances such as pentanal, hexanal, m-p-xylene, and α-pinene have a significant share in the minority composition of VOC emissions. The concentration of these chemicals was found in tens µg·m−3.

A statistical evaluation of the measured data (concentration of monitored VOCs) demonstrated the effect of monitored factors (type of material and time) on the assessed parameter (concentration of ethyl acetate, benzene, 1-methoxy-2-propanol, n-butyl acetate, ethylbenzene, o-xylene, octanal, and decanal), i.e., the minority share of emissions in the total amount of monitored analytes in the tested samples (synthetic leather). This hypothesis is confirmed by the level of significance P and Fisher’s F test in the performed multi-factor ANOVA (Figure 4a–h).

Figure 4 assesses the minor components of VOCs from tested synthetic leathers as a function of time since the start of the chamber test. These substances (eight compounds) account for a minority interest in total emissions.

The measured data show a minimal effect of different tested materials on BTEX concentrations (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, m,p-xylene, o-xylene), except for toluene. These compounds are often determined as a separate group in different environmental matrices for their toxic effect on human health [52,53,54,55].

A further group of monitored substances, such as terpenes, showed a similar trend as the BTEX group (apart from limonene). The concentration of these VOCs was very different (from 0.6 μg·m−3 for the monitored terpenes to almost 23.1 μg·m−3 for aldehydes, especially for hexanal), and they have a declining trend over time [45]. Today, the health effects of aldehydes such as n-hexanal on the human body are well known. Evaporation and the simultaneous action of this substance do not cause a specific disease, but it can cause health problems such as irritation of the eye and nasal mucosa, headaches, and fatigue [56].

3.2 Determining the impact of the material composition of synthetic leather (foundation material and type of surface treatment) on the amount of VOC emissions

The VOC emission from each sample is undoubtedly affected by its material composition or the type of surface treatment. In tested synthetic leather samples, these were products made of polyester, cotton, and viscose in various proportions of material content (Table 1), from Vento synthetic leather, which was made of 100% polyester, through Vinytol with a material composition of 50% polyester and 50% cotton, to Ohio and Tibet leather made from a combination of polyester, cotton, and viscose in significantly different material composition ratios.

The aforementioned compounds, such as hexanal, ethylbenzene, and decanal, were also found in another study. Richter et al. [57] dealt with the issue of the release of odorous substances from textiles. The study shows that polyester-based textile fibres release much more VOCs than fabrics made from cotton or viscose. However, this hypothesis has not been confirmed in our study.

Figure 5 shows the dependence of TVOC emission on the polyester content in synthetic leather. The trend shows that the more polyester synthetic leather contains, the lower the TVOC emissions.

Figure 5 Dependence of TVOC emission on polyester content in the sample.
Figure 5

Dependence of TVOC emission on polyester content in the sample.

There is also a connection between the types of surface treatment. Synthetic leathers Ohio and Tibet, which achieved significantly higher TVOC emissions (1,644 and 1,401 µg·m−3), were surface treated with polyurethane varnish. In contrast, synthetic Vento and Vinytol leathers with overall lower TVOC emissions (918 and 432 µg·m−3) were treated with polyvinyl chloride.

3.3 Determining the impact of the surface weight of synthetic leather on the amount of VOC emissions

In the next part of the experiment, the dependence of VOC emission on the base weight of the material was monitored. The results show that the higher the surface weight of the material, the lower the VOC and TVOC emissions (Figure 6). The only exception where this dependence does not apply is the concentration of toluene in the leather marked as Vinytol. Here, we suppose that the deviation may have been caused by a different manufacturer of synthetic leather than the other samples (Table 1).

Figure 6 Effect of the base weight of synthetic leather on concentrations of selected substances and the TVOC parameter (1 day): (a) toluene, 1,2-propanediol, limonene and (b) TVOC parameter.
Figure 6

Effect of the base weight of synthetic leather on concentrations of selected substances and the TVOC parameter (1 day): (a) toluene, 1,2-propanediol, limonene and (b) TVOC parameter.

In terms of material composition, the largest amount of VOCs was emitted by a sample of Ohio synthetic leather; its base is composed of a mixture of synthetic materials and its surface is treated with a layer of polyurethane. In contrast, very low concentrations of VOCs were released from the Vinytol test sample, which was made from a mixture of polyester and cotton fibres, with a layer of polyvinyl chloride surface treatment [58].

Figure 6(a) shows the impact of the base weight of synthetic leather on the amount of VOC emissions. These graphs show the dependence of the base weight of the tested material on concentration of the selected chemical substance (toluene, 1,2-propanediol, and limonene). High concentrations of the monitored substances were found in synthetic leather Ohio, and the highest concentration was measured in the substance limonene simultaneously (over 150 µg·m−3). The highest amount of total emissions (Figure 6b) was found for the same synthetic leather (1,644 µg·m−3).

Measured concentrations of VOC substances also show that synthetic coating materials (layered textiles) with a lower surface weight (around 500 g·m−2) show higher VOC concentrations compared to materials with a higher surface weight (in the range of 700–800 g·m−2). The observed TVOC values decrease depending on the time since the beginning of the chamber test (Figure 2d) [59].

3.4 Olfactometric assessment of synthetic leathers based on the hedonic tone of the odour

The subject of this part of the work was olfactometric assessment of synthetic covering materials. The main task was to determine the hedonic tone (Figure 7) of the substances captured by the olfactory system (human nose). Hedonic tone defines the pleasantness and unpleasantness of an odorant. The hedonic odour tone of the perceived concentration was evaluated according to a category scale ranging from −4 (extremely unpleasant) through zero (neither pleasant nor unpleasant) to +4 (extremely pleasant) [60].

Figure 7 Hedonic tone – odour rating scale.
Figure 7

Hedonic tone – odour rating scale.

The selected assessors met the professional requirements according to the [61] ČSN EN 13725 standard. The recorded substances and hedonic tone values are shown in Tables 3 and 4. It is clear from the tables that the substances listed here were different from the compounds quantified (Table 2). This can be explained by the fact that substances that have a small peak area (below the limit of quantification) can also be olfactometrically interesting, in terms of the negative hedonic tone (e.g., benzaldehyde, benzyl alcohol).

Table 3

Values of hedonic tone from synthetic leather – Ohio 210 and Tibet 123

VOCs RT Hedonic tone according to standard ČSN EN 13725 time dependence [days]
Synthetic leather Ohio 210 Synthetic leather Tibet 123
1 3 7 28 120 1 3 7 28 120
1-Methoxy-2-propanol 8.194 −2 −2 −2 −1 −1 −2 −1 −1 −1 N.D.
3-Heptanone 17.441 −4 −3 −3 −2 −1 −3 −3 −2 −1 N.D.
2-Methyl-2,4-pentanediol 18.867 −3 −3 −2 −1 N.D.* −2 −2 −2 −1 N.D.
Benzaldehyde 19.835 −4 −4 −3 −3 −1 −3 −3 −2 −2 −1
2-(2-Ethoxy-ethanol) 21.294 −2 −2 −1 −1 N.D. −2 −1 −1 −1 N.D.
Benzyl alcohol 22.876 −4 −4 −4 −3 −2 −3 −3 −3 −2 −1
2-Butoxyethyl acetate 23.527 −4 −4 −4 −2 −1 −3 −3 −2 −2 N.D.
Diisoamylene 24.628 −3 −3 −2 −1 N.D. −2 −2 −1 N.D. N.D.

*N.D. [not detected].

Table 4

Values of hedonic tone from synthetic leather – Vento 4 and Vinytol 780

VOCs RT Hedonic tone according to standard ČSN EN 13725 Time dependence [days]
Synthetic leather Vento 4 Synthetic leather Vinytol 780
1 3 7 28 120 1 3 7 28 120
1-Methoxy-2-propanol 8.194 −1 −1 −1 N.D. N.D. −2 −1 −1 N.D. N.D.
3-Heptanone 17.441 −3 −2 −1 −1 N.D. −2 −2 −1 −1 N.D.
2-Methyl-2,4-pentanediol 18.867 −1 −1 −1 N.D. N.D. −1 −1 N.D. N.D. N.D.
Benzaldehyde 19.835 −2 −2 −1 −1 N.D. −2 −1 −1 −1 N.D.
2-(2-Ethoxy-ethanol) 21.294 −1 −1 −1 N.D. N.D. −1 −1 −1 N.D. N.D.
Benzyl alcohol 22.876 −2 −2 −1 −1 N.D. −2 −1 −1 −1 N.D.
2-Butoxyethyl acetate 23.527 −2 −2 −2 −1 N.D. −1 −2 −1 −1 N.D.
Diisoamylene 24.628 −2 −1 −1 N.D. N.D. −1 −1 −1 −1 N.D.

*N.D. [not detected].

Tables 3 and 4 show the sensory hedonic ratings of individual VOCs contained in the mixture. These tables present the values of hedonic tone of tested samples depending on the material composition and surface finish. The tables show the dependence of the time from the beginning of the chamber test on the values of the (negative) hedonic tone. Compounds that produced the unpleasant odour include benzaldehyde, benzyl alcohol, 3-heptanone, or 2-butoxyethyl acetate.

Figure 8 shows a graphical representation of the sum values of the negative hedonic tone that the individual samples showed. This value indicates the sum of hedonic tone values [27] as a function of time since the beginning of the chamber test. All tested materials emitted (more or less) an unpleasant odour. The values clearly show that the most negative hedonic tone was emitted by the Ohio leather in all time periods of the measurement.

Figure 8 Total value of the negative hedonic tone.
Figure 8

Total value of the negative hedonic tone.

It has also been proven that the intensity of the odour is related, as in the case of emissions of volatile substances (see Chapters 3.2 and 3.3), to its surface treatment and to its base weight. Synthetic leathers Ohio and Tibet, which produced a more intense odour, belong to the group of samples whose surface was treated with polyurethane varnish and whose surface weight was lower (approximately 500 g·m−2). Vento and Vinytol leathers with a lower hedonic tone intensity were treated with a varnish based on polyvinyl chloride, and their surface weight was higher (approx. 700–800 g·m−2). Unlike VOC and TVOC emissions, the dependence of the odour intensity on the material composition has not been proven here.

4 Conclusions

This article assesses the issue of VOC emissions from synthetic upholstery materials used in the production of upholstered furniture and interior accessories.

The test chamber results showed that the concentrations of VOCs from the respective tested materials are influenced by the type of synthetic leather as well as the different material composition of the carrier textile (polyester content) and the type of polymer (polyvinyl chloride/polyurethane) used for synthetic leather finishing.

The results of this study showed that the highest concentration was found in substances such as limonene (terpene), toluene (aromatic substance), and 1,2-propanediol (alcohol-diol). The Ohio sample tested emitted the highest concentrations of limonene (153.0 µg·m−3) and 1,2-propanediol (15.4 µg·m−3), while the Vinytol sample showed high concentrations of toluene (118.2 µg·m−3). The measured data revealed low concentrations of chemicals such as hexanal, 1-methoxy-2-propanol, or BTEX group.

The measured values of the TVOC parameter ranged from 432 µg·m−3 (from the Vinytol synthetic leather sample) to 1,644 µg·m−3 in the Ohio sample.

Ohio synthetic leather, whose material composition consists of a mixture of synthetic materials with a polyurethane varnish surface treatment, showed the highest amount of VOC emissions.

By measuring the VOC concentrations, we also found that synthetic covering materials with a lower surface weight exhibit higher VOC value compared to higher surface weight materials.

The measured data of the emission profile of the individual tested materials were statistically evaluated. Multivariate ANOVA was used to evaluate the influence of individual monitored factors: type of material (synthetic leather) and time since the start of the chamber test (1, 3, 7, 28, and 120 days), as well as their interaction on the detected concentrations of dominant VOCs (toluene, 1,2-propanediol, limonene, TVOC), but also on the majority and minority composition of chemical substances (ethyl acetate, benzene, 1-methoxy-2-propanol, n-butyl acetate, ethylbenzene, o-xylene, octanal, and decanal). Based on the implementation of Fisher’s F test and the detected level of significance P, the measured data can be considered statistically to be very significant.

An olfactometric evaluation of the emission from the tested synthetic leather samples was performed using Sniffer 9000. The device was connected to a gas chromatograph with a FID. The obtained data show that the hedonic tone of the odour was mostly recorded for substances 1-methoxy-2-propanol, benzaldehyde, and benzyl alcohol. A negative hedonic tone was determined for all the monitored substances, which means that it is an unpleasant odour. The unpleasantness of the odour (hedonic tone) varied over time, from extremely unpleasant (one day after the start of the test) to slightly unpleasant (usually after 28 days).

Synthetic leathers, the surface of which was treated with a layer of polyurethane (Ohio, Tibet), showed a higher unpleasantness of hedonic tone than materials treated with polyvinyl chloride (Vento, Vinytol). The dependence of the hedonic tone on the surface weight of the tested material was also proven, in contrast to the influence of the material composition.

The results of this study are interesting. However, the relationships between the emission, odour with the leather composition, and manufacturing process are not clear. Further analysis is needed.

tel: +420 778 978 142

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank the supports from the Specific University Research Fund of the Mendel University in Brno, Czech Republic, (Project No. FFWT_RT_2018002).

  1. Funding information: This work was financially supported by the Specific University Research Fund of the Mendel University in Brno, Czech Republic, (No. FFWT_RT_2018002).

  2. Author contributions: Specimen preparation, measuring VOC emissions, olfactometric assessment, data analysis, writing the manuscript, conceptualization, research project administration – P.Č.; data analysis, writing the manuscript, conceptualization, supervision, review and editing – Z.P.; data and statistical analysis, supervision, editing, writing the manuscript – M.G.; data analysis, supervision, reviewing and editing – F.K.; H.L. All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files.

References

[1] Bartsch, J., E. Uhde, and T. Salthammer. Analysis of odour compounds from scented consumer products using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and gas chromatography-olfactometry. Analytica Chimica Acta, Vol. 904, 2016, pp. 98–106.10.1016/j.aca.2015.11.031Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[2] Eusebio, L., M. Derudi, L. Capelli, G. Nano, and S. Sironi. Assessment of the indoor odour impact in a naturally ventilated room. Sensors, Vol. 17, 2017, id. 778.10.3390/s17040778Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[3] Caron, F., R. Guichard, L. Robert, M. Verriele, and F. Thevenet. Behaviour of individual VOCs in indoor environments: How ventilation affects emission from materials. Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 243, 2020, id. 117713.10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.117713Search in Google Scholar

[4] Derbez, M., B. Berthineau, V. Cochet, M. Lethrosne, C. Pignon, J. Riberon, et al. Indoor air quality and comfort in seven newly built, energy-efficient houses in France. Building and Environment, Vol. 72, 2014, pp. 173–187.10.1016/j.buildenv.2013.10.017Search in Google Scholar

[5] Plaisance, H., J. Vignau-Laulhere, P. Mocho, N. Sauvat, K. Raulin, and V. Desauziers. Volatile organic compounds concentrations during the construction process in newly-built timber-frame houses: source identification and emission kinetics. Environmental Science: Processes, Vol. 19, No. 5, 2017, pp. 696–710.10.1039/C7EM00047BSearch in Google Scholar

[6] Bartzis, J., P. Wolkoff, M. Stranger, G. Efthimiou, E. I. Tolis, F. Maes, et al. On organic emissions testing from indoor consumer products’ use. Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 285, 2015, pp. 37–45.10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.11.024Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[7] Opitz, P., S. Matysik, and O. Herbarth. Health risk assessment of indoor Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) considering Long-term trend of VOC. Journal of Environmental and Occupational Science, Vol. 6, 2017, pp. 34–39.10.5455/jeos.20170113084246Search in Google Scholar

[8] Du, Z., J. Mo, Y. Zhan, and Q. Xu. Benzene, toluene and xylenes in newly renovated homes and associated health risk in Guangzhou, China. Building and Environment, Vol. 72, 2014, pp. 75–81.10.1016/j.buildenv.2013.10.013Search in Google Scholar

[9] Sun, X., J. HE, and X. Yang. Human breath as a source of VOCs in the built environment, Part II: Concentration levels, emission rates and factor analysis. Building and Environment, Vol. 123, 2017, pp. 437–445.10.1016/j.buildenv.2017.07.009Search in Google Scholar

[10] Liang, W., C. Yang, and X. Yang. Long-term concentrations of volatile organic compounds in a new apartment in Beijing, China. Building and Environment, Vol. 82, 2014, pp. 693–701.10.1016/j.buildenv.2014.10.016Search in Google Scholar

[11] Wang, H., Z. Xiang, L. Wang, S. Jing, S. Lou, S. Tao, et al. Emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from cooking and their speciation: A case study for Shanghai with implications for China. Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 621, 2018, pp. 1300–1309.10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.098Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[12] Wang, Q., B. Zeng, J. Shen, and H. Wang. Effect of lacquer decoration on VOCs and odor release from P. neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble. Scientific Reports, Vol. 10, 2020, id. 9565.10.1038/s41598-020-66724-0Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[13] Adamova, T., J. Hradecky, and M. Panek. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) from wood and wood-based panels: methods for evaluation, potential health risks, and mitigation. Polymers, Vol. 12, No. 10, 2020, pp. 2289–2309.10.3390/polym12102289Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[14] Wolkoff, P. Indoor air humidity, air quality, and health – An overview. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, Vol. 221, No. 3, 2018, pp. 376–390.10.1016/j.ijheh.2018.01.015Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[15] Laor, Y., D. Parker, and T. Page. Measurement, prediction, and monitoring of odors in the environment: a critical review. Reviews in Chemical Engineering, Vol. 30, No. 2, 2014, pp. 139–166.10.1515/revce-2013-0026Search in Google Scholar

[16] Yi, Q., J. Liu, G. Wang, and Y. Zhang. Evaluation of indoor air quality based on qualitative, quantitative and olfactory analysis. Chinese Science Bulletin, Vol. 58, No. 9, 2013, pp. 986–991.10.1007/s11434-013-5671-zSearch in Google Scholar

[17] Peng, C., C. Lan, and T. Wu. Investigation of indoor chemical pollutants and perceived odor in an area with complaints of unpleasant odors. Building and Environment, Vol. 44, No. 10, 2009, pp. 2106–2113.10.1016/j.buildenv.2009.03.001Search in Google Scholar

[18] Tagiyeva, N., S. Sean Semple, G. Devereux, and A. Sheikh. Volatile organic compounds and risk of asthma and allergy: a systematic review. European Respiratory Review, Vol. 24, No. 135, 2015, pp. 92–101.10.1183/09059180.00000714Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[19] Desauziers, V., D. Bourdin, H. Plaisance, and P. Mocho. Innovative tools and modeling methodology for impact prediction and assessment of the contribution of materials on indoor air quality. Heritage Science, Vol. 3, No. 1, 2015, pp. 1–8.10.1186/s40494-015-0057-ySearch in Google Scholar

[20] Liu, P., H. M. Mathisen, M. Skaten, and M. Justo Alonso. Use of membrane energy exchanger in ventilation: Odour sensory measurement. Building and Environment, Vol. 222, 2022, id. 109430.10.1016/j.buildenv.2022.109430Search in Google Scholar

[21] Cometto-Muñiz, J. E., W. S. Cain, and M. H. Abraham. Detection of single and mixed VOCs by smell and by sensory irritation. Indoor Air, Vol. 14, 2004, pp. 108–117.10.1111/j.1600-0668.2004.00297.xSearch in Google Scholar PubMed

[22] Liang, W. Volatile organic compounds, odor, and inhalation health risks during interior construction of a fully furnished residential unit in Nanjing, China. Building and Environment, Vol. 186, 2020, id. 107366.10.1016/j.buildenv.2020.107366Search in Google Scholar

[23] Wu, C., J. Liu, L. Yan, H. Chen, H. Shao, and T. Meng. Assessment of odor activity value coefficient and odor contribution based on binary interaction effects in waste disposal plant. Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 103, 2015, pp. 231–237.10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.12.045Search in Google Scholar

[24] Hau, K. M. Quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSARs) for odor thresholds of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Indoor Air, Vol. 8, No. 1, 1998, pp. 23–33.10.1111/j.1600-0668.1998.t01-3-00004.xSearch in Google Scholar

[25] Liu, Y., X. Qin, W. Wang, Y. Hu, D. Yuan, and X. Zhu. Identification and characterization of odorous volatile organic compounds emitted from wood-based panels. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, Vol. 192, No. 6, 2020, pp. 1–10.10.1007/s10661-019-7939-5Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[26] Salthammer, T., N. Schulz, R. Stolte, F. Monegel, and E. Uhde. Sensory evaluation in test chambers: Influences of direct and indirect assessment. Building and Environment, Vol. 172, 2020, id. 106668.10.1016/j.buildenv.2020.106668Search in Google Scholar

[27] Wang, Q., J. Shen, Y. Shao, H. Dong, Z. Li, and X. Shen. Volatile organic compounds and odor emissions from veneered particleboards coated with water-based lacquer detected by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry/olfactometry. European Journal of Wood, Vol. 77, No. 5, 2019, pp. 771–781.10.1007/s00107-019-01427-6Search in Google Scholar

[28] Félix, J. S., C. Domeño, and C. Nerín. Characterization of wood plastic composites made from landfill-derived plastic and sawdust: Volatile compounds and olfactometric analysis. Waste Management, Vol. 33, No. 3, 2013, pp. 645–655.10.1016/j.wasman.2012.11.005Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[29] Boeker, P., J. Leppert, and P. S. Lammers. Comparison of odorant losses at the ppb-level from sampling bags of nalophan™ and tedlar™ and from adsorption tubes. Chemical Engineering Transactions, Vol. 40, 2014, pp. 157–162.Search in Google Scholar

[30] McGinley, M. A. and C. M. McGinley. Comparison of field olfactometers in a controlled chamber using hydrogen sulfide as the test odorant. Water Science and Technology, Vol. 50, No. 4, 2004, pp. 75–82.10.2166/wst.2004.0225Search in Google Scholar

[31] Ontañón, I., J. Téllez, V. Ferreira, and A. Escudero. Air inside a dishwasher: Odour characterization and strategy for measuring odour changes. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, Vol. 34, No. 2, 2019, pp. 75–89.10.1002/ffj.3480Search in Google Scholar

[32] Liu, R., C. Wang, A. Huang, and B. Lv. Characterization of Odors of Wood by Gas Chromatography-Olfactometry with Removal of Extractives as Attempt to Control Indoor Air Quality. Molecules [online], Vol. 23, No. 1, 2018, pp. 203–212.10.3390/molecules23010203Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[33] Wiedmer, C., C. Velasco-schön, and A. Buettner. Characterization of odorants in inflatable aquatic toys and swimming learning devices-which substances are causative for the characteristic odor and potentially harmful? Analytical, Vol. 409, No. 16, 2017, pp. 3905–3916.10.1007/s00216-017-0330-xSearch in Google Scholar PubMed

[34] Xu, B., Y. Wang, D. Guo, Y. Gao, W. Liu, W. Wu, et al. Determination of the key parameters of VOCs emitted from multi-layer leather furniture using a region traversal approach. Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 819, 2022, pp. 1–10.10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153126Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[35] Gallego, E., F. J. Roca, J. F. Perales, and X. Guardino. Comparative study of the adsorption performance of a multi-sorbent bed (Carbotrap, Carbopack X, Carboxen 569) and a Tenax TA adsorbent tube for the analysis of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Talanta, Vol. 81, No. 3, 2010, pp. 916–924.10.1016/j.talanta.2010.01.037Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[36] ISO 16000-6, 2021. Indoor air – Part 6: Determination of organic compounds (VVOC, VOC, SVOC) in indoor and test chamber air by active sampling on sorbent tubes, thermal desorption and gas chromatography using MS or MS FID, Beuth Verlag, Berlin.Search in Google Scholar

[37] Brodzik, K., J. Faber, D. Łomankiewicz, and A. Gołda-Kopek. In-vehicle VOCs composition of unconditioned, newly produced cars. Journal of Environmental Sciences, Vol. 26, No. 5, 2014, pp. 1052–1061.10.1016/S1001-0742(13)60459-3Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[38] Corbi, O., A. Baratta, I. Corbi, F. Tropeano, and E. Liccardo. Design issues for smart seismic isolation of structures: past and recent research. Sustainable Structures, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2021, id. 000001.10.54113/j.sust.2021.000001Search in Google Scholar

[39] Xiao, J., H. Liu, T. Ding, and G. Ma. 3D printed concrete components and structures: an overview. Sustainable Structures, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2021, id. 000006.10.54113/j.sust.2021.000006Search in Google Scholar

[40] Dauletbek, A., H. Li, Z. Xiong, and R. Lorenzo. A review of mechanical behavior of structural laminated bamboo lumber. Sustainable Structures, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2021, id. 000004.Search in Google Scholar

[41] Xu, B., X. Chen, and J. Xiong. Air quality inside motor vehicles’ cabins: A review. Indoor and Built Environment. Vol. 27, No. 4, 2018, pp. 452–465.10.1177/1420326X16679217Search in Google Scholar

[42] González-Martín, J., N. J. R. Kraakman, C. Pérez, R. Lebrero, and R. Muñoz. A state–of–the-art review on indoor air pollution and strategies for indoor air pollution control. Chemosphere, Vol. 262, 2021, id. 128376.10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128376Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[43] Su, J., H. Li, Z. Xiong, and R. Lorenzo. Structural design and construction of an office building with laminated bamboo lumber. Sustainable Structures, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2021, id. 000010.10.54113/j.sust.2021.000010Search in Google Scholar

[44] Liua, K., D. Jayaramana, Y. Shib, K. Harriesc, J. Yangb, W. Jina, et al. “Bamboo: A very sustainable construction material” - 2021 International online seminar summary report. Sustainable Structures, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2022, id. 000015.10.54113/j.sust.2022.000015Search in Google Scholar

[45] Zhou, Y., Y. Huang, U. Sayed, and Z. Wang. Research on dynamic characteristics test of wooden floor structure for gymnasium. Sustainable Structures, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2021, id. 000005.10.54113/j.sust.2021.000005Search in Google Scholar

[46] Frank, G., S. E. Koch, D. Singer, and C. Schelle. V.O.C. Test Chamber-based Quantification Results of Upholstery Leathers Focused on Statistical Frequency Scales for TVOC and Single Compound Concentrations. Journal of the Society of Leather Technologists and Chemists, Vol. 100, No. 5, 2016, pp. 225–237.Search in Google Scholar

[47] Nalbat, S., E. Onem, B. Basaran, A. Yorgancioglu, and O. Yilmaz. Effect of finishing density on the physico-mechanical properties of leather. Journal of the Society of Leather Technologists and Chemists, Vol. 100, No. 2, 2016, pp. 84–89. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx? direct = true&db = edselc&an = edselc.2-52.0-84963800378&scope = site.Search in Google Scholar

[48] Ponzo, F. C., D. C. Antonio, L. Nicla, and D. Nigro. Experimental estimation of energy dissipated by multistorey post-tensioned timber framed buildings with anti-seismic dissipative devices. Sustainable Structures, 2021, Vol. 1, No. 2, id. 000007.10.54113/j.sust.2021.000007Search in Google Scholar

[49] Liang, R. and G. Hota. Development and evaluation of load-bearing fiber reinforced polymer composite panel systems with tongue and groove joints. Sustainable Structures, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2021, id. 000008.10.54113/j.sust.2021.000008Search in Google Scholar

[50] Meng, X., D. Zhang, P. Feng, and N. Hu. Review on mechanical behavior of solar cells for building integrated photovoltaics. Sustainable Structures, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2021, id. 000009.10.54113/j.sust.2021.000009Search in Google Scholar

[51] ČSN EN ISO 16000-9. Indoor air - Part 9: Determination of volatile organic compound emissions from building materials and furniture - Test chamber method, European Committee for Standardization, Brussels, Belgium, 2007.Search in Google Scholar

[52] Faber, J. and K. Brodzik. Air quality inside passenger cars. AIMS Environmental Science, Vol. 4, No. 1, 2017, pp. 112–133.10.3934/environsci.2017.1.112Search in Google Scholar

[53] Ashraf, M., M. J. Hasan, and S. Al-Deen. Semi-rigid behaviour of stainless steel beam-to-column bolted connections. Sustainable Structures, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2021, id. 000002.10.54113/j.sust.2021.000002Search in Google Scholar

[54] Wang, W., J. Wang, and L. Guo. Mechanical behavior analysis of LEM-infilled cold-formed steel walls. Sustainable Structures, 2022, Vol. 2, No. 1, id. 000013.10.54113/j.sust.2022.000013Search in Google Scholar

[55] Liang, R., D. Stanislawski, and G. Hota. Material characterization and structural response under earthquake loads of hakka rammed earth building. Sustainable Structures, 2021, Vol. 1, No. 1, id. 000003.10.54113/j.sust.2021.000003Search in Google Scholar

[56] Ernstgård, L., B. Sjögren, G. Johanson, A. Iregren, and U. Svedberg. Acute effects of exposure to hexanal vapors in humans. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 2006, Vol. 48, No. 6, pp. 573–580.10.1097/01.jom.0000215235.42071.68Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[57] Richter, T. M., R. M. Laing, and P. J. Bremer. Binding and release of odor compounds from textiles: Changing fiber selection for apparel. Textile Research Journal. 2021, Vol. 91, No. 7/8, pp. 709–716.10.1177/0040517520957397Search in Google Scholar

[58] Han, Y., J. Hu, and Z. Xin. Facile preparation of high solid content waterborne polyurethane and its application in leather surface finishing. Progress in Organic Coatings. 2019, Vol. 130, pp. 8–16.10.1016/j.porgcoat.2019.01.031Search in Google Scholar

[59] Wang, J., Z. Ma, L. Chen, H. J. Sun, and W. K. Fan. Determination of the emission of volatile organic compounds from leather seats in environmental test chamber. Key Engineering Materials. 2018. Vol. 768, pp. 31–35.10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.768.31Search in Google Scholar

[60] Lovascio, S., M. Brattoli, and M. Penza. Odour detection methods: Olfactometry and chemical sensors. Sensors 2011, Vol. 11, No. 5, pp. 5290–5322.10.3390/s110505290Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[61] ČSN EN 13725. Air quality - Determination of odour concentration by dynamic olfactometry. European Committee for Standardization, Brussels, Belgium, 2003.Search in Google Scholar
Received: 2022-11-08
Revised: 2023-08-22
Accepted: 2023-09-29
Published Online: 2023-12-14

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Review Articles
  2. Progress in preparation and ablation resistance of ultra-high-temperature ceramics modified C/C composites for extreme environment
  3. Solar lighting systems applied in photocatalysis to treat pollutants – A review
  4. Technological advances in three-dimensional skin tissue engineering
  5. Hybrid magnesium matrix composites: A review of reinforcement philosophies, mechanical and tribological characteristics
  6. Application prospect of calcium peroxide nanoparticles in biomedical field
  7. Research progress on basalt fiber-based functionalized composites
  8. Evaluation of the properties and applications of FRP bars and anchors: A review
  9. A critical review on mechanical, durability, and microstructural properties of industrial by-product-based geopolymer composites
  10. Multifunctional engineered cementitious composites modified with nanomaterials and their applications: An overview
  11. Role of bioglass derivatives in tissue regeneration and repair: A review
  12. Research progress on properties of cement-based composites incorporating graphene oxide
  13. Properties of ultra-high performance concrete and conventional concrete with coal bottom ash as aggregate replacement and nanoadditives: A review
  14. A scientometric review of the literature on the incorporation of steel fibers in ultra-high-performance concrete with research mapping knowledge
  15. Weldability of high nitrogen steels: A review
  16. Application of waste recycle tire steel fibers as a construction material in concrete
  17. Wear properties of graphene-reinforced aluminium metal matrix composite: A review
  18. Experimental investigations of electrodeposited Zn–Ni, Zn–Co, and Ni–Cr–Co–based novel coatings on AA7075 substrate to ameliorate the mechanical, abrasion, morphological, and corrosion properties for automotive applications
  19. Research evolution on self-healing asphalt: A scientometric review for knowledge mapping
  20. Recent developments in the mechanical properties of hybrid fiber metal laminates in the automotive industry: A review
  21. A review of microscopic characterization and related properties of fiber-incorporated cement-based materials
  22. Comparison and review of classical and machine learning-based constitutive models for polymers used in aeronautical thermoplastic composites
  23. Gold nanoparticle-based strategies against SARS-CoV-2: A review
  24. Poly-ferric sulphate as superior coagulant: A review on preparation methods and properties
  25. A review on ceramic waste-based concrete: A step toward sustainable concrete
  26. Modification of the structure and properties of oxide layers on aluminium alloys: A review
  27. A review of magnetically driven swimming microrobots: Material selection, structure design, control method, and applications
  28. Polyimide–nickel nanocomposites fabrication, properties, and applications: A review
  29. Design and analysis of timber-concrete-based civil structures and its applications: A brief review
  30. Effect of fiber treatment on physical and mechanical properties of natural fiber-reinforced composites: A review
  31. Blending and functionalisation modification of 3D printed polylactic acid for fused deposition modeling
  32. A critical review on functionally graded ceramic materials for cutting tools: Current trends and future prospects
  33. Heme iron as potential iron fortifier for food application – characterization by material techniques
  34. An overview of the research trends on fiber-reinforced shotcrete for construction applications
  35. High-entropy alloys: A review of their performance as promising materials for hydrogen and molten salt storage
  36. Effect of the axial compression ratio on the seismic behavior of resilient concrete walls with concealed column stirrups
  37. Research Articles
  38. Effect of fiber orientation and elevated temperature on the mechanical properties of unidirectional continuous kenaf reinforced PLA composites
  39. Optimizing the ECAP processing parameters of pure Cu through experimental, finite element, and response surface approaches
  40. Study on the solidification property and mechanism of soft soil based on the industrial waste residue
  41. Preparation and photocatalytic degradation of Sulfamethoxazole by g-C3N4 nano composite samples
  42. Impact of thermal modification on color and chemical changes of African padauk, merbau, mahogany, and iroko wood species
  43. The evaluation of the mechanical properties of glass, kenaf, and honeycomb fiber-reinforced composite
  44. Evaluation of a novel steel box-soft body combination for bridge protection against ship collision
  45. Study on the uniaxial compression constitutive relationship of modified yellow mud from minority dwelling in western Sichuan, China
  46. Ultrasonic longitudinal torsion-assisted biotic bone drilling: An experimental study
  47. Green synthesis, characterizations, and antibacterial activity of silver nanoparticles from Themeda quadrivalvis, in conjugation with macrolide antibiotics against respiratory pathogens
  48. Performance analysis of WEDM during the machining of Inconel 690 miniature gear using RSM and ANN modeling approaches
  49. Biosynthesis of Ag/bentonite, ZnO/bentonite, and Ag/ZnO/bentonite nanocomposites by aqueous leaf extract of Hagenia abyssinica for antibacterial activities
  50. Eco-friendly MoS2/waste coconut oil nanofluid for machining of magnesium implants
  51. Silica and kaolin reinforced aluminum matrix composite for heat storage
  52. Optimal design of glazed hollow bead thermal insulation mortar containing fly ash and slag based on response surface methodology
  53. Hemp seed oil nanoemulsion with Sapindus saponins as a potential carrier for iron supplement and vitamin D
  54. A numerical study on thin film flow and heat transfer enhancement for copper nanoparticles dispersed in ethylene glycol
  55. Research on complex multimodal vibration characteristics of offshore platform
  56. Applicability of fractal models for characterising pore structure of hybrid basalt–polypropylene fibre-reinforced concrete
  57. Influence of sodium silicate to precursor ratio on mechanical properties and durability of the metakaolin/fly ash alkali-activated sustainable mortar using manufactured sand
  58. An experimental study of bending resistance of multi-size PFRC beams
  59. Characterization, biocompatibility, and optimization of electrospun SF/PCL composite nanofiber films
  60. Morphological classification method and data-driven estimation of the joint roughness coefficient by consideration of two-order asperity
  61. Prediction and simulation of mechanical properties of borophene-reinforced epoxy nanocomposites using molecular dynamics and FEA
  62. Nanoemulsions of essential oils stabilized with saponins exhibiting antibacterial and antioxidative properties
  63. Fabrication and performance analysis of sustainable municipal solid waste incineration fly ash alkali-activated acoustic barriers
  64. Electrostatic-spinning construction of HCNTs@Ti3C2T x MXenes hybrid aerogel microspheres for tunable microwave absorption
  65. Investigation of the mechanical properties, surface quality, and energy efficiency of a fused filament fabrication for PA6
  66. Experimental study on mechanical properties of coal gangue base geopolymer recycled aggregate concrete reinforced by steel fiber and nano-Al2O3
  67. Hybrid bio-fiber/bio-ceramic composite materials: Mechanical performance, thermal stability, and morphological analysis
  68. Experimental study on recycled steel fiber-reinforced concrete under repeated impact
  69. Effect of rare earth Nd on the microstructural transformation and mechanical properties of 7xxx series aluminum alloys
  70. Color match evaluation using instrumental method for three single-shade resin composites before and after in-office bleaching
  71. Exploring temperature-resilient recycled aggregate concrete with waste rubber: An experimental and multi-objective optimization analysis
  72. Study on aging mechanism of SBS/SBR compound-modified asphalt based on molecular dynamics
  73. Evolution of the pore structure of pumice aggregate concrete and the effect on compressive strength
  74. Effect of alkaline treatment time of fibers and microcrystalline cellulose addition on mechanical properties of unsaturated polyester composites reinforced by cantala fibers
  75. Optimization of eggshell particles to produce eco-friendly green fillers with bamboo reinforcement in organic friction materials
  76. An effective approach to improve microstructure and tribological properties of cold sprayed Al alloys
  77. Luminescence and temperature-sensing properties of Li+, Na+, or K+, Tm3+, and Yb3+ co-doped Bi2WO6 phosphors
  78. Effect of molybdenum tailings aggregate on mechanical properties of engineered cementitious composites and stirrup-confined ECC stub columns
  79. Experimental study on the seismic performance of short shear walls comprising cold-formed steel and high-strength reinforced concrete with concealed bracing
  80. Failure criteria and microstructure evolution mechanism of the alkali–silica reaction of concrete
  81. Mechanical, fracture-deformation, and tribology behavior of fillers-reinforced sisal fiber composites for lightweight automotive applications
  82. UV aging behavior evolution characterization of HALS-modified asphalt based on micro-morphological features
  83. Preparation of VO2/graphene/SiC film by water vapor oxidation
  84. A semi-empirical model for predicting carbonation depth of RAC under two-dimensional conditions
  85. Comparison of the physical properties of different polyimide nanocomposite films containing organoclays varying in alkyl chain lengths
  86. Effects of freeze–thaw cycles on micro and meso-structural characteristics and mechanical properties of porous asphalt mixtures
  87. Flexural performance of a new type of slightly curved arc HRB400 steel bars reinforced one-way concrete slabs
  88. Alkali-activated binder based on red mud with class F fly ash and ground granulated blast-furnace slag under ambient temperature
  89. Facile synthesis of g-C3N4 nanosheets for effective degradation of organic pollutants via ball milling
  90. DEM study on the loading rate effect of marble under different confining pressures
  91. Conductive and self-cleaning composite membranes from corn husk nanofiber embedded with inorganic fillers (TiO2, CaO, and eggshell) by sol–gel and casting processes for smart membrane applications
  92. Laser re-melting of modified multimodal Cr3C2–NiCr coatings by HVOF: Effect on the microstructure and anticorrosion properties
  93. Damage constitutive model of jointed rock mass considering structural features and load effect
  94. Thermosetting polymer composites: Manufacturing and properties study
  95. CSG compressive strength prediction based on LSTM and interpretable machine learning
  96. Axial compression behavior and stress–strain relationship of slurry-wrapping treatment recycled aggregate concrete-filled steel tube short columns
  97. Space-time evolution characteristics of loaded gas-bearing coal fractures based on industrial μCT
  98. Dual-biprism-based single-camera high-speed 3D-digital image correlation for deformation measurement on sandwich structures under low velocity impact
  99. Effects of cold deformation modes on microstructure uniformity and mechanical properties of large 2219 Al–Cu alloy rings
  100. Basalt fiber as natural reinforcement to improve the performance of ecological grouting slurry for the conservation of earthen sites
  101. Interaction of micro-fluid structure in a pressure-driven duct flow with a nearby placed current-carrying wire: A numerical investigation
  102. A simulation modeling methodology considering random multiple shots for shot peening process
  103. Optimization and characterization of composite modified asphalt with pyrolytic carbon black and chicken feather fiber
  104. Synthesis, characterization, and application of the novel nanomagnet adsorbent for the removal of Cr(vi) ions
  105. Multi-perspective structural integrity-based computational investigations on airframe of Gyrodyne-configured multi-rotor UAV through coupled CFD and FEA approaches for various lightweight sandwich composites and alloys
  106. Influence of PVA fibers on the durability of cementitious composites under the wet–heat–salt coupling environment
  107. Compressive behavior of BFRP-confined ceramsite concrete: An experimental study and stress–strain model
  108. Interval models for uncertainty analysis and degradation prediction of the mechanical properties of rubber
  109. Preparation of PVDF-HFP/CB/Ni nanocomposite films for piezoelectric energy harvesting
  110. Frost resistance and life prediction of recycled brick aggregate concrete with waste polypropylene fiber
  111. Synthetic leathers as a possible source of chemicals and odorous substances in indoor environment
  112. Mechanical properties of seawater volcanic scoria aggregate concrete-filled circular GFRP and stainless steel tubes under axial compression
  113. Effect of curved anchor impellers on power consumption and hydrodynamic parameters of yield stress fluids (Bingham–Papanastasiou model) in stirred tanks
  114. All-dielectric tunable zero-refractive index metamaterials based on phase change materials
  115. Influence of ultrasonication time on the various properties of alkaline-treated mango seed waste filler reinforced PVA biocomposite
  116. Research on key casting process of high-grade CNC machine tool bed nodular cast iron
  117. Latest research progress of SiCp/Al composite for electronic packaging
  118. Special Issue on 3D and 4D Printing of Advanced Functional Materials - Part I
  119. Molecular dynamics simulation on electrohydrodynamic atomization: Stable dripping mode by pre-load voltage
  120. Research progress of metal-based additive manufacturing in medical implants
https://doi.org/10.1515/rams-2023-0132
Keywords for this article
synthetic upholstery leathers; VOCs; odours; indoor air; test chamber; hedonic tone
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Review Articles
  2. Progress in preparation and ablation resistance of ultra-high-temperature ceramics modified C/C composites for extreme environment
  3. Solar lighting systems applied in photocatalysis to treat pollutants – A review
  4. Technological advances in three-dimensional skin tissue engineering
  5. Hybrid magnesium matrix composites: A review of reinforcement philosophies, mechanical and tribological characteristics
  6. Application prospect of calcium peroxide nanoparticles in biomedical field
  7. Research progress on basalt fiber-based functionalized composites
  8. Evaluation of the properties and applications of FRP bars and anchors: A review
  9. A critical review on mechanical, durability, and microstructural properties of industrial by-product-based geopolymer composites
  10. Multifunctional engineered cementitious composites modified with nanomaterials and their applications: An overview
  11. Role of bioglass derivatives in tissue regeneration and repair: A review
  12. Research progress on properties of cement-based composites incorporating graphene oxide
  13. Properties of ultra-high performance concrete and conventional concrete with coal bottom ash as aggregate replacement and nanoadditives: A review
  14. A scientometric review of the literature on the incorporation of steel fibers in ultra-high-performance concrete with research mapping knowledge
  15. Weldability of high nitrogen steels: A review
  16. Application of waste recycle tire steel fibers as a construction material in concrete
  17. Wear properties of graphene-reinforced aluminium metal matrix composite: A review
  18. Experimental investigations of electrodeposited Zn–Ni, Zn–Co, and Ni–Cr–Co–based novel coatings on AA7075 substrate to ameliorate the mechanical, abrasion, morphological, and corrosion properties for automotive applications
  19. Research evolution on self-healing asphalt: A scientometric review for knowledge mapping
  20. Recent developments in the mechanical properties of hybrid fiber metal laminates in the automotive industry: A review
  21. A review of microscopic characterization and related properties of fiber-incorporated cement-based materials
  22. Comparison and review of classical and machine learning-based constitutive models for polymers used in aeronautical thermoplastic composites
  23. Gold nanoparticle-based strategies against SARS-CoV-2: A review
  24. Poly-ferric sulphate as superior coagulant: A review on preparation methods and properties
  25. A review on ceramic waste-based concrete: A step toward sustainable concrete
  26. Modification of the structure and properties of oxide layers on aluminium alloys: A review
  27. A review of magnetically driven swimming microrobots: Material selection, structure design, control method, and applications
  28. Polyimide–nickel nanocomposites fabrication, properties, and applications: A review
  29. Design and analysis of timber-concrete-based civil structures and its applications: A brief review
  30. Effect of fiber treatment on physical and mechanical properties of natural fiber-reinforced composites: A review
  31. Blending and functionalisation modification of 3D printed polylactic acid for fused deposition modeling
  32. A critical review on functionally graded ceramic materials for cutting tools: Current trends and future prospects
  33. Heme iron as potential iron fortifier for food application – characterization by material techniques
  34. An overview of the research trends on fiber-reinforced shotcrete for construction applications
  35. High-entropy alloys: A review of their performance as promising materials for hydrogen and molten salt storage
  36. Effect of the axial compression ratio on the seismic behavior of resilient concrete walls with concealed column stirrups
  37. Research Articles
  38. Effect of fiber orientation and elevated temperature on the mechanical properties of unidirectional continuous kenaf reinforced PLA composites
  39. Optimizing the ECAP processing parameters of pure Cu through experimental, finite element, and response surface approaches
  40. Study on the solidification property and mechanism of soft soil based on the industrial waste residue
  41. Preparation and photocatalytic degradation of Sulfamethoxazole by g-C3N4 nano composite samples
  42. Impact of thermal modification on color and chemical changes of African padauk, merbau, mahogany, and iroko wood species
  43. The evaluation of the mechanical properties of glass, kenaf, and honeycomb fiber-reinforced composite
  44. Evaluation of a novel steel box-soft body combination for bridge protection against ship collision
  45. Study on the uniaxial compression constitutive relationship of modified yellow mud from minority dwelling in western Sichuan, China
  46. Ultrasonic longitudinal torsion-assisted biotic bone drilling: An experimental study
  47. Green synthesis, characterizations, and antibacterial activity of silver nanoparticles from Themeda quadrivalvis, in conjugation with macrolide antibiotics against respiratory pathogens
  48. Performance analysis of WEDM during the machining of Inconel 690 miniature gear using RSM and ANN modeling approaches
  49. Biosynthesis of Ag/bentonite, ZnO/bentonite, and Ag/ZnO/bentonite nanocomposites by aqueous leaf extract of Hagenia abyssinica for antibacterial activities
  50. Eco-friendly MoS2/waste coconut oil nanofluid for machining of magnesium implants
  51. Silica and kaolin reinforced aluminum matrix composite for heat storage
  52. Optimal design of glazed hollow bead thermal insulation mortar containing fly ash and slag based on response surface methodology
  53. Hemp seed oil nanoemulsion with Sapindus saponins as a potential carrier for iron supplement and vitamin D
  54. A numerical study on thin film flow and heat transfer enhancement for copper nanoparticles dispersed in ethylene glycol
  55. Research on complex multimodal vibration characteristics of offshore platform
  56. Applicability of fractal models for characterising pore structure of hybrid basalt–polypropylene fibre-reinforced concrete
  57. Influence of sodium silicate to precursor ratio on mechanical properties and durability of the metakaolin/fly ash alkali-activated sustainable mortar using manufactured sand
  58. An experimental study of bending resistance of multi-size PFRC beams
  59. Characterization, biocompatibility, and optimization of electrospun SF/PCL composite nanofiber films
  60. Morphological classification method and data-driven estimation of the joint roughness coefficient by consideration of two-order asperity
  61. Prediction and simulation of mechanical properties of borophene-reinforced epoxy nanocomposites using molecular dynamics and FEA
  62. Nanoemulsions of essential oils stabilized with saponins exhibiting antibacterial and antioxidative properties
  63. Fabrication and performance analysis of sustainable municipal solid waste incineration fly ash alkali-activated acoustic barriers
  64. Electrostatic-spinning construction of HCNTs@Ti3C2T x MXenes hybrid aerogel microspheres for tunable microwave absorption
  65. Investigation of the mechanical properties, surface quality, and energy efficiency of a fused filament fabrication for PA6
  66. Experimental study on mechanical properties of coal gangue base geopolymer recycled aggregate concrete reinforced by steel fiber and nano-Al2O3
  67. Hybrid bio-fiber/bio-ceramic composite materials: Mechanical performance, thermal stability, and morphological analysis
  68. Experimental study on recycled steel fiber-reinforced concrete under repeated impact
  69. Effect of rare earth Nd on the microstructural transformation and mechanical properties of 7xxx series aluminum alloys
  70. Color match evaluation using instrumental method for three single-shade resin composites before and after in-office bleaching
  71. Exploring temperature-resilient recycled aggregate concrete with waste rubber: An experimental and multi-objective optimization analysis
  72. Study on aging mechanism of SBS/SBR compound-modified asphalt based on molecular dynamics
  73. Evolution of the pore structure of pumice aggregate concrete and the effect on compressive strength
  74. Effect of alkaline treatment time of fibers and microcrystalline cellulose addition on mechanical properties of unsaturated polyester composites reinforced by cantala fibers
  75. Optimization of eggshell particles to produce eco-friendly green fillers with bamboo reinforcement in organic friction materials
  76. An effective approach to improve microstructure and tribological properties of cold sprayed Al alloys
  77. Luminescence and temperature-sensing properties of Li+, Na+, or K+, Tm3+, and Yb3+ co-doped Bi2WO6 phosphors
  78. Effect of molybdenum tailings aggregate on mechanical properties of engineered cementitious composites and stirrup-confined ECC stub columns
  79. Experimental study on the seismic performance of short shear walls comprising cold-formed steel and high-strength reinforced concrete with concealed bracing
  80. Failure criteria and microstructure evolution mechanism of the alkali–silica reaction of concrete
  81. Mechanical, fracture-deformation, and tribology behavior of fillers-reinforced sisal fiber composites for lightweight automotive applications
  82. UV aging behavior evolution characterization of HALS-modified asphalt based on micro-morphological features
  83. Preparation of VO2/graphene/SiC film by water vapor oxidation
  84. A semi-empirical model for predicting carbonation depth of RAC under two-dimensional conditions
  85. Comparison of the physical properties of different polyimide nanocomposite films containing organoclays varying in alkyl chain lengths
  86. Effects of freeze–thaw cycles on micro and meso-structural characteristics and mechanical properties of porous asphalt mixtures
  87. Flexural performance of a new type of slightly curved arc HRB400 steel bars reinforced one-way concrete slabs
  88. Alkali-activated binder based on red mud with class F fly ash and ground granulated blast-furnace slag under ambient temperature
  89. Facile synthesis of g-C3N4 nanosheets for effective degradation of organic pollutants via ball milling
  90. DEM study on the loading rate effect of marble under different confining pressures
  91. Conductive and self-cleaning composite membranes from corn husk nanofiber embedded with inorganic fillers (TiO2, CaO, and eggshell) by sol–gel and casting processes for smart membrane applications
  92. Laser re-melting of modified multimodal Cr3C2–NiCr coatings by HVOF: Effect on the microstructure and anticorrosion properties
  93. Damage constitutive model of jointed rock mass considering structural features and load effect
  94. Thermosetting polymer composites: Manufacturing and properties study
  95. CSG compressive strength prediction based on LSTM and interpretable machine learning
  96. Axial compression behavior and stress–strain relationship of slurry-wrapping treatment recycled aggregate concrete-filled steel tube short columns
  97. Space-time evolution characteristics of loaded gas-bearing coal fractures based on industrial μCT
  98. Dual-biprism-based single-camera high-speed 3D-digital image correlation for deformation measurement on sandwich structures under low velocity impact
  99. Effects of cold deformation modes on microstructure uniformity and mechanical properties of large 2219 Al–Cu alloy rings
  100. Basalt fiber as natural reinforcement to improve the performance of ecological grouting slurry for the conservation of earthen sites
  101. Interaction of micro-fluid structure in a pressure-driven duct flow with a nearby placed current-carrying wire: A numerical investigation
  102. A simulation modeling methodology considering random multiple shots for shot peening process
  103. Optimization and characterization of composite modified asphalt with pyrolytic carbon black and chicken feather fiber
  104. Synthesis, characterization, and application of the novel nanomagnet adsorbent for the removal of Cr(vi) ions
  105. Multi-perspective structural integrity-based computational investigations on airframe of Gyrodyne-configured multi-rotor UAV through coupled CFD and FEA approaches for various lightweight sandwich composites and alloys
  106. Influence of PVA fibers on the durability of cementitious composites under the wet–heat–salt coupling environment
  107. Compressive behavior of BFRP-confined ceramsite concrete: An experimental study and stress–strain model
  108. Interval models for uncertainty analysis and degradation prediction of the mechanical properties of rubber
  109. Preparation of PVDF-HFP/CB/Ni nanocomposite films for piezoelectric energy harvesting
  110. Frost resistance and life prediction of recycled brick aggregate concrete with waste polypropylene fiber
  111. Synthetic leathers as a possible source of chemicals and odorous substances in indoor environment
  112. Mechanical properties of seawater volcanic scoria aggregate concrete-filled circular GFRP and stainless steel tubes under axial compression
  113. Effect of curved anchor impellers on power consumption and hydrodynamic parameters of yield stress fluids (Bingham–Papanastasiou model) in stirred tanks
  114. All-dielectric tunable zero-refractive index metamaterials based on phase change materials
  115. Influence of ultrasonication time on the various properties of alkaline-treated mango seed waste filler reinforced PVA biocomposite
  116. Research on key casting process of high-grade CNC machine tool bed nodular cast iron
  117. Latest research progress of SiCp/Al composite for electronic packaging
  118. Special Issue on 3D and 4D Printing of Advanced Functional Materials - Part I
  119. Molecular dynamics simulation on electrohydrodynamic atomization: Stable dripping mode by pre-load voltage
  120. Research progress of metal-based additive manufacturing in medical implants
Sign up now to receive a 20% welcome discount
Institutional Access
How does access work?
Have an idea on how to improve our website?
Please write us.
© 2025 De Gruyter Brill
Downloaded on 3.12.2025 from https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/rams-2023-0132/html
Scroll to top button