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Polyimide–nickel nanocomposites fabrication, properties, and applications: A review

  • Nuru-Deen Jaji , Muhammad Bisyrul Hafi Othman EMAIL logo , Hooi Ling Lee , Mohd Hazwan Hussin , Hazizan Md Akil , Zulkifli Merican Aljunid Merican and Mohd Firdaus Omar
Published/Copyright: September 28, 2023
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REVIEWS ON ADVANCED MATERIALS SCIENCE
From the journal REVIEWS ON ADVANCED MATERIALS SCIENCE Volume 62 Issue 1

Abstract

Taking inspiration from many published review articles in respect of polyimide–nickel nanocomposites (PINiNCs), this article is written to highlight the significant effect of reinforcing and/or blending nickel nanoparticles (NiNPs) with the different constituents of polyimide monomers to increase various properties (mechanical, thermal, and stability) without sacrificing any of its positive properties. The design and fabrication methodologies of PINiNCs have been critically reported. The recent characterization probing techniques and applications, revealing their advantages and disadvantages are examined in depth. Their diverse applications in multidisciplinary as well as high technological fields and their corresponding properties are extensively documented and summarized in tables. The type of NiNPs and the detailed fabrication techniques of PINiNCs together with their advantages and disadvantages were documented. The combination between this reported fabrication technique and enhanced properties also inspires and broadens the reader’s view to understand the basic principle of structure properties relationship of PINiNCs. This review also screens the properties and current application of PINiNCs in the field of lithography technology, biomedical, electrode technology, membrane, dielectric materials, and light emitting diode technology. The main findings are focused on the strategies to fabricate novel PINiNCs. Various modern cutting-edge characterization technologies for PINiNCs have been emphasized. The industrial applications of PINiNCs have been thoroughly reviewed to develop a complete reference material on PINiNCs.

Graphical abstract

Keywords: polyimide; nickel nanoparticles; nanocomposite; fabrication; characterization; applications

1 Introduction

Since 1960–2018, the total global production of composites was 288 metric tons at the rate of 0.2 metric tons annually and estimated to be 199,000 tons by 2022 [1]. The most prominent usage was recognized in promising research area of electronic and aerospace engineering products including circuit boards, radiation resistant components, coatings, optoelectronic, and magnetic ingredients. Additionally, suitable for wide range applications such as coatings, catalysis, radiation, magnetic devices as well as biomedical applications. This is because (1) they are lighter than conventional composites because high degrees of stiffness and strength are realized with far less high-density material, (2) their barrier properties are improved compared with the neat polymer, (3) their mechanical and thermal properties are potentially superior, and (4) exhibit excellent flammability properties and increased biodegradability of biodegradable polymers [2], polymers are used in sliding couples against metallic materials [3]. Among the inorganic nano-fillers extensively used are gold [4], iron [5], nickel [6], magnesium [7], silver [8], and titanium [9].

Nickel nanoparticles (NiNPs) have received much attention due to their excellent magnetic, chemical, and physical properties [10]. In view of their unique properties, they have the potential for applications in battery manufacture, catalysis [11], smart textile, nanotube-printing ink [12], optical switches and field modulated gratings, adsorption of dyes, and immobilization of molecules through magnetic force [13]. Elsewhere, reports indicate that NiNPs are applicable in super capacitors with high specific capacitance [14]. They are used as an electrocatalyst in the oxidation of methanol and water with high catalytic activity compared to platinum counter electrodes [15]. In energy storage they are employed as an alternative to expensive platinum counter electrode [16]. In neuromorphic computing NiNPs serve as hardware. NiNPs are identified in the catalysis of Suzuki–Miyaura cross-coupling reactions [17]. In view of the relatively small size of NiNPs, they are used in applications such as nanoelectronics, catalysis, and hydrogen storage [18]. Nanocomposites containing nickel function as the anode in electrochemical reactions with enhanced electrical conductivity leading to outstanding fast kinetics [12]. Nickel metal exhibits variable magnetic susceptibility at room temperature. However, the magnetic properties are heavily affected by the size, shape, and morphology of the NiNPs [19]. The exclusive properties of nanomaterials give them superiority over bulk materials; therefore, NiNPs have broader application prospects [20]. Polyimide (PI) matrix filled with metal nanoparticles such as nickel, silver, and gold exhibit good heat conductivity with subsequent advanced material applications. PIs containing nickel in its matrix are of great interest in nanotechnology and achieve excellent properties due to organic and inorganic synergic effects [21]. They have been specifically reported as being used in heterogeneous catalysis [22], electrochemical sensing of glucose [23], electronic packaging [24], biochemical reactions [25], thermal insulation [26], photocatalysis [27], antibacterial activity [28], dielectric applications [29], electromagnetic shielding [30], microwave absorption [31], biomedical applications [32], improvement of tensile properties for bearing applied force [33], improved electrical conductivity [34], supercapacitors [35], selective capture of mono-phosphopeptides [36], improved electrical conductivity [37], removal of lead from aqueous solution [38], enhancement of electrochromic efficiency [39], improved electrochemical activity [21], magnetic resonance imaging technologies [40], gas separation [41], and as an effective diffusion barrier [42].

PIs exhibit high thermal stability, excellent mechanical strength, superior chemical and radiation resistance [43], high adhesion properties, ability to form good films, and low dielectric constant [44]. Hence PIs provide an excellent matrix for the fabrication of nanocomposite materials with good thermal and chemical stability [45]. However, the poor conducting properties of PIs limit their applications in electrical and electrochemical devices. Moreover, due to poor thermal conductivity PIs cannot meet the requirement of fast heat conduction for advanced electronic devices. The effective strategy to improve thermal transport is by introducing thermally conductive fillers such as metallic nanoparticles [46], graphene-based materials [47], and ceramic materials to the PI matrix [48]. In high technology applications, failure prevention in seafloor pipeline can be prevented by grouting the annulus of the double-wall pipeline with polymers [49], 4D applications [50], and glass fiber-reinforced nanocomposites [51]. Therefore, the methodology of fabrication, characterization, and applications of PI–metal nanocomposite materials with good thermal conductivity becomes highly imperative.

A wide range of PIs have been obtained by changing the chemical structure of the dianhydrides and diamine monomer fragments of macromolecules with different structure and properties. The classification of PIs based on chemical structure and physical properties are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1

Summary of the classification of PIs based on their chemical structure and physical properties

PI category Chemical properties Physical properties Ref.
Group A Aromatic imides cyclic Non-softening, brittle, heat resistance [52]
Group B Hinges in dianhydride Non-softening rigid with some softening [53]
Group C Hinges in diamine Rigid, strong, elastic [54]
Group D Hinges in diamine and dianhydride Elastic with clear region of softening and melting [55]

PI matrix is an emerging type of high-performance material with remarkable thermal and dielectric properties [56], medical applications in extreme environment and high temperatures [57], as well as excellent mechanical properties of high strength and high modulus [58]. PI matrix has attracted significant attention in the field of advanced composite for aviation and aerospace applications owing to its satisfactory combination of excellent physical and chemical properties. PI matrix can be used in a wide range of temperatures, and they match well with high temperatures and pressures applied in the processing of high-performance resins.

In the present work on polyimide–nickel nanocomposites (PINiNCs), we herein critically report various preparation methodologies of PINiNCs design and fabrication, recent characterization techniques and applications, respectively, revealing their advantages and disadvantages. The diverse applications in multidisciplinary fields and corresponding properties are highlighted as well as summarized in tables. This work should provide inspiration for the preparation, characterization, and applications of PINiNCs materials. Moreover, it highlights their current engineering and industrial applications.

2 Types of PINiNCs

2.1 PINiNCs

The historical background of polymer blends indicates that the first patent polymer blend was a mixture of natural rubber, with gutta percha patented by Alexander Parkes in 1846. The first man-made polymer, nitrocellulose was prepared by Braconnot in 1833. The resin was commercialized in 1868. The first patent on blends of two synthetic polymers was granted in 1928 for poly(vinylchloride)/poly(vinylacetate) latex blending. Within the interceding 65 years, the polymer blend patent literature grew at an exponential rate; since 1983 the annual output has doubled, to exceed 3,000 patents per year in 1993 [59]. In the year 2018, the annual global production of polymer composites reached 11.4 metric tons. In 2010, the global production of polymer composites was 51 metric tons, in 2020 it became 160 metric tons and is estimated to be 199 metric tons by 2022 [1]. In the current era, advanced polyimide nanocomposite materials play a major role in the fields of medical science, aerospace, and power sector [60].

Several techniques for the preparation of PINiNCs abound in literature. The development of new class of PINiNCs is motivated by the achievement of performance improvement, ease of processability, and cost effectiveness. The topical issues to be addressed depend upon the intended applications. Such issues may include chemical reactivity, thermal stability, mechanical properties, durability, and electrical as well as electrochemical properties [61]. In the last decade, various techniques have been reported for the preparation of PINiNCs. The surface metallization of Ni on PI matrix is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Scheme representing the metallization of Ni on PI film [42].
Figure 1

Scheme representing the metallization of Ni on PI film [42].

These techniques include, solution blending and casting technique [41], magnetic field solvent casting [62], ion exchange technique [44], gamma radiolytic method [37], fused filament fabrication [63], electrochemical oxidative polymerization [21], surface metallization of PI technique [42], and polyol method [39]. A method for fabricating highly dispersed metal nanoparticles inside PI resins was proposed by Nawafune et al. [64]. A summary of techniques for fabrication of PI–nickel composites is presented in Table 2.

Table 2

Techniques for fabrication of PINiNCs

PI monomer Synthesis technique Nickel component Ref.
PMDA/ODA Chemical vapor Ni foam [65]
ODA/PMDA Electroless plating NiSO4·6H2O [66]
PMDA/ODA Electrochemical Ni oxide [67]
ODA/PMDA Flash evaporation Cu–Al–Ni–Mn [68]
PMDA/ODA Electroless deposition Ni nanoparticles [42]
PMDA/ODA Ion exchange Ni nanofilm [69]
BPDA/BAPP Ion exchange Ni ions [70]
PMDA/ODA Electrospun Ni nanoparticles [71]
ODA/PMDA Electroless plating Ni coatings [72]

2.2 Polyimide–nickel oxide (NiO) nanocomposites

NiO nanoparticles have generated great interest due to their wide-ranging applications in diverse fields such as catalysis [73], fuel cell electrodes [74], electrochromic films [75], gas sensors [76], smart windows [77], and lithium-ion batteries [78]. These types of hybrid composites acquire the functionalities of metal nanoparticles as well as the advantages of polymeric materials such as thermal stability, conformity, and flexibility [79]. Figure 2 presents a typical fabrication of PI/NiO composite.

Figure 2 Typical representation of PI/NiO composite fabrication route [80].
Figure 2

Typical representation of PI/NiO composite fabrication route [80].

Novel ferromagnetic PI NiO nanocomposites have been developed by many research groups by dispersing NiO nanoparticles into PI matrix. Table 3 summarizes the fabrication of various PI NiO nanocomposites.

Table 3

Summary of preparation techniques of PI NiO composites

PI monomers Preparation technique Nickel type Enhanced property Ref.
ODA/PMDA Imidization Ni(ii) Electrochemical [81]
BTDA/DAPI Solution casting NiO Gas selectivity [41]
PMDA/ODA Solution casting NiO precursors Electrochemical [67]
PMDA/ODA Sol gel Nickel titanate Magnetization [82]
BPADA/BAPP Solvent casting Ni graphene Optoelectronic [62]
BPADA/BAPP Dispersion NiO Hardness [80]
PMDA/ODA Polymerization Ni–Zn–Fe Electromagnetic [83]

2.3 PI nickel–graphene nanocomposites

PI nickel–graphene nanocomposites have been reported to exhibit high electrical conductivity and actuation performance [84]. The choice of the composite fabrication technique depends on the desired warp including polymer molecular weight, polarity, polymer functional groups as well as the method for graphene functionalization [85]. The multi-component nanocomposite exhibits the characteristics of each component as well as new physical effects due to interactions among the three components. Graphene is a mono-atomic thin layer of carbon atoms connected with σ bonds and a shared π electron cloud forming a honeycomb-like structure of benzene rings [86]. Figure 3 shows stages in the development of PI nickel–graphene thin films.

Figure 3 Fabrication of PI nickel–graphene fabric [87].
Figure 3

Fabrication of PI nickel–graphene fabric [87].

The thermal conductivity of single layer graphene is reported in the range of 2,500–4,500 W·m−1·K−1 [88]. A graphene monolayer has high transparency as well as excellent electrical conductivity. Therefore, the combination of PI with NiNPs and graphene yields multifunctional material with enhanced mechanical, thermal, and electrical conductivity. The research group of Yoonessi et al. [62] reported extensively on the fabrication of PI nickel–graphene nanocomposites with outlined potential applications. Table 4 presents the PI matrix and preparation techniques.

Table 4

Summary of preparation techniques for PI nickel–graphene composites

PI monomers Fabrication technique Nickel type Enhanced property Ref.
BPADA/BAPP Solvent mixing Ni/graphene Electrical [84]
BPADA/BAPP Solvent mixing Ni/graphene Electrical [62]
PMDA/ODA Chemical vapor Ni/graphene Thermal [87]
PMDA/PPD Liquid–solid–solid Ni(ii) Absorption [89]
PMDA/ODA Electrodeposition NiO/graphene Electrochemical [67]
PMDA/ODA Ion exchange Ni ions Structural [90]
PMDA/ODA Solution mixing Ni nanowires Dielectric [91]

Table 4 shows various properties enhanced in the nanocomposites fabricated from PIs, graphene, and nickel nanomaterials. These properties include electrical conductivity of the nanocomposites, enhancement of anticorrosion properties, improved electrochemical activity, excellent mechanical properties, and dielectric properties.

2.4 PI nickel/metal complex nanocomposites

The preparation of nickel complex nanocomposites on PI matrixes have been reported in literature such as PI/copper–nickel ferrite composites [29], Ti–Ni–Cu thin film formed on PI [92], polyethylenes prepared by amine–imine nickel, palladium complexes [93], Ni–Ti–PI composites prepared using thermal imidization technique [94], nickel and palladium complexes with fluorinated alkyl substituted α-diimine ligands [95], and complex formation of polyethyleneimine with copper, nickel, and cobalt [96]. The unique properties that arise from the combination of organic and inorganic components in PI nickel complexes are of great importance in advanced materials science research. The PI matrix confers good processability and flexibility, whereas the inorganic component provides electrical, thermal, magnetic, and optical properties [97]. An example of PI nickel/metal complex nanocomposite fabrication is provided in Figure 4. The figure shows the preparation of PI–NiSc nanomaterial.

Figure 4 Fabrication of PI–NiSc nanocomposite material [98].
Figure 4

Fabrication of PI–NiSc nanocomposite material [98].

Nickel complexes incorporated into PI phase impart magnetic properties necessary for a variety of high-performance PI applications, such as photocatalysis, heavy metal absorption, and magnetic imaging [99]. Table 5 provides a summary of preparation techniques, the PI precursor, and enhanced properties of PI nickel complex nanocomposites.

Table 5

Summary of preparation technique, PI precursor, and enhanced properties

PI monomer Preparation technique Nickel type Enhanced properties Ref.
BAPP/DABA Imidization Ni–Cu–Fe–Ce Dielectric loss [29]
ODA/PMDA Sputtering Ti–Ni–Cu Memory [92]
HBPDA/HBPDA Solution process NiO Sensor [100]
ODA/PMDA Co-precipitation Ni complex Thermal [101]
PMDA/ODA Imidization Ni–Ti Memory [94]
PMDA/ODA Encapsulation Ni (100) Adhesion [102]
NTDA/ODA/ODADS Electrodeposition Ni(OH)2 Electrocatalytic [23]

Nanocomposites fabricated by introducing nickel complexes into the PI matrix show excellent catalytic activity, shape-memory actuators, and low dielectric loss. These nanocomposites are good for the development of advanced materials and engineering.

2.5 PI nickel–nonmetal nanocomposites

PI nickel inorganic materials with thermoelectric properties have been widely studied such as PI–NiFe–Ce, PI–Ni–Ti, PI–Ni–Pd, PI–Ni–Co, etc. However, PI inorganic composites have several limitations namely poor processability, high cost of production, and environmental pollution due to toxicity. On the contrary, PI–Ni–organic composite thermoelectric materials possess certain advantages such as availability of raw materials, easy applications to fabricate devices, ease of processability, and environmental friendliness. PI–nickel–nonmetal complexes have been fabricated by various techniques as reported in Table 6.

Table 6

Preparation techniques of PI nickel–nonmetal complex nanocomposites

PI monomers Fabrication technique Nickel type Improved property Ref.
PTCDA/ODA Imidization Ni nanoparticles Catalytic [103]
BTDA/ODA Polymerization Ni oleate Catalytic [104]
ODA/PMDA Dielectrophoresis CNT–Ni Mechanical [105]
BTDA/ODA Polymerization Ni(HCOO)2·H2O Graphitization [106]
ODA/PMDA Drop-casting Ni nano-PETT Thermoelectric [107]
BTDA-TDI/MDI Cross-flow Ni nanoparticles Optoelectronic [108]
BPDA/BPDA Sputtering Ni films Thermoelectric [109]

Several preparation techniques have been adopted to produce PI–Ni–nonmetal composite nanomaterials such as wet chemical and electrochemical method, implantation, polymerization, drop-casting, electrophoresis, and conventional copolymerization [110]. A typical route for the fabrication of PI–Ni–nonmetal complex is represented in Figure 5.

Figure 5 Representation of the fabrication stages in the formation of PI-Ni-CNT film, (a) Preparation of SWCNT suspension, (b) Preparing and patterning of PI-Ni substrate, (c) Formation of SWCNT film, (d) Modified vacuum annealing composite films at various temperatures [105].
Figure 5

Representation of the fabrication stages in the formation of PI-Ni-CNT film, (a) Preparation of SWCNT suspension, (b) Preparing and patterning of PI-Ni substrate, (c) Formation of SWCNT film, (d) Modified vacuum annealing composite films at various temperatures [105].

3 Fabrications techniques of PINiNCs

3.1 Ultraviolet irradiation

In this technique, metal nanoparticles embedded in PI matrix are simultaneously prepared by gamma rays. The gamma rays induce the oxidation of PI and reduction of nickel ions. This technique provides a clean alternative to chemical methods with subsequent potential in particle size and morphological control by manipulations of parameters such as stabilizing agents, absorbed dose of radiation, dose rate, and the ratio of PI/metal ion precursor [111]. The preparation of nanocomposites by gamma-rays offers two main methodologies for synthesizing nanocomposites in one or two steps. In the first stage, complete nanocomposite can be generated by the combination of monomer or polymer and metallic ions, followed by gamma irradiation in an inert atmosphere. In the second stage, the nuclei, which can be metallic or polymeric, are synthesized first, followed by the shell, which completes the synthesis of the nanocomposite. In some of these steps, either a chemical or gamma-rays process can be used, and in both methodologies, a stabilizer is sometimes required [112]. Figure 6 shows a schematic representation of UV-irradiated surface layer of polymer.

Figure 6 Scheme of UV-irradiated nickel modification of polymer layer [113].
Figure 6

Scheme of UV-irradiated nickel modification of polymer layer [113].

Zhang et al. [114] prepared NiNP decorated reduced graphene oxide nanocomposites via a one-step gamma-ray irradiation induced reduction. Their results showed that NiNPs were uniformly distributed on the surface of the reduced graphene oxide nanosheets. The obtained nanocomposite films showed excellent electromagnetic wave absorption properties. It was therefore concluded that well crystallized NiNPs were deposited on the surface of the reduced graphene oxide nanosheets. Meftah et al. [37] synthesized and studied the structural, optical, and electrochemical properties of polyaniline and NiNPs embedded in polyvinyl alcohol film matrix via gamma radiolytic technique. The electrical conductivity of the obtained nanocomposites increased with an increase in NiNPs concentration. The ultraviolet–visible spectra showed a blue shift of the characteristic absorption peak of NiNPs due to decrease in particle size with increase in dosage, predisposing the thin nanocomposite films as good catalyst. Some of PI precursors used in ultraviolet techniques are shown in Table 7.

Table 7

Summary of ultraviolet techniques for the fabrication of PI nickel composites

PI monomers Fabrication technique Nickel type Enhanced property Ref.
PMDA-ODA UV irradiation Electroless Ni Electronic [113]
PMDA/ODA Microplasma Ni films Microcavity [115]
PMDA/BPDA Ion etching NiSO4·6H2O Photocatalytic [116]
PMDA/ODA Hot press NiCrBSi Tribological [117]
PMDA/ODA Electron beam Ni zone plates Diffraction [118]
ODA/PMDA UV irradiation NiCl2·6H2O Catalytic [119]
PMDA/ODA UV radiation NiO Thermal [120]

The advantages of UV-irradiation techniques for PI nanocomposites preparation include easy processing, low cost of production, environmental friendliness, valuable functionalities imparted on the PI matrix, and an efficient method to create desirable surface properties [121]. However, certain drawbacks of the techniques include highly specific reaction conditions such as atmosphere of irradiation, wavelength of the irradiated light, and photochemical properties of the polymer.

3.2 In situ single stage technique

A wide range of in situ techniques for the fabrication of PI metal nanocomposite films have been reported involving thin films casting from a mixture of polymer and intended metal nanoparticles [122]. A prominent in situ approach involves the casting of thin films from a mixture of polymer and intended metal nanoparticles. These techniques entail the concurrent in situ fabrication of metal nanoparticles and polymer resulting in composite material from which the thin films are developed [123]. In another approach the monomer units are set to polymerize and encapsulate the tailored metal nanoparticles into the polymer matrix. Alternatively, appropriate precursors are employed to generate metal nanoparticles within the polymer matrix [124]. A typical in situ procedure for the fabrication of PI metal composites is shown in Figure 7. In the figure, PINiNCs prepared by in situ techniques including single step, vapor deposition, and in situ encapsulation are presented with nickel precursors having enhanced properties such as spintronics, crack control, mechanical, and thermal properties.

Figure 7 Typical in situ procedure for the fabrication of PI metal composite [125].
Figure 7

Typical in situ procedure for the fabrication of PI metal composite [125].

In situ techniques gained popularity because they are easy to implement and result in the production of PI films with a homogeneous distribution of metal nanoparticles [126]. These techniques are suitable for conjugated polymers which is an added advantage. However, the conversion of precursors to metal nanoparticles within the PI matrix can result in the deposition of undesirable side reactions in the PI matrix [127]. The fabrication of PINiNCs by in situ single stage techniques are shown in Table 8.

Table 8

Summary of in situ fabrication techniques for PINiNCs

PI monomers Fabrication technique Nickel type Enhanced property Ref.
PMDA/ODA Single stage Ni–Fe Spintronics [128]
ODA/PMDA Deposition Ni thin film Crack control [129]
PMDA/ODA Plating Ni–W–P Electromagnetic [66]
PMDA/ODA Imidization Ni(CH3COO)·4H2O Electrochemical [130]
ODA/PMDA Electrodeposition NiSO4·6H2O Electrocatalysis [131]
6FDA-DDS In situ generated Ni nanoparticles Structural [125]
PMDA/ODA Electrospinning Ni(NO3)2·6H2O Electrochemical [132]

3.3 Surface modification

Metallized PI matrices are widely employed in flexible electronics due to their modified surface properties [133]. A variety of surface modification techniques for the fabrication of PI nickel composite films are reported in the literature [134]. Recently PI surface mechanism has received a lot of attention due to insulation failure of PI films under pulse voltage. Surface charge has great effect on dielectric properties, characteristics of direct current flashover, and rising time of pulse voltage [135]. Therefore, surface modification is required to enhance the surface properties of PIs by incorporation of conductive metal fillers.

Liu et al. [136] reported the successful surface modification of as-synthesized PI films prepared from PMDA and ODA monomers. The surface modification involved four stages including alkaline hydrolysis of the PI film by KOH, ion exchange by Ni, catalytic reduction of Ni nanoparticles, and finally, electroless deposition of Ni as shown in Figure 8. Surface modification techniques have several advantages, for instance, high temperature annealing is not required, no need for vacuum conditions, and no expensive experimental setup needed for the preparation of samples.

Figure 8 Surface modification flowchart of PI film and electroless deposition of Ni [136].
Figure 8

Surface modification flowchart of PI film and electroless deposition of Ni [136].

In their detailed procedure, the PI films were cut into pieces and cleaned using ultrasonic ethanol bath. Thereafter, the PI films were rinsed with deionized water dried in an oven. The PI films were then immersed in KOH solution. Imide ring cleavage in the PI occurred due to alkaline hydrolysis in KOH. Afterward, the PI films were rinsed with deionized water. The PI films were immersed in NiCl2 solution to perform the ion exchange reaction. The Ni ions exchanged with the implanted K+ ions of the treated PI film. Table 9 shows a surface modification technique for the synthesis of PI nickel composites.

Table 9

Summary of surface modification techniques for the fabrication of nickel composites

PI monomers Fabrication technique Nickel type Enhanced property Ref.
PMDA/ODA Ni plating Ni–Cr alloy Adhesion [137]
ODA/PMDA Sputtering Ni nanoparticles Electronic [138]
PMDA/ODA Deposition NiSO4·6H2O Catalytic [139]
ODA/PMDA Roll-to-roll NiCl2·6H2O Incorporation [140]
PMDA/ODA Electroplating NiCl2·6H2O Adhesion [141]
PMDA/ODA Ink-jet printing Ni–Cr Electrochemical [142]
PMDA/ODA Sintering Ni nanoparticles Electrochemical [143]

Surface modification techniques have several advantages, for instance, high temperature annealing is not required, no need for vacuum conditions, and no expensive experimental setup needed for the preparation of samples [144]. However, certain shortcomings of surface modification techniques are apparent such as excessive ring cleavage reactions may occur during hydrolysis and acid–base neutralization reaction between carboxylic acid and K+ ions can lead to the formation of a complex with PI [145].

3.4 Direct printing technique

Direct printing method is one of the promising techniques to fabricate thin films of Ni on PI substrate [146]. Printable metal current collectors are cost effective and can be operated at a wide range of operational voltage [147]. PI surface modification by the introduction of a nanoscale coupling agent enhances the attachment of metal atoms on the PI through wet deposition [148]. Whereas in the dry technique, the PI surface is modified by pretreatment of the plasma to generate reactive sites which strengthen the bonding between PI and metal atoms [149]. Figure 9 represents the stages in the direct printing technique of Ni on photoreactive PI. Figure 9 shows the procedure for fabricating solid-state micro-supercapacitors devices by printing sequentially the Ni current collector, graphene electrode, and ionic liquid-based gel-like electrolyte on the PI substrate.

Figure 9 Direct printing of Ni on PI substrate [147].
Figure 9

Direct printing of Ni on PI substrate [147].

Chae et al. [147] described the fabrication of direct printable metallic current using chemically synthesized NiNPs. The printable fluid comprises NiNPs, Ni flakes, and a polyvinyl pyrrolidone photoreactive binder mixture. The metallic current collector was generated by flashlight sintering reaction. The direct printed particulate layer was converted to metallic current collector with robust electrochemically conductive surface layer. The conductive fluid is then printed, followed by polymerization. Table 10 presents the direct printing of Ni on PI substrate using various techniques.

Table 10

Summary of direct printing techniques for Ni on PI substrate

PI monomers Fabrication technique Nickel type Enhanced property Ref.
ODA/PMDA Inkjet printing NiO powder Flexibility [150]
PMDA/ODA Inkjet printing NiCl2·6H2O Capacitance [146]
PMDA/ODA Ni plating NiO Anti-scratch [151]
PMDA/ODA Laser annealing Ni (111) Conductivity [152]
ODA/PMDA Laser writing Ni ions Conductivity [153]
PMDA/ODA Sputtering Ni–Ti Crystallinity [154]
PMDA/ODA Incorporation Ni nanoparticles Adhesion [140]

The direct printing technique allows both current and voltage to be controlled easily in a constructed power source. The major advantage of direct printing approach is the possibility of formulating multitasked devices without employing complicated procedures. Direct printing has the disadvantages of synthesis and printing techniques requiring moisture free and controlled atmosphere which are difficult conditions to attain in the laboratory.

3.5 Sputtering technique

Magnetron sputtering is the most widely employed technique to deposit atomic Ni complex films among the physical vapor deposition methods [155]. Thin films of Ni complex such as Ni–Ti can be deposited at ambient or high temperatures. Submicron films of Ni–Ti exhibit shape memory effect and are therefore promising components for silicon-based memory devices [156]. It requires metal to be sputtered on the PI substrate, ultra-sonicated with solvent to remove impurities, and photolithography between Ni and PI substrate to improve the adhesion. Figure 10 is a schematic representation of magnetron sputtering of Ni on thin film substrate. In the figure, the sputtering targets are 60o inclined to each other in confocal geometry located on top of the chamber facing the substrate platform. Nickel films of thickness varying from 150 to 250 nm were deposited from 3 in nickel target onto 1″ × 1″ silicon substrate using direct current magnetron sputtering technique. The substrates were centrifuged at a speed of 26 rpm to maintain uniformity in the resulting thin films.

Figure 10 Schematic representation of magnetron sputtering of Ni on substrate [68].
Figure 10

Schematic representation of magnetron sputtering of Ni on substrate [68].

Wang et al. [157] reported the fabrication of flexible shear stress sensor composed of Ni thermistors and Cu electrodes. In their procedure, 0.3 µm thick Ni thermistor with both ends stacked to parallel Cu electrodes is sputtered on the PI substrate. The PI substrate is attached to the glass and ultrasonicated with acetone, ethanol, and distilled water to remove impurities. The PI is then placed in a drying machine to dry the substrate. The reverse is spun on the PI substrate at 3,000 rpm. The photolithography pattern is transferred to the photoresist. Finally, NiNPs are sputtered on the substrate with photoresist pattern. Chromium film is then deposited between the Ni and PI substrate to improve the adhesion of Ni film on the PI substrate. The sputtering techniques of Ni on PI substrate are summarized in Table 11.

Table 11

Summary of sputtering techniques for the fabrication of PINiNCs

PI monomers Fabrication technique Nickel type Enhanced property Ref.
PMDA/ODA Co-sputter Ni-rich Ni–Ti Electrochemical [155]
PMDA/ODA Sputtering Ni nanoparticles Mechanical [158]
PMDA/ODA Sputter Ti–Ni–Cu films Mechanical [159]
ODA/PMDA Sputtering Ni thermistor Thermal [109]
PMDA/ODA Sputtering Ni–Ti thin films Mechanical [160]
PMDA/ODA Sputtering Ni micro Capacitance [161]
PMDA/ODA Sputtering Ni–Ti Mechanical [162]

Sputtering technique has the advantage of depositing near-equiatomic and equiatomic Ni composites. Similarly, the technique enables the production of flexible shear stress devices that can be attached to any surfaces irrespective of their shapes. However, annealing treatment on the performance of these devices has not been fully studied. Furthermore, the appropriate annealing temperature and time need to be determined to meet the required adhesion strength, resistance, and temperature coefficient of resistance [157].

3.6 Conventional mixing/sol–gel technique

Conventional mixing or sol–gel technique is widely employed in the preparation of PINiNCs. This technique provides the prospect of fabricating distinct nanocomposite materials with fine-tuned and novel properties by adopting versatile and simple methods. Sol–gel technique is regularly used in the preparation of glass materials and ceramics at ambient temperatures [163]. The technique is an outstanding method for the fabrication of bioglasses in which the system undergoes a transition from colloidal mixture (sol) into solid (gel) and has been employed for large-scale production at low cost [164]. Moreover, the techniques represent a method with low environmental impact and low cost of production such as roll-to-roll, blade and spray coating on metal foils, flexible polymeric substances, and inkjet printing [165]. Figure 11 shows a representation of various products by sol–gel techniques. The formation of a sol, a stable suspension of colloidal particles in a liquid occurs in the initial stage via fast hydrolysis reaction. The alkoxide moiety in the reaction is changed by the hydroxyl group. Furthermore, condensation takes place before hydrolysis comes to an end. The drying stage involves the removal of the liquid phase and a xerogel can be obtained.

Figure 11 Schematic representation of products processed using sol–gel techniques [163].
Figure 11

Schematic representation of products processed using sol–gel techniques [163].

Dojcinovic et al. [166] prepared PINiNCs by using sol–gel technique. In their report, sodium alginate gel was prepared by mixing alginic sodium salt in deionized water using magnetic stirrer for 6 h at ambient temperature, followed by adding the cross-linking agent calcium chloride and glycerol with continuous gentle mixing. In the next step, prepared nickel magnetite powder was added to the gel and mixed through ultrasonic dispersion. Finally, the nanocomposite gel was casted drop-wise onto Kapton PI substrate and allowed to dry at ambient temperature for few days to form a thin film of PINiNC. Table 12 shows a summary of various PINiNCs prepared using sol–gel techniques.

Table 12

Summary of sol–gel techniques for the fabrication of PINiNCs

PI monomers Fabrication technique Nickel type Enhanced property Ref.
PMDA/ODA Spalling Ni Piezoelectric [167]
PMDA/ODA Sol–gel NiO Optical [168]
ODA/PMDA Sol–gel NiMn2O4 Sensing [166]
PMDA/ODA Aerogel Ni(NO3)2·6H2O Electrochemical [169]
ODA/PMDA Imidization Ni powder Ionic conductivity [170]
BAPP/BPDA Spin coating Ni complex Interlocking effect [171]
PMDA/ODA Implantation Ni–Cr Toughness [172]

The principal advantages of sol–gel technique are the incorporation of thermolabile fillers into the polymer matrix and the purity of the obtained products [173]. Similarly, the sol–gel techniques have allowed for large-scale production at low cost in addition to the versatility of the fabricated products ranging from inorganic, organic, metallic, and hybrid nanocomposites. However, the sol–gel techniques requirement for fabrication temperature monitoring may constitute a drawback of the techniques.

4 Properties of PINiNCs

4.1 Chemical structure of PINiNCs

The chemical structure determination of PINiNCs is carried out to investigate the relationship between structure and properties of the nanocomposites. The most widely employed characterization techniques in chemical structure determination are Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), nuclear magnetic resonance, gel permeation chromatography, energy dispersive X-ray, and elemental analysis. FT-IR is widely used to confirm the formation of PI. The FT-IR spectra of PI firms prepared by thermal imidization show the characteristic absorption bands of PI at about 1,780 cm−1 (C═O of cyclic imide asymmetric stretching vibration), 1,720 cm−1 (C═O of imide symmetrical stretching vibration), and 1,380 cm−1 (C–N imide stretching vibration) [41,82,136,174]. The characteristic imide absorption bands are shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12 Characteristic FT-IR absorption spectra of PIs [175].
Figure 12

Characteristic FT-IR absorption spectra of PIs [175].

The characteristic absorption band for most inorganic materials, including NiNPs corresponds to the long wavelength transverse optical mode and the optical photon frequency that occur between 390 and 403 cm−1 [176]. The Ni–O phase formation is a broad absorption band in the region of 820–400 cm−1 assigned to Ni–O stretching vibration mode [177]. In the IR spectra, the interaction between PI and NiO occurs because of the partial hydrolyzation on the outer surface of NiO leading to the formation of OH groups. The O–H stretching vibrations appear at about 3,427 cm−1 [41]. The PI and NiO are held together by hydrogen bonding provided by the hydroxyl groups, these groups are as shown in Figure 13.

Figure 13 IR spectra of PI and NiO interaction [41].
Figure 13

IR spectra of PI and NiO interaction [41].

4.2 Morphological properties of PINiNCs

The morphology of PINiNCs depends on factors such as configuration and conformation of their macromolecules, chemical composition of monomers units, the presence of various additives, and inorganic NiNPs. The structure of the polymeric material undergoes changes during its processing including different degrees of the polymer composites [56] crystallinity as well as melting point interval [178]. Hence there is a need for morphological characterization to investigate the metallization uniformity and to determine the interior microstructure of PINiNCs. The widely used characterization techniques for PI composites morphology and topology are field emission scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) [179], and atomic force microscopy (AFM) [180]. Figure 14 shows typical cross-sectional TEM images of (a) PI containing NiNPs and (b) enlarged image of the NiNPs in PI matrix.

Figure 14 Cross-sectional TEM images of (a) PI film containing NiNPs and (b) enlarged image of NiNPs [42].
Figure 14

Cross-sectional TEM images of (a) PI film containing NiNPs and (b) enlarged image of NiNPs [42].

The PI and NiNPs interfacial layer showed granular appearance due to the presence of catalytic NiNPs resulting from their reduction during the metallization process. The images show that the granular NiNPs did not aggregate in confined regions of the PI indicating that the base treatment leading to ion exchange of K+ ions from KOH and Ni ions played a significant role in the generation and subsequent distribution of reduced NiNPs.

4.3 Physical properties of PINiNCs

The physical properties of PI composites are investigated by several techniques including X-ray diffraction (X-RD), ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy, XPS, AFM, and several other techniques [181]. X-RD is the standard technique for crystallographic structure determination. The technique enables the determination of crystal size and perfection, the crystallinity, the degree of orientation in the PI composites as well as the conformation of chains in amorphous PIs. Similarly X-RD is used to accurately determine lattice spacing in a crystalline PI nanocomposite [182]. Figure 15 shows the X-RD patterns of PI loaded with Ni2+ after urea treatment and thermal imidization.

Figure 15 XRD patterns of PI loaded with NiNPs and annealing temperatures [105].
Figure 15

XRD patterns of PI loaded with NiNPs and annealing temperatures [105].

In the figure Gao et al. [105] reported diffraction patterns corresponding to phase pure carbon and pure metallic Ni phase. Moreover, the observed slight peak shift to low angle in comparison to pure Ni phase indicates an expansion of the lattice due to carbon occupation from the PI matrix and carbon nanotubes.

4.4 Mechanical properties of PINiNCs

The surface and near-surface mechanical properties of PI composite thin films and coatings are crucial to their applications and final performance. The mechanical properties of PINiNCs and their correlations are essential prerequisite in understanding their design and applications [183]. Recently, mechanical properties of thin films are evaluated by depth-sensing nanoindentation techniques to investigate their tensile strength, tensile modulus, and elongation at break [184]. Mohri et al. [185] reported the mechanical properties of PI–Ni-rich composites. The Ni-rich PI–NiTi nanocomposite deformation occurred in four stages: elastic deformation austanite of the parent phase, martensitic transformation due to tress, martensitic phase elastic deformation, and martensitic plastic deformation. Similarly, Zhang et al. [186] investigated the effect of particle size distribution on the mechanical properties of bio-composites. They concluded that the embedded particles provided more cross-linking points in the polymer matrix. The force–strain curves of PI–Ni-rich and PI composites are shown in Figure 16. The nanocomposite and PI are both under isostrain and the measured force is the sum of the forces on both layers.

Figure 16 Force–strain curves of PINiNC and bear PI [185].
Figure 16

Force–strain curves of PINiNC and bear PI [185].

The force–stress curve shows that the PINiNC film possesses enhanced strength and ductility for all practical purposes. The remarkable enhancement in mechanical properties is attributed to the nanostructure of the composite. In the PI the nucleated surface cracks grow unstably due to homogeneous material rigidity. However, in the Ni-rich nanocomposite the growth of nucleated crack is impeded by the presence of the NiNPs [185].

4.5 Electrical properties of PINiNCs

The most widely employed electrochemical techniques for the characterization of PINiNCs are conductometry, amperometry, potentiometry and voltammetry. The sample is investigated by measuring the potential in volts and current in amperes in an electrochemical cell containing the analyte. Electrochemical techniques are based on the measurement of the response of an electrochemical cell containing an ion-conducting phase referred to as the electrolyte. Upon the application of electric input through electron-conducting electrodes immersed in the electrolyte the responses are recorded and used to characterize the sample. Electrochemical measurements represent advantageous techniques of characterization because electrode properties are analyzed in situ under relevant working conditions [187].

Okafor and Iroh [67] investigated the electrochemical properties of three electrodes, PI/Ni, PI/grapheme, and PI/porous graphene composite electrodes. The PI/Ni nanocomposite yielded results with remarkably higher specific capacitance and lower bulk resistance compared to both PI/graphene and PI/porous graphene electrodes as presented in Figure 17.

Figure 17 Comparison of electrochemical performance of PI/graphene, PI/porous graphene, and PI/Ni–graphene composites [67].
Figure 17

Comparison of electrochemical performance of PI/graphene, PI/porous graphene, and PI/Ni–graphene composites [67].

In the PINiNC the improved charge transfers and enhanced ionic diffusion processes across the material is promoted by the enhanced electrode/electrolyte interfacial contact due the presence of NiNPs.

4.6 Magnetic properties of PINiNCs

The magnetic properties of materials are classified into five main categories including, intensity of magnetization, magnetic field, magnetic susceptibility, magnetic retentivity, and magnetic coercivity. The determination of these properties in PINiNCs is critical to produce high performance electromagnetic shielding nanomaterials with excellent absorption efficiency, predominantly suitable for microelectronic and aerospace flexible electronic applications [188]. Vibrating sample magnetometry is employed to investigate the magnetic properties of PINiNCs [189]. Wang and coworkers [30] fabricated multilayer-structured PI containing NiNPs. The magnetization of the samples increased significantly on increasing the NiNP content from 20 to 50%. The increase in NiNPs resulted in magnetization of 16.7–33.2 emu·g−1. Figure 18 shows the magnetic hysteresis loops at various Ni content.

Figure 18 Magnetic hysteresis loops at various Ni content [30].
Figure 18

Magnetic hysteresis loops at various Ni content [30].

The addition of NiNPs enhanced the magnetic properties of the PI; the prominent magnetic properties predispose the nanocomposite as promising candidate for electromagnetic shielding material with excellent absorption properties.

5 Applications of PINiNCs

5.1 Lithography applications of PINiNCs

Recently, the demand for miniaturized and highly compact devices has attracted attention in technological research. The advantages of these technologies like lithography are the adaptability to various surface configurations where PI substrate is patterned with NiNPs to develop electronic devices with applications in biomedical fields and industrial applications. The lithography applications of PINiNCs are presented in Table 13.

Table 13

Applications of PINiNCs in lithography

PI monomer Ni type Lithography applications Ref.
PMDA/ODA NiNPs Diode [190]
PMDA/ODA Ni silicide Transistors [191]
ODA/PMDA Ni film Microwave [192]
PMDA/ODA NiNPs Micro-heater [193]
ODA/PMDA Ni layer Micro-batteries [194]
ODA/PMDA NiNPs Textile metallization [195]
ODA/PMDA Ni–Cr Elastic photomask [172]

5.2 Biomedical applications of PINiNCs

In the last decade researchers have developed prototype sensors using PINiNCs which offer beneficial medical applications. In general, polymer-based nanocomposites are employed as carrier or constructional material in the human body [196]. In the medical fields various intrinsic and extrinsic chronic and acute infectious diseases are monitored with flexible sensors. NiNPs in the range of a few nanoparticles to microns are used to form the sensing points of the prototype sensors. The developed sensors are employed in numerous medical applications such as body movements, monitoring of physiological parameters, and chemical changes occurring in the body systems. Table 14 shows various medical applications of PINiNCs.

Table 14

Medical applications of PINiNCs

PI monomer Ni type Biomedical applications Ref.
ODA/PMDA Ni Sensor [197]
PMDA-ODA NiCl2 Cell sorting [198]
PMDA/ODA Ni powder Radiation shielding [199]
BTDA/ODA Ni scaffold Acquisition of bio-signals [200]
PMDA/ODA Cu/Ni layer Humidity sensor [201]
BTDA/ODA Ni(NO3)2·6H2O Interference shielding [202]
PMDA/ODA Ni complex Microwave absorption [203]

5.3 Application of PINiNCs as electrodes

PI is among the polymeric precursor material for the fabrication of electrodes due to its inertness to chemical attack, superior thermal stability, excellent mechanical properties, and radiation shielding effects [204]. PIs containing Ni are promising electrode materials due to their fast redox properties, cost effectiveness, and low environmental toxicity. The application of PINiNCs as electrodes is presented in Table 15.

Table 15

Application of PINiNCs as electrode materials

PI substrate Ni constituent Electrode applications Ref.
PMDA/ODA Ni layer Ni-rich cathode [205]
BPDA/ODA/PDA Nickel nitrate Photocatalytic [27]
ODA/PMDA Ni foil Lithium-ion batteries [206]
PMDA/ODA Ni layer Wire-type electrode [207]
ODA/PMDA Ni(OH)2 Electrochemical probe [208]
PMDA/ODA NiCl2·6H2O Working electrodes [209]
PMDA/ODA Ni/Zn/Fe2O4 Microwave circuit [210]

5.4 Applications of PINiNCs as membrane

PI materials are extensively used in gas separation membranes due to their high gas selectivity. Membrane technology to a large extent is dependent on high performance membrane materials such as PIs containing inorganic materials. Incorporating Ni complex framework nanocrystals into PI matrix improves their anti-plasticization properties [211]. Similarly, monolithic piezoelectric materials exhibit a range of notable directionality and coupled properties. However, the use of composite materials such as PINiNCs significantly improves these shortcomings [212]. Therefore, PINiNCs exhibit unique properties necessary in the fabrication of gas separation membranes. Selected PINiNCs reported in literature are presented in Table 16.

Table 16

Selected PINiNCs in membrane applications

PI monomer Ni type Membrane application Ref.
6FDA/DAM Ni gallate Gas separation [213]
6FDA-Durene Ni nanoparticles Gas separation [214]
BPDA/DAB/MMB Ni-foam Supercapacitors [211]
BTDA/ODA NiCo2O4 nanowire Microelectronic systems [202]
PMDA/ODA NiCl2 Wearable electronics [215]
6FDA/BTDA Ni complex nanocrystals Plasticization resistance [216]
BTDA/ODA Ni(NO3)2·6H2O Electromagnetic shielding [217]

5.5 Dielectric application of PINiNCs

PI composites with low dielectric constant are widely employed as interlayer and packaging materials in microelectronic industry due to their excellent thermal stability, unique physicochemical properties, as well as good chemical and radiation resistance [218]. PINiNCs employed as interlayer materials in high density integrated circuits, can significantly reduce power dissipation, time delay, and cross-talk time. PI dielectrics play a key role in the fabrication of flexible, scalable devices, and integrated circuits for organic electronic devices [219]. The applications of PINiNCs in dielectrics are presented in Table 17.

Table 17

Dielectric applications of PINiNCs

PI monomer Preparation technique Ni type Dielectric application Ref.
ODA/PMDA Co-precipitation Ni(NO3)2·6H2O Microwave absorption [101]
PMDA/ODA Solution blending Ni nanowires Aerospace application [220]
PMDA/PPD Liquid–solid–solid Ni(acac)2 Microwave absorption [89]
ODA/PMDA Electrodeposition NiSO4·H2O Shielding material [188]
PMDA/ODA Mechanochemical NiO–Mg Discharge devices [221]
PMDA/ODA Electrodeposition Ni oxide Capacitor [67]
ODA/PMDA In situ bending Ni metal Flexible dielectrics [222]

5.6 Applications of PINiNCs in light emitting diode (LED) devices

Modern optoelectronic devices consist of transparent electrodes such as in LEDs, touch-screen displays, and solar cells. Indium tin oxide is a major component of LEDs. However, the high cost of indium leads to expensive products. Recently, research groups have focused on alternative transparent electrodes that are ultrathin, flexible, and light weight [223]. Metal grids with excellent conductivity, mechanical flexibility, and transparency are promising candidates for the replacement of indium tin oxide in LEDs. Transparent colorless PI films prepared using BPADA precursor can replace the glass in liquid crystal display devices [224]. Recently, metal grids have been prepared by facile technique in the production of LEDs [225]. The metal grids are deposited on a transparent PI film. Metallic films embedded into PI matrix generate a periodically inhomogeneous thermal field. The homogeneous thermal field is henceforth transformed into functionally gradient phononic crystals [226]. LEDs with transparent PI substrate containing Ni are presented in Table 18.

Table 18

PIs containing Ni and their applications in LEDs

PI monomer Preparation technique Ni type Dielectric application Ref.
ODA/PMDA Electrodeposition Ni/Au layers Deformable LED [227]
PMDA/ODA Vapor deposition Ni film Pressure sensors [228]
PMDA/ODA Screen printing Ni ink Flexible microdevice [229]
PMDA/ODA Electrodeposition Ni/Au layer Multicolor LED [230]
ODA/PMDA Pattern transfer Ni–Cu alloy Wearable electronics [231]
PMDA/ODA Lamination Ni foil Thermoelectric devices [232]
PMDA/ODA e-beam evaporation Ni nano Optoelectronic devices [233]

6 Conclusion

In this review, we focused on the strategies to fabricate novel PINiNCs. Various modern cutting-edge characterization technologies for PINiNCs have been emphasized. The industrial applications of PINiNCs have been thoroughly reviewed to develop a complete reference material on PINiNCs. We herein critically report the design and fabrication methodologies of PINiNCs. The recent characterization probing techniques and applications, revealing their advantages and disadvantages are examined in depth. Their diverse applications in multidisciplinary as well as high technological fields and their corresponding properties are extensively documented and summarized in tables. This article should provide inspiration for the preparation, characterization, and applications of PINiNC materials; moreover, to pave the way for the critical assessment of their engineering and industrial applications. As a result, future work on PINiNCs will focus on new multifunctional PINiNCs and advanced materials including the synthesis of new hybrids and new types of PI nanocomposites. Current trends and opportunities for the fabrication of PINiNCs include 3D membrane printing, fused filament fabrication for 4D printing, and aqua-membrane spacer printing technology.

tel: +60 46534032; fax: +60 46574854

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the School of Chemical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia for technical support.

  1. Funding information: The authors wish to acknowledge Universiti Sains Malaysia for FRGS/1/2020/STG05/USM/02/3 awarded by the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia. Nuru-Deen Jaji wishes to thank the Federal College of Education Technical Gombe, Nigeria, for TETFUND Postgraduate Scholarship.

  2. Author contributions: Muhammad Bisyrul Hafi Othman and Hazizan Md Akil: conceptualization and resources. Nuru-Deen Jaji: formal analysis and investigation. Muhammad Bisyrul Hafi Othman and Hooi Ling Lee: Nuru-Deen Jaji: data curation, writing, and original draft preparation. Muhammad Bisyrul Hafi Othman, Hooi Ling Lee, Mohd Hazwan Hussin, Zulkifli Merican Aljunid Merican, and Mohd Firdaus Omar. Muhammad Bisyrul Hafi Othman: project administration. All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2023-01-31
Revised: 2023-07-16
Accepted: 2023-08-18
Published Online: 2023-09-28

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/rams-2023-0113
Keywords for this article
polyimide; nickel nanoparticles; nanocomposite; fabrication; characterization; applications
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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  110. Frost resistance and life prediction of recycled brick aggregate concrete with waste polypropylene fiber
  111. Synthetic leathers as a possible source of chemicals and odorous substances in indoor environment
  112. Mechanical properties of seawater volcanic scoria aggregate concrete-filled circular GFRP and stainless steel tubes under axial compression
  113. Effect of curved anchor impellers on power consumption and hydrodynamic parameters of yield stress fluids (Bingham–Papanastasiou model) in stirred tanks
  114. All-dielectric tunable zero-refractive index metamaterials based on phase change materials
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  116. Research on key casting process of high-grade CNC machine tool bed nodular cast iron
  117. Latest research progress of SiCp/Al composite for electronic packaging
  118. Special Issue on 3D and 4D Printing of Advanced Functional Materials - Part I
  119. Molecular dynamics simulation on electrohydrodynamic atomization: Stable dripping mode by pre-load voltage
  120. Research progress of metal-based additive manufacturing in medical implants
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