Progress in preparation and ablation resistance of ultra-high-temperature ceramics modified C/C composites for extreme environment
-
Shibu Zhu
,
Danyu Sun
Abstract
Carbon/carbon (C/C) composites have received considerable attention for one of the most promising materials in thermal-structural applications owing to their low density, excellent mechanical strength at high temperature, and superior thermal shock resistance. However, C/C composites are susceptible to destructive oxidation in atmospheric environment at high temperature. Matrix modification by adding ultra-high-temperature ceramics (UHTCs) into carbon substrate has been proved to be a favorable route to achieve the improved ablation resistance of C/C composites. In this work, the main fabrication approaches of UHTCs-modified C/C composites were summarized, including chemical vapor infiltration/deposition, precursor infiltration and pyrolysis, reactive melt infiltration, and slurry infiltration, and the advantages and drawbacks of each process were also briefly analyzed. In addition, anti-ablation properties of UHTCs-modified C/C composites under different ablation tests with different shape specimens were introduced. Finally, some likely future challenges and research directions in the development and application of these materials were presented.
1 Introduction
With the fast development of hypersonic vehicles, more and more research works are focused on the thermal protection system, which usually operate in hostile environments of ultra-high-temperature and extremely high heat fluxes. In general, temperature above 1,600°C and possibly exceeding 2,200°C is described as an ultra-high-temperature environment in aerospace field, such as scramjet engine, nozzle, and thermal protection system [1]. Thus, materials with outstanding thermal-chemical, superior thermal shock, high strength at high-temperature and anti-ablation properties are required. In such extreme conditions, traditional alloys and monolithic ceramics are difficult to fit this demands [2]. Therefore, it is necessary to develop thermal protection materials endowed with good anti-oxidation, thermal shock, and anti-ablation as well as dimensional stability.
Among the high-temperature materials, carbon/carbon (C/C) composites, regarded as carbon fibers reinforced carbon matrix composites, possessing low density and low coefficient of thermal expansion, good thermal shock resistance, high strength-to-weight ratio and high reliability have been considered as the potential candidate for high temperature protection materials [3,4]. However, the rapid oxidation of C/C composites in an oxidizing atmosphere above 500°C results in severe degradation of their high-temperature performance, restricting their high temperature application in oxidizing environment. So, many researchers have tried their best to look for different methods to improve the anti-oxidation of C/C composite, and the main available approaches are modifying the carbon matrix and coating with anti-oxidation layer on the surface [5]. Silicon carbide (SiC) modified C/C composites (C/C–SiC) are exploited as a relatively new class of thermal-structural materials with remarkably improved oxidation resistance. Nevertheless, active oxidation of SiC occurs at the temperatures above 1,700°C, which limits its application ranges in higher temperature region [6]. Ultra-high-temperature ceramics (UHTCs) are usually refractory transition metal carbide/boride/nitride compounds that make perfect sense in extreme environment owing to their high melting points (>3,000°C) as well as their chemical and oxidation resistance, while their applications in extreme environment are limited due to their low toughness, poor thermal shock resistance, and damage tolerance [7].
Taking the advantages of C/C composites and UTHC into account, a better route to meet the requirements of a thermal protection system is to create C/C-UHTC composites, i.e., the introduction of UHTC into C/C. The UHTC component could form refractory metal oxides possessing appropriate high melting points (e.g., HfO2: 2,800°C, ZrO2: 2,700°C, and TaO2: 1,890°C) by reacting with the oxidizing species in ultra-high-temperature environment, establishing an anti-oxidation coating for C/C composites [8]. On the other hand, the UHTC can improve the mechanical erosion resistance under the combustion gases with high-speed flux owing to the high strength and stiffness. Many researchers have found that introducing UHTC, i.e., the borides, carbides, and nitrides of refractory transition metals into the matrix of C/C composites can significantly improve the oxidation and ablation properties compared with pure C/C composites [9,10,11,12,13].
To date, many researchers have developed a series of fabrication techniques to introduce UHTC into C/C composites to obtain C/C–UHTC composites, mainly including precursor infiltration and pyrolysis (PIP), chemical vapor infiltration (CVI), reactive melt infiltration (RMI), and slurry infiltration (SI) [14]. In the view of composite properties, researchers mainly focused on mechanical, oxidation-resistance, and ablation-resistance properties of these composites. The purpose of this review is to give a summary of the state of preparation and anti-ablation properties of UHTCs-modified C/C composites for application in the ultra-high-temperature environment of aerospace field. So, this review includes preparation techniques for UHTCs-modified C/C composites in Section 2, and anti-ablation behaviors of UHTCs-modified C/C composites in Section 3. Finally, the challenges and major directions in promoting the wide application of C/C–UHTC composites are proposed.
2 Matrix densification for UHTCs-modified C/C composites
In order to improve the anti-ablation property of C/C composites, one of the most promising routes is to modify C/C composites using UHTC materials with higher melting point. In order to introduce UHTC into carbon matrix, various methods have been developed, including PIP, CVI, RMI, SI, and so on. In this section, the characters and research advances of each method will be briefly summarized.
2.1 PIP
PIP process is a common method to introduce UHTC into C/C composites involving infiltration of a low viscosity chemical precursor into porous low density C/C green composites and the ceramic matrix is then obtained by pyrolyzing at high temperature [15]. The precursors are usually metal containing polymers, which can transfer into metal borides, carbides, or nitrides by pyrolysis at elevated temperatures. This technique can simultaneously introduce variable kinds of ceramics and obtain near net shape manufacturing. It usually needs many infiltration and pyrolysis cycles until the required dense matrix is obtained since the pyrolysis step results in 20–80 wt% loss and large volumetric shrinkage. The number of infiltration and pyrolysis cycles to complete the densification depends on the ceramic yield of the precursor, and the densification efficiency decreases with the increase in the infiltration cycles. PIP process does not need complicated experimental system and high procedure temperature. Thus, PIP process is widely used for preparation of C/C–UHTC composite [16,17,18,19].
2.1.1 Single phase UHTCs-modified C/C composites
Since PIP method has a lower cost, relatively shorter preparation period, and also a larger infiltration depth, SiC and refractory metal diborides, carbides, and nitrides were introduced into C/C green body by PIP [20,21]. C/C–SiC composite possesses the properties of low density, high hardness, excellent oxidation resistance, high strength, and thermal shock resistance. However, SiC ceramic can only protect C/C composites from oxidation at relatively lower temperatures owing to its relative low melting point. With the development of the high temperature ceramic precursor in recent years, HfC and ZrC matrix can be fabricated by means of PIP technique using polymer precursor. HfC is widely used as an additive to C/C composite owing to its high melting point, good ablation resistance, and good chemical inertness, making it an attractive candidate for aerospace application. Li et al. [22] fabricated HfC-modified C/C composites (HfC–C/C) by impregnation of HfOCl2·8H2O solution to carbon felt and then densified by thermal gradient CVI, followed by graphitization at 2,100°C in an argon environment. Reacting with carbon, the HfO2 was translated into HfC during graphitization. Compared with the C/C composites, the HfC–C/C composites with the HfC content of 8.7 wt% exhibited superior ablation resistance, experiencing a 55% lower average linear ablation rate and 21% lower mass ablation rate. Xue et al. [23] prepared a C/C–HfC composite with a density of 2.01 g·cm−3 by PIP process using HfC precursor, and then measured their plasma ablation properties. During the ablation process, tree-coral-like HfO2 particles were formed and the HfCxOy phase could function as thermal barrier and oxygen diffusion barrier, protecting the composites from further ablation.
Although the melting point of ZrC is lower than that of HfC, it possesses low density, low evaporation rate, good ablation resistance, and is cheaper. Thus, ZrC was also widely used for ultra-high temperature applications to protect C/C composites. Liu et al. [24] reported that C/C–ZrC composite was fabricated by PIP using organic zirconium as the precursor. The results of the C/C–ZrC composite microstructure indicated that the composites show an interesting structure, wherein a coating composed of ZrC ceramics covers the exterior of the composite, and the ZrC ceramics are well distributed and embedded in the pores of the matrix inside the composite. C/C–ZrC composite exhibits good ablation resistance owing to the formation of the dense ZrO2 restraining the ingress of oxygen into the inside materials, shielding the ablation heat and resisting the mechanical denudation of high speed flame stream [25]. It was found that the ZrC-rich layer could generate a continuously melting ZrO2 layer during ablation, which not only seals surface pores and cracks to inhibit preferential ablation in defect regions but also prevents inner carbon from oxidizing [26]. The strengthened ZrC-rich layer was also able to reduce the mechanical denudation of composites. Meanwhile, it is found that the ZrC precursor concentration has influence on the microstructure and the mechanical and ablation properties of the C/C–ZrC composites [27]. With the increase in ZrC precursor concentration, the ZrC content in the composites increased, but resulting in ZrC particle aggregation and worse flexural strength of ZrC-modified C/C composite. Yet, the ablation resistance is enhanced with the increasing precursor concentration. Besides using ZrC precursor in organic solvent, a meltable ZrC precursor was also used to prepare C/C–ZrC composite by PIP for reducing preparation time and rapid densification [28,29]. The preparation period was reduced to 12 cycles by using the melted ZrC precursor and the as-prepared composites have an enhanced mechanical property. The flexural strength of the C/C–ZrC composites was 149 MPa, and the fracture toughness was 8.68 MPa·m1/2.
In addition, C/C–TaC, C/C–HfB2, and C/C–ZrB2 composites are also usually prepared by PIP process using corresponding precursors [30,31]. The obtained ultra-high temperature ceramics modified C/C composites exhibit good anti-ablation behaviors.
2.1.2 Multi-phase UHTCs-modified C/C composites
Generally, it is difficult to obtain a dense anti-ablation layer from a single phase UHTCs-modified C/C composites at a broad temperature range. To improve oxidation and ablation resistance in future, multi-phase (two or more) ceramic modified C/C composites are developed, such as SiC–ZrC, SiC–HfC, SiC–ZrB2, SiC–HfB2, SiC–ZrC–HfC, and so on [32].
For C/C–SiC–ZrC composites, continuous ZrC–SiC ceramic matrix could be obtained by a multi-step technique of PIP process using organic zirconium-containing precursor and polycarbosilane precursor as the impregnant. Wu et al. [33] prepared a series of C/C–ZrC–SiC composites with different ZrC and SiC contents using a mixture solution containing polycarbosilane and organic zirconium-contained polymeric precursor. By this technique, the ZrC and SiC ceramics are inclined to disperse between fiber bundles and fiber layers, forming a homogeneous double-matrix with nano-sized ZrC particles distributed in the continuous SiC phase. The content of ZrC in double-matrix had a great effect on the mechanical and ablation properties of C/C–SiC–ZrC composites. C/C–SiC–ZrC composites with a SiC/ZrC ratio of 1:1.5 displayed good mechanical and ablation properties. The liner ablation rate of the composites was about an order lower than those of pure C/C and C/C–SiC composites on comparison [34]. Three concentric ring regions coated with different morphologies appeared on the surface of the ablated C/C–ZrC–SiC composites [35]. In the brim region, where the temperature was relative lower, a continuous coating was formed, including SiO2 outer layer and ZrO2–SiO2 inner layer. The transition ablation region and center ablation region were covered by SiO2–ZrO2 coating and molten ZrO2 coating, respectively, as shown in Figure 1. The presence of these coatings, which acted as an effective oxygen and heat barrier, played a major role in good ablation resistance of the composites. It is found that the ablation resistance performance of C/C–UHTC composites can be strongly affected by the size and distribution of UHTC particles. In addition, the agglomeration of UHTC particles in composites leads to the formation of micro-cracks resulting from stress concentration, thereby reducing the mechanical properties [36]. Meanwhile, the mechanical erosion during the ablation process could be reduced by improving the uniformity of the ceramic particles in the composite [37]. Therefore, the composite with uniformly distributed UHTC particles can resist more harsh ablation conditions. Wu et al. prepared C/C–SiC–ZrC composites with different ZrC distributions by combination of PIP and different drying processes [38]. Freeze-drying treatment after precursor infiltration can effectively suppress the agglomeration between ZrC particles to prevent the formation of micro-cracks. The results show that the difference in ablation resistance exists due to the difference in the distribution of ZrC particles in the composite, as the uniformly dispersed submicro ZrC particles are rapidly oxidized and the generated ZrO2 increased the viscosity of molten SiO2 glass layer. The molten SiO2–ZrO2 glass layer with high-viscosity covered the ablation surface of the composite, effectively resisting the scour of the flame and the penetration of oxygen, thereby improving the ablation resistance performance.
![Figure 1
Photo and microstructure images of ablated surface for C/C–SiC–ZrC composite [35]: (a) surface appearance photograph, (b) brim ablation region, (c) transition ablation region and (d) center ablation region.](/document/doi/10.1515/rams-2022-0276/asset/graphic/j_rams-2022-0276_fig_001.jpg)
Photo and microstructure images of ablated surface for C/C–SiC–ZrC composite [35]: (a) surface appearance photograph, (b) brim ablation region, (c) transition ablation region and (d) center ablation region.
SiC–HfC multi-phase ceramic modified C/C composites are also widely investigated. For example, HfC and SiC were incorporated into the porous C/C composites by PIP process using a mixture of HfC precursor and polycarbosilane (weight ratio of 4:1) [39]. After oxyacetylene torch (OAT) ablation, the composite surface was covered by the melted SiO2, HfO2, and SixOyHfz phase, which partially sealed the pores and defects and acted as a thermal barrier to reduce the diffusion of oxygen. The ablation products have a positive effect on the anti-oxidation property. The mechanical denudation in 4.18 MW·m−2 is serious than that in 2.38 MW·m−2, while the results indicate that the C/C–SiC–HfC composites have a similar and good anti-ablation property under two different flame conditions [40]. C/C–HfC–SiC composites can withstand the heat flux from 2.38 to 4.18 MW·m−2. And then, the ablation resistance and mechanical properties of C/C–HfC–SiC composites with different SiC/HfC ratios were also studied [41]. The results indicate that the ratios of SiC/HfC have a complex influence on the anti-ablation and mechanical properties. Therefore, to balance the anti-ablation and mechanical properties, a suitable SiC/HfC ratio should be considered.
Generally, PIP process is a main method for fabrication of UHTCs-modified C/C composites. The composition of the ceramic matrix deposited is highly versatile due to the chemistry of precursor, and the ceramic matrices are usually pyrolyzed at relatively low temperature which prevents fiber damage. Compared with RMI method, it requires many cycles of infiltration and pyrolysis due to low yields of precursor-to-ceramic, increasing fabrication time and cost for a given component. Meanwhile, the obtained composites will contain porosity and micro-cracks, resulting from the escape of gaseous byproducts and volumetric shrinkage, which affect their mechanical properties.
2.2 CVI
CVI process is developed from chemical vapor deposition (CVD), where the ceramic material is infiltrated into porous fiber preforms by using the reactive gas at relatively low temperature (900–1,500°C) to form ceramic modified composites. Well-regulated CVI method fabricated ceramic matrix with high-purity and well-controlled composition shows excellent mechanical and anti-ablation properties since fine and dense ceramic matrix are formed around the fiber network. CVI has been widely applied for formation of C and SiC matrix. For example, CVI is a very well-established process for preparation of C/C–SiC composites through depositing SiC matrix into carbon preforms by using gaseous precursors of methyltrichlorosilane (CH3SiCl3) at moderate temperatures to form C/C–SiC composites [42]. Hu et al. designed and fabricated a novel sandwich-structured C/C–SiC composite by two-step electromagnetic coupling chemical vapor infiltration (E-CVI) for a very short deposition time (20 h) [43]. The typical microstructure of sandwich-structured composite included two exterior C/SiC layers, two gradient C/C–SiC layers, and a C/C core. Based on wide applications for SiC deposited in ceramics modified C/C composite, CVI process is also feasible for densifying UHTC composites. For typical UHTC, it works on the similar basic principal of the thermal decomposition of a reactive gaseous mixture to form a solid product, producing a wide range of material compositions, as shown in Table 1 [44]. For example, ZrC and HfB2 can be prepared according to the following chemical equations, respectively:
Precursors and the conditions needed for the deposition of non-oxide ceramics [44]
| Deposited matrix | Reactant gases | Deposited temperature/°C |
|---|---|---|
| C | C3H6 or CH4–H2 | 1,000–1,200 |
| SiC | CH3SiCl3–H2 | 900–1,300 |
| ZrC | ZrCl4–(CH4 or C3H6–H2–Ar) | 900–1,600 |
| HfC | HfCl4–(CH4 or C3H6–H2–Ar) | 900–1,600 |
| TaC | TaCl5–(CH4 or C3H6–H2–Ar) | 900–1,500 |
| ZrB2 | ZrCl4–BCl3–H2–Ar | 900–1,200 |
| HfB2 | HfCl4–BCl3–H2–A | 900–1,200 |
TaC has been used as a modifier of C/C composites to improve the ablation resistance for solid rocket motor materials because of its high melting point (3,880°C) and good mechanical properties at high temperatures. TaC and PyC phases have been alternately deposited in C/C composites using TaCl5–C3H6–H2–Ar mixtures as raw materials by the CVI process. It was found that PyC/TaC/PyC could be deposited uniformly in C/C composites, and the flextural strength decreased with the introduction of PyC/TaC/PyC multi-layers [45]. Chen et al. reported that C/C-TaC with a 14 vol% TaC content prepared by CVI exhibited the better ablation resistance than C/C for 120 s at the temperature of over 2,000 K under an OAT [46]. And then Chen and Xiong [47] reported that a new kind of carbon fiber reinforced PyC/C–TaC/PyC layered structure ceramic matrix composites was prepared by CVI. The ceramic matrix consisted a three-layered structure, inner PyC layer (labeled as point 1), middle C–TaC layer (points 2, 3) and outer PyC layer (point 4), as shown in Figure 2. The middle C–TaC ceramic layer was a co-deposited layer of PyC and TaC phases, in which its structure can also be consisted of three different zones, from amorphous near the inner PyC interface to equiaxial and then needle-like structures.
![Figure 2
Microstructures of Cf/C–TaC composites: (a) microstructure (SEM) and (b) PyC/C–TaC/PyC layered structure matrix (SEM) [47].](/document/doi/10.1515/rams-2022-0276/asset/graphic/j_rams-2022-0276_fig_002.jpg)
Microstructures of Cf/C–TaC composites: (a) microstructure (SEM) and (b) PyC/C–TaC/PyC layered structure matrix (SEM) [47].
In brief, the CVI process is a very useful technique that can create different matrix compositions and high purity matrices at low processing temperatures that do not damage the fibers while tailing the microstructure. However, the major shortcomings of CVI is the very slow rate of deposition, leading to high capital and production costs, as well as the very limited infiltration depth due to the competition between diffusion kinetics and surface reaction kinetics, especially for the big Hf, Zr, or Ta-containing radicals. So the chemical vapor infiltration/deposition is mainly used to prepare the UHTC coating, such as, TaC, HfC, HfC/SiC, HfC/TaC, and HfC/ZrC coating [48,49,50,51,52], and almost no UHTCs-modified C/C composites fabricated completely by CVI method have been reported.
2.3 RMI
RMI is an effective preparation route to introduce carbide or boride ceramics through the reaction between molten metal mixtures (including liquid silicon) and C or B at high temperatures, showing many merits such as a short fabrication period, near-net-shape, and low cost [53,54,55]. The process can be used when one of the ceramic matrix elements possesses a relatively low melting point and readily wets the fibers. The RMI process is often chosen as it can be used with various geometries to efficiently fill both large and small porosity to create a dense matrix. Molten Si is often used to infiltrate into a porous C/C preform under the driving of capillary force and reacts with carbon matrix in the porous of C/C preform to form C/C–SiC composites at high temperatures at least over the melting point of silicon (1,410°C) [56,57]. Although a relatively high temperature is required for the melting of Si, the fabrication time of RMI is much shorter than that of the PIP or CVI processes, and a dense matrix is facile obtained. Liu et al. developed an economical RMI of C/C–SiC composite through decreasing infiltration temperature to below 1,200°C by addition of Al and assistance of vacuum [58]. The disadvantage of this technique is that the residual of unreacted Si causes the degradation of the high-temperature properties of the composites, leading to the formation of a strong bond between the fiber and the matrix.
Besides SiC, ZrC has been successfully introduced into C/C composite by RMI using pure Zr metal. However, a high fabrication temperature is needed owing to the high melting point of Zr (1,852°C) [54]. C/C–ZrC composites were prepared by RMI method using zirconium powder as raw materials, and the microstructure and ablation resistance of the composites were investigated [55]. The results presented that RMI method possessed a short procedure, but ZrC ceramics distributed unevenly and zirconium powder would corrode carbon fibers, resulting in the decrease in anti-ablation property. At high temperatures, Zr melt perhaps reacts strongly with fibers, thereby damaging the reinforcement effect of fibers. Given this, introducing copper into the infiltration agent can reduce the processing temperature effectively. A C/C–ZrC composite was fabricated by infiltration of Zr/Cu powder mixture into the porous C/C preform [59]. The obtained C/C–ZrC composite was mainly composed of C, ZrC, and Cu phase, as shown in Figure 3. Continuous ZrC layers around the PyC and isolated ZrC particles dispersed in Cu were observed. Ablation surface of the composite was mainly composed of monoclinic ZrO2, while the quantity of Cu and Cu2O decreased with the increase in ablation time. The better ablation resistance of the C/C–ZrC composite was mainly attributed to the protective ZrO2 layer and the cooling effect of Cu. The RMI processing temperature can be effectively decreased by using metal alloys because the eutectic phases melt below the melting point of pure metal. Zhu et al. [60] prepared C/C–ZrC composites by infiltrating carbon fabrics using Zr–Cu alloys, and investigated the effect of Cu contents in the alloy on composition, microstructure, and anti-ablation performance of the achieved composites. With the increase in Cu contents in infiltrators, it restrained both growth and crystallization of ZrC grains, and the achieved C/C–ZrC composites showed excellent ablation resistance. Similarly, the effects of PyC amount in C/C preform on the composition, microstructure, mechanical properties, and ablation resistance of C/C–ZrC composites prepared by RMI method are also reported [61].
![Figure 3
Microstructure images of C/C–ZrC composite prepared by RMI using Zr/Cu powder [59]: (a) optical micrograph; (b) SEM macrograph; (c) SEM micrograph of a representative single fiber.](/document/doi/10.1515/rams-2022-0276/asset/graphic/j_rams-2022-0276_fig_003.jpg)
Microstructure images of C/C–ZrC composite prepared by RMI using Zr/Cu powder [59]: (a) optical micrograph; (b) SEM macrograph; (c) SEM micrograph of a representative single fiber.
To modify the matrix of C/C composites and receive a better anti-oxidation and ablation resistance, multiple ceramics are often adopted simultaneously. SiC and ZrC are the two most used carbide ceramics to introduce carbon matrix by RMI process. The difference in the RMI temperature leads to the difference in the microstructure and ablation properties of the C/C–SiC–ZrC composites [62]. The results show that the microstructure and anti-ablation property of the obtained C/C–SiC–ZrC composite are remarkably influenced by the RMI temperature. The linear and mass ablation rates of the C/C–SiC–ZrC fabricated at 2,300°C are much lower compared with those of C/C–SiC–ZrC fabricated at 2,000°C. Compared to using Si or Zr powders, high-performance and low-cost C/C–ZrC–SiC composite with a well-defined structure has been prepared by an improved RMI route using Zr and Si tablet as infiltrants [63]. A gradient C/C–ZrC–SiC composite was observed. It was found that the content of SiC decreased gradually along the infiltration direction, while the content of ZrC increased. The microstructure of cross-section can be divided into four regions (as shown Figure 4): A–B, B–C, C–D, and D–F, and it can be observed that area (B) near the infiltrant is enriched with SiC, while the area (D) far from the infiltrant is richer inZrC. Based on the results of the calculated volume and mass percentage of ZrC and SiC, it indicates that the relative amount of ZrC and SiC almost remains constant along the infiltration direction. Thus, it is feasible to fabricate a dense gradient C/C–ZrC–SiC composite by this improved RMI using Zr and Si tablet as infiltrant.
![Figure 4
SEM images of the cross-section of C/C–ZrC–SiC [63]: (a) whole cross-section, (b) magnification of point B, (c) magnification of point D, (d) volume percentage of ZrC and SiC of four areas in (a), and (e) mass percentage of ZrC and SiC calculated based on XRD results.](/document/doi/10.1515/rams-2022-0276/asset/graphic/j_rams-2022-0276_fig_004.jpg)
SEM images of the cross-section of C/C–ZrC–SiC [63]: (a) whole cross-section, (b) magnification of point B, (c) magnification of point D, (d) volume percentage of ZrC and SiC of four areas in (a), and (e) mass percentage of ZrC and SiC calculated based on XRD results.
To reduce the ZrC–SiC matrix fabricating temperature, some low melting Si–Zr alloys are used instead of Si or Zr powders. Wang et al. prepared C/C–SiC–ZrC composite by RMI method using Si0.87Zr0.13 at a heat temperature of as low as 1,800°C [64]. A highly dense Cf/ZrC–SiC-based composite is fabricated by an improved RMI. The typical process of the improved RMI includes two steps [65]: a Cf/ZrC–C nano-porous preform is prepared by impregnation of ZrC–C sol followed by heat treatment; the Cf/ZrC-SiC composite is obtained by RMI of Si melt into the nano-porous Cf/ZrC–C preform at 1,500°C in the vacuum. The ablation resistance of the composite is characterized by air plasma test. The obtained composites possess a low porosity (3.49%) and high thermal conductivity (21.3 W·m−1·K−1 at room temperature and 15.4 W·m−1·K−1 at 1,200°C), which is beneficial for transferring the heat on time and reducing the surface temperature of the composite during ablation. SiC–HfC-modified C/C composites are also prepared by RMI process using Hf–Si alloy powders, showing good ablation and mechanical properties [66]. Additionally, SiC–HfC–ZrC multi-phase modified C/C composites are also prepared by RMI method using Si, Zr, and Hf powders, with the aim of improving their ablation resistance for application in aero thermal environments [67]. Makurunje et al. [68] also investigated the oxidation and ablation resistance of C/C–SiC–TiC–TaC composites prepared by RMI.
SiC–ZrB2 di-phase ceramics were also introduced into porous C/C composites by RMI [69]. The low-density C/C composites were packed by mixture powder consisted of Si (35–55 wt%), B4C (15–35 wt %), and ZrSi2 (25–45 wt%) and heated at 1900–2100 °C for 1–2 h. The modified composites displayed a good ablation resistant property under OAT. Chen fabricated C/C–ZrC–SiC–ZrB2 composites by RMI of ZrSi2 alloys into porous C/B4C–C preforms [70]. With the porosity of the preforms decreased from 53.7 to 31.3%, the flexural strength of the composites increased from 53 to 184 MPa. Zhao et al. [9] used similar method to prepare C/C–ZrC–SiC–ZrB2 composites using the ZrSi2 melt at 2,100°C under Ar atmosphere for 2 h by RMI technique. Differently, many investigations focus on the cyclic ablation behavior of the composites and the thermodynamic analysis of the ZrC–SiC–ZrB2 matrix oxidation at temperatures above 2,000°C.
In summary, RMI is another common process used to introduce UHTC ceramic matrix into the porous green body through in situ reaction between molten metal or alloy mixtures and substrate materials containing C or B at high temperatures. Compared with CVI and PIP methods, the RMI process is often chosen for commercialization production as it is more efficient, costs less, and can be used with various geometries to efficiently fill both large and small porosities to obtain a dense matrix. However, the RMI process has limitations including high temperature fabrication causing damage to the fibers and the presence of residual metal or silicon phase, resulting in lower mechanical properties.
2.4 SI
The SI is perhaps one of the most common techniques used to produce continuous fiber-reinforced ceramic composites. In this process, the matrix precursor is a stable liquid slurry containing ceramic powders, which is infiltrated into fiber preforms using pressureless or pressure-assisted methods. The ceramic particles are trapped into preforms and then ceramic–carbon fiber preforms are densified by combining with PIP, CVI, or other methods. The ceramic powder introduced via the slurry to create the matrix could contain one of several different compositions or a mixture of them, including SiC, UHTC, or their precursors, according to the materials’ design and the application requirements. So, this process is carried out at low cost for the preparation of ceramics-modified C/C composites. However, agglomeration of the ceramic particles in the composites is likely to block the pores in the outer layer of the preforms and leads to difficulty in the successive densification.
C/C–ZrC composites were successfully fabricated by a joint process of slurry infiltration and CVI, in which ZrC matrix was obtained by slurry infiltration process, while C was introduced by CVI process [71]. The different contents of ZrC nanoparticles were first introduced into carbon fiber-reinforced plastic green bodies by SI process, and then ZrC-modified C/C–SiC preforms were obtained by the infiltration of liquid silicon under vacuum [72]. The results of microstructure analysis indicated that the introduction of ZrC nanoparticles was an attractive approach to improve the distribution uniformity of SiC matrix. With the increase in the ZrC content, SiC matrix with a zonal distribution in the composite gradually turned to a network structure distribution. With the same method, C/C–TaC composites were prepared by Djugum and Sharp [73]. It was shown that the additive of TaC had no evident effect on the flexural strength of C/C composites, while the anti-ablation property was observably improved. C/C−ZrB2−SiC composites were successfully prepared by a combination of high-solid-loading slurry infiltration PIP technique [74]. After ZrB2 and SiC infiltration, the final bulk density and open porosity of the composites were 2.88 g·cm−3 and 7.10%, respectively. The particles were uniformly dispersed in the areas of short-cut fiber web layer and needle-punched region. To analyze the effects of UHTC component types and composition on the ablation behaviors, a series of ZrB2-based ceramic matrix composites were designed and prepared by Tang et al. [75] via infiltrating ceramic particles into 2D carbon fiber fabrics combining SI with CVI process. Jia et al. [76] fabricated C/C–ZrC–SiC–ZrB2 composites through SiC–ZrB2 slurry vacuum infiltrated into as-prepared C/C–ZrC composites. The high temperature in situ flexural strength of the obtained C/C–ZrC–SiC–ZrB2 composites was 223 MPa during flexural test at 1,800°C, showing outstanding ultra-high temperature mechanical properties.
To attain the objective of weight and thermal conductivity in thickness reduction as well as to maintain the strength, a multifunctional integrated C/C–ZrB2–SiC composite was prepared by SI and CVI process [77]. The typical structure contained a porous C/C–ZrB2–SiC core between two tight outer layers of C/C–ZrB2–SiC and C/C–SiC, as shown in Figure 5. The compact C/C–ZrB2–SiC layer was used as the windward side of the thermal protection system (TPS) panel to supply a good anti-ablation performance to ultra-high temperatures, the porous C/C–ZrB2–SiC core played a role in the mass and thermal conductivity reduction, and the two compact layers of C/C–SiC and C/C–ZrB2–SiC provided good mechanical properties. The resulted integrated composite not only afforded thermal protection and structure loading-bearing capabilities, but also achieved weight reduction.
![Figure 5
Back scattered electron image of the integrated composite [77].](/document/doi/10.1515/rams-2022-0276/asset/graphic/j_rams-2022-0276_fig_005.jpg)
Back scattered electron image of the integrated composite [77].
An injection vacuum impregnation method for the production of continuous fiber ultra-high-temperature ceramic matrix composites has been successfully developed in the past years. X-ray micro-CT results suggest that ceramic powder distribution is far more consistent with respect to penetration depth than bulk infiltration via vacuum impregnation alone. Compared to conventional vacuum impregnation, species produced by injection vacuum impregnation demonstrate high and consistent density with an average of 27–87% in variability [78]. In order to improve the homogeneity of UHTC in composites [79,80,81], a novel and effective process of ultrasonic vibration assisted slurry injection was developed to enable homogeneous distribution of ZrC–SiC or ZrB2–SiC nanoparticles inside carbon fabric, as show in Figure 6 [81]. A typical process of the mentioned technique included the following steps. First, carbon fiber preforms were precoated with PyC by CVD; and the syringe containing the nano ZrC–SiC ceramic slurry was vertically inserted into the preforms. Enhanced impregnation took place via vibration-assisted vacuum infiltration, followed by densification by spark plasma sintering. This novel method obtained a relative density of green body at 45%, nearly 50% higher than that without vibration [82]. The resulting composites possessed ca. 90% relative density and a superior fracture toughness of 6.72 ± 0.21 MPa·m1/2. However, the structural damage and performance degradation of carbon fiber often occurs during the sintering of high temperature or high pressure, leading to a restrained reinforcing effect [83]. Additionally, the use of pressure-assisted sintering is limited to simple shapes due to die design considerations. The development of pressureless sintering could enable a work-around for this issue to be applied to the more complex, near-net shapes. Inspired from the field of civil engineering, to find the kind of raw materials that play a similar role of cement, which could firmly bond uniformly the UHTC particles and fill the residual gaps inside the carbon fiber preform to form a dense structure, a novel and joint process of vibration-assisted ceramic slurry infiltration and PIP were used to prepared a dense ceramic composite [84], whose further densification was carried out at 1,300°C without pressure using liquid polycarbosilane. The liquid polycarbosilane infiltration helped fill the holes and voids left after slurry injection, and ensured a strong bonding between ZrC nanoparticles, resulting in obtaining C/ZrC–SiC composite with high density of 4.19 g·cm−3 and higher fracture toughness of 11.12 MPa·m1/2. Zhang et al. [85] also prepared C/ZrB2–SiC composites via the same joint process and investigated their ablation behavior and mechanisms. It was found that the ceramic components were uniformly distributed in the intrafascicular and interfascicular areas of three-dimensional carbon fiber fabric.
![Figure 6
The process of vibration-assisted slurry injection and the effect of vibration on the ceramic distribution: (a) schematic diagram of vibration-assisted slurry injection, (b) the schematic diagram of how ultrasonic vibration affects the stacking and distribution of nanosized ceramic granules, (c) the macrographs during the process, (d) the internal microstructures along the x–y plane of carbon fabric after non-vibration-assisted injection, and (e) the internal microstructures along the x–y plane of carbon fabric after vibration-assisted injection [81].](/document/doi/10.1515/rams-2022-0276/asset/graphic/j_rams-2022-0276_fig_006.jpg)
The process of vibration-assisted slurry injection and the effect of vibration on the ceramic distribution: (a) schematic diagram of vibration-assisted slurry injection, (b) the schematic diagram of how ultrasonic vibration affects the stacking and distribution of nanosized ceramic granules, (c) the macrographs during the process, (d) the internal microstructures along the x–y plane of carbon fabric after non-vibration-assisted injection, and (e) the internal microstructures along the x–y plane of carbon fabric after vibration-assisted injection [81].
3 Ablation behaviors of UHTCs-modified C/C composites
Future hypersonic and re-entry vehicles are expected to operate in an extreme environment at a temperature of 1,600–2,200°C or even more, and for a long time in earth atmosphere. TPS for hypersonic vehicles require a unique combination of properties to withstand the extremely demanding aero-thermo-dynamic conditions that include surface temperatures over 2,000°C and the activation of gas dissociation/recombination reactions at extremely low oxygen partial pressures that can substantially increase the heat flux on the vehicle surface. Thus, capability of surviving after exposure to harsh environments with lower or near nought oxidation/ablation is one of the key requirements of materials for TPS applications, and relevant experimental characterization is needed. The purpose is to understand the ablation property and mechanism so that improved materials can be developed. Different test methods include: high power lasers, plasma, high velocity oxyflame (HVOF), OAT, laser, arc jet and plasma wind tunnel, and scramjet [32,86,87,88,89,90,91]. Among these test methods, initial evaluations of high-temperature ablation resistance can be performed relatively inexpensively utilizing HVOF and OAT. The arc jet wind tunnels and scramjet methods are the closest to real use environment for the characterization of aerospace ceramic materials, but are extremely expensive tests to run. In fact, it is very difficult to simulate the vehicles’ or engines’ real condition at ground level through a single testing method. The ablation properties of UHTCs-modified C/C composite are influenced by composition, structure, temperature, heat flux, flow velocity, erosion, and so on [92,93]. Ablation properties of different UHTCs-modified C/C composites are summarized in Table 2. It is apparent that the ablation resistance of C/C–UHTC composites is much more than that of C/C composites.
Ablation properties of UHTCs-modified C/C composites
| Materials | Preparation method | Density (g·cm−3) | Open porosity (%) | Carbon preform | Ablation method | Temperature (°C) | Times (s) | Heat flux (MW·m−2) | Ablation rate (μm·s−1) | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| C/C | CVI | 1.75 | 9.03 | Needle | OAT | 3,000 (flame) | 120 | — | 27.3 | [35] |
| C/C–ZrC | PIP | 1.799 | 8.045 | Needle | OAT | 2,270 | 120 | — | 7.53 | [27] |
| C/C–ZrC | PIP | 2.12 | 28.3 | Needle | OAT | 2,200 | 120 | 2.38 | −1.23 | [94] |
| 2,500 | 120 | 4.18 | 6.59 | [94] | ||||||
| C/C–ZrC | CVI + RMI | — | — | Needle | OAT | 3,000 | 20 | 4.2 | 2 | [55] |
| C/C–ZrC | CVI + RMI | 3.68 | 3.9 ± 0.2 | Needle | OAT | 3,000 | 60 | –– | 1.5 | [59] |
| C/C–HfC | PIP | 1.80 | — | Needle | OAT | 2,800 | 30 | — | 3.0 | [95] |
| C/C–HfC | CVI + PIP | 1.80 | — | Needle | OAT | 3,000 | 60 | — | 0.75 | [22] |
| C/C–HfC | PIP | 2.01 | — | Needle | Plasma flame | 2,300 | 240 | — | 5.31 | [23] |
| C/C–SiC–ZrC | PIP | 2.14 | — | Needle | Plasma flame | 2,300 | 60 | — | −1.88 | [96] |
| C/C–SiC–ZrC | PIP | 1.98 | — | Needle | Plasma flame | 2,342 | 180 | — | 0.194 | [97] |
| C/C–SiC–ZrC | PIP | 2.22 | 19.70 | Needle | OAT | 3,000 (flame) | 120 | — | 2.48 | [35] |
| C/C–SiC–ZrC | PIP | 1.96 | — | Needle | OAT | 2,130 | 90 | 4.18 | 2.41 | [98] |
| 2,370 | 90 | 4.18 | 0.82 | [98] | ||||||
| 2,270 | 90 | 4.18 | 1.67 | [98] | ||||||
| C/C–SiC–ZrC | RMI | 2.69 | 4.8 ± 0.05 | Needle | OAT | 2,500 | 120 | — | −0.33 | [63] |
| C/C–SiC–ZrC | ICVI + RMI | 2.04 | — | Integer felt | OAT | 2,300 (flame) | 60 | — | 2.67 | [99] |
| C/C–SiC–ZrB2 | RMI | 2.30 | — | Needle | OAT | — | 60 | 2.38 | 13 (sharp-shape) | [100] |
| C/C–SiC–ZrB2 | RMI | 2.25 | — | 2D | OAT | 3,000 (flame) | 60 | 2.38 | 6.72 | [69] |
| C/C–SiC–ZrB2 | SI + PIP | 2.88 | 7.10 | Needle | OAT | 2,500 | 120 | — | 0.91 | [74] |
| C/C–SiC–ZrB2 | PIP | 1.80 | — | Needle | OAT | 2,300 | 120 | 4.2 | 1.3 | [101] |
| C/C–SiC–ZrB2 | TCVI + PIP | 2.09 | — | Integer felt | OAT | 2,300 (flame) | 120 | 2.4 | 2.45 | [102] |
| 3,000 (flame) | 4.2 | 12.24 | ||||||||
| C/C–SiC–ZrB2 | SI + PIP | 2.35 | 13.42 | 2D | Plasma flame | 2,400 | 60 | — | 1.17 | [103] |
| C/C–SiC–HfC | CVI + PIP | 2.38 | — | Needle | OAT | — | 60 | 4.18 | 1.06 | [40] |
| C/C–SiC–HfC | PIP | 2.41 | 11.52 | 2D needle | OAT | 3,000 (flame) | 120 | 4.2 | 0.91 | [104] |
| C/C–SiC–HfB2 | PIP + RMI | 1.75–1.85 | 15.56–17.21 | Needle | OAT | 2,190 | 90 | 2.38 | 2.06 | [105] |
| C/C–SiC–HfB2 | CVI + PIP | 1.94–2.03 | — | Needle | OAT | 2,466 | 60 | 2.38 | 14.7 | [106] |
| C/C–SiC–HfC–ZrC | CVI + PIP | 2.3–2.6 | 11.07 | 2D | OAT | 2,400 | 120 | 2.4 | 0.225 | [12] |
| C/C–SiC–ZrB2–ZrC | PIP | 2.0 | — | 3D | Plasma flame | 2,300 | 240 | — | 0.63 | [107] |
| C/C–SiC–ZrB2–ZrC | CVI + PIP | 2.0 | — | 3D | Plasma flame | 2,300 | 120 | 4.186 | 0.04 | [108] |
| C/C–SiC–ZrB2–ZrC | RMI | — | — | Needle | OAT | 2,500 | 120 | 2.38 | −1.0 (wedge-shaped) | [9] |
| C/C–SiC–ZrB2–ZrC | PIP | 2.44 | 13 | 3D | Plasma wind tunnel | 2,000 | 300 | — | 2.0 | [109] |
| C/SiC–HfC | PIP | 3.18 | 13.2 ± 0.4 | Needle | Plasma wind tunnel | 1,600–2,500 | 60–600 | 3.5–5.1 | −0.25 to 3.33 | [110] |
Based on the results summarized in Table 2, as a whole, the anti-ablation properties are significantly improved by introducing UHTC into carbon matrix, which are influenced by the parameter of composition, open porosity, ablation environment, etc. The ablation resistance of C/C–ZrC composites depended on the OAT ablation test parameters [94]. For example, when the heat flux was 2,380 kW·m−2, the surface temperature of the C/C–ZrC composites during ablation reached 2,200°C, and the composites exhibited excellent ablation resistance with linear rates of –1.23 × 10–3 mm·s−1. However, the ablation resistance of C/C–ZrC composites decreased dramatically to 6.59 × 10–3 mm·s−1 when the heat flux increased to 4,180 kW·m2 and the maximum temperature of ablated surface reached 2,500°C. The main reason for the reduction in ablation resistance was owing to the spalling of the formed ZrO2 layer as the temperature reached as high as 2,500°C, and it could not supply an effective protection for the matrix. Compared with C/C composite, the anti-ablation improvement for UHTCs-modified C/C composites were mainly attributed to the oxidation coating of the ceramic elements which acted as an effective oxygen and heat barrier for carbon fiber and carbon substrate.
The ablation rate is initially regulated by fast chemical reaction of the surface carbon and modified ceramic elements with oxygen and then dominated by the diffusion rate of oxygen through protective layer on the surface of composites. Among the UHTC families, ZrB2, HfB2, ZrC, and HfC based ceramics with SiC additive have been regarded as the most potential structural materials as a consequence of their outstanding anti-oxidation in wide-temperature regions depending on the synergistic effect of various oxide products. It was found that the ZrC–SiC and HfC–SiC ceramics modified C/C composites showed good anti-oxidation properties because of the formation of SiO2, Zr(Hf)O2, and/or Zr(Hf)SiO4 products which acted as oxygen diffusion barriers during ablation; on the other hand, the protective layer composed of liquid molten SiO2 with ZrO2 or HfO2 solid solution could tightly adhere to the ablated surface, and seal the cracks and pores, as well as the high heat of fusion of ZrO2 could remarkably decrease the surface temperature. However, for SiC–ZrC multi-matrix, with the increase in the SiC content, the ablation resistance of C/SiC–ZrC composite degraded. The main reason for these phenomena was that the SiC and its oxidation products were not stable enough with the exception of ZrO2 phase to survive the high temperature (>2,700°C) [111]. In general, addition of SiC can significantly improve the oxidation resistance in the intermediate temperatures that range from 1,200 to ∼1,700°C by forming a protective silica layer, and formation of SiO2–ZrO2 solid solution fluid oxide phase and ZrO2 solid skeleton at higher temperature of 1,700–2,200°C. Generally speaking, Hf(Zr)B2–SiC composites should likely show better oxidation resistance in a wide-temperature region compared to the Hf(Zr)C–SiC because of the formation of B2O3, borosilicate, and SiO2 liquid phase, SiO2–Hf(Zr)O2 solid solution fluid oxide phase ,and Hf(Zr)O2 solid skeleton at different temperature regions [112].
As well known, the design ability is one of the important characteristics of composites, and the anti-ablation properties of C/C–UHTC composites are affected by different structure units. To investigate the effects of different structure units on the ablation resistance of ZrC–SiC-modified C/C composites fabricated from 2D needle carbon fabrics as reinforcements, non-woven layer, short-cut fiber web, and the surface of laminated layers of the composites were tested in an oxyacetylene flame, respectively [98]. The anti-ablation performance of short-cut fiber web was the best after ablation for 90 s with linear rate of 0.82 × 10−3 mm·s−1. It was found that the formation ability of the surface obstructive layer and the fiber orientation were the significant factors, resulting in ablation performance of different structure units. A compactly integrated ZrO2 coating formed on the ablated surface of short-cut fiber web owing to its abundant ceramic content play a role of oxygen barrier and self-protection. Nevertheless, the non-woven layer perpendicular to the flame displayed poorer ablation resistance. Only scattered oxide particles were produced on the ablated surface of non-woven layer because of lacking ZrC–SiC ceramic content, so carbon substrates and fibers were immediately exposed to the ablative environment. In addition, because ablation priority of fiber–matrix interfaces would facilitate the oxidizing flame and heat transfer into inter composites and finally accelerate the chemical ablation and mechanical denudation, the most serious ablation took place in the non-woven layer along the torch.
Unfortunately, ablation tests in lots of investigations were mainly performed with plane specimens, i.e., the oxyacetylene or plasma flame was perpendicular to the plane specimens. In a practical application, some components with specific shapes are inevitable in order to satisfy the demands of pneumatics design for ultra-high-speed vehicles. The valid evaluation for the ablation of the UHTCs-modified C/C composite is imperative under extreme surroundings, which contains two prime factors, the realizable testing conditions constructed based on lab-scale approach [113] and the devised shape of the composites. Only limited publication was focused on the sharp shape composites exposed to high heat flux, suffering an ablation process. C/C–SiC–ZrB2 composites with sharp leading edge shaped fabricated by RMI process were exposed to the OAT with a heat flux of 2.38 MW·m−2 to investigate their ablation performance. After introducing ZrB2 ceramic, the linear ablation rate of 13 × 10−3 mm·s−1 for the C/C–SiC–ZrB2 composites could be reduced by 52% compared to that of C/C–SiC composites [100]. However, compared with plane specimens, the ablation rate of sharp-shaped specimens was higher, because the front ablation area endured different heat fluxes and shear forces. The ablation performance of the modified sharp composite was determined by thermochemical ablation and inferior mechanical denudation. To simulate the thermal structural components, Zhang et al. prepared nose-shaped C/C–SiC–HfB2 composite and investigated its ablation property under oxyacetylene flame for 60 s [106]. During ablation in 2.38 MW·m−2, the nose-shaped C/C–SiC–HfB2 composite with the linear ablation of 14.7 × 10−3 mm·s−1 showed better ablation performance and structural stability compared with the bare C/C composite. As the heat flux increased to 4.18 MW·m−2, much more serious ablation phenomenon took place. The nose tip suffered the most serious corrosion, and the ruptured oxidation products at nose tip was difficult to resist the denudation of OAT, resulting in anti-ablation degradation. Plasma wind tunnel technique offers the advantage of measuring the change in the surface temperature compared with laser beam and oxyacetylene flame methods. Noteworthily, the abovementioned ablation tests of shaped composite specimens were operated with a traditional oxyacetylene flame, of which the diameter of a gun tip was ca. 2 mm. The diameter of flame was so small that only local ablation was observed on the shaped specimens, implying that the ablation was difficult to simulate the accurate exact re-entry hypersonic conditions. Arc jet and plasma wind tunnel facilities could offer sustained conditions that are similar to the aerothermal environment experienced during re-entry, with which several ablation tests have been carried out on shaped specimens of UHTCs-modified composite. The ablation behavior of the C/SiC–HfC composite was studied in plasma wind tunnel, as shown in Figure 7 [110]. The sample expanded slightly at low heat flux (3.5 MW·m−2) due to oxidation of SiC and HfC. The low diffusion rates of oxygen and silicon oxide through the HfO2–SiO2 layer at low heat flux of 3.5 MW·m−2 led to a good ablation performance.
![Figure 7
Macroscopic images of C/SiC–HfC composite after ablation [110]: (a) 3.5 MW·m−2; (b) 3.5 MW·m−2; (c) 4.5 MW·m−2; (d) 5.1 MW·m−2.](/document/doi/10.1515/rams-2022-0276/asset/graphic/j_rams-2022-0276_fig_007.jpg)
Macroscopic images of C/SiC–HfC composite after ablation [110]: (a) 3.5 MW·m−2; (b) 3.5 MW·m−2; (c) 4.5 MW·m−2; (d) 5.1 MW·m−2.
So far, the mentioned research works have been reported on the ablation tests for short time in the range of 30–120 s, and only few publication focuses on sustaining ablation for long time (i.e., 600 s or even long). Meanwhile, taking the small diameter of flame of oxyacetylene and high cost of wind tunnel ablation tests into account, appropriate experimental facilities should also be developed.
4 Summary and future perspective
Carbon is one of the most important materials in nature, and carbon and carbon related materials have attracted more and more interest in the past years [114,115,116,117]. C/C composites have been considered as one of the most promising hot structure components for aerospace and aeronautics applications owing to their excellent properties at high temperature. To enhance the anti-oxidation and anti-ablation properties of C/C composites, many approaches have been proposed in recent years. The UHTC modified C/C composites can be expected to perform good oxidation and ablation resistance properties at ultra-high temperatures compared to C/C and C/SiC composites, and then to be the potential candidates for use at extremely environmental applications [7,118,119], including scramjet engine, combined-cycle engine, hypersonic vehicles, etc. A representative ultra-high temperature application is for scramjet engine and combined-cycle engine since the operation temperature of their combustion chambers and nozzles transiently increases up to 2,000°C or higher in a severe ablative and oxidization environment with high-velocity gas erosion. Another representative application is for sharp leading edge, nose tip for TPS of hypersonic vehicles which will undergo ultra-high temperature, high heat flux, high heating rate, chemical erosion, and mechanical stress associated with vibration and thermal loading during re-entry or hypersonic cruising in Earth’s atmosphere [120].
UHTC matrix modified C/C composites have been proved to be an efficient approach to improve the anti-ablation properties of C/C composite. C/C–UHTC composites possess the superiorities of C/C composites and UHTC. Thus, they are expected to manifest good anti-oxidation and anti-ablation properties at ultra-high temperatures compared to C/C composites, as well as good thermal shock resistance, high fracture toughness and defect tolerance compared to UHTC. UHTC matrix modified C/C composites can be fabricated by several different techniques from gaseous or liquid precursors, including PIP, CVI, RMI, SI, and so on. These processes possess both advantages and disadvantages in term of the fabricating time, operating temperature, and porosity of the obtained composites. Over the last years, various research works have been carried out to enhance these processes. However, in order to adapt to the more and more extreme application environment, there are still lots of challenges in the field of UHTCs-modified C/C composites. The following research directions might be worthy to take into account in the future.
Develop new effective densification techniques for UHTCs-modified C/C composites. The main disadvantages of the abovementioned processes are long fabrication period, high processing cost, and existence of inner pores and micro-cracks. So, develop a new type of modified approaches to increase the efficiency of fabrication process, reduce preparing cost, decrease the porosity of matrix, and improve the density of composites. Meanwhile, it is also worthy to solve the aggregation and heterogeneous dispersion of multi-phase ceramic elements.
Optimize and design the composite components and structure used in extreme environment for long-term service. For the perspective of environmental applications, the optimization of material performances can be obtained by the appropriate design of composition, quantity, and structure of different components. It also needs to balance the anti-ablation properties and inherent properties (mechanical, physical, thermal) to best suit the final application. Matrix modification and anti-oxidation coating technique should be combined to achieve long-term service in the environment of high temperature, since so far both of them can only protect C/C composites in a short-term ablation process.
Establish the assessment method for high temperature thermal structure composites. The ablation or recession rate of UHTCs-modified C/C composites is usually characterized and calculated by a single ablation test condition, e.g., OAT, plasma, laser, etc. However, ablation in real service condition is subjected to a thermal-mechanical-chemical process, thus, it is necessary to simulate a fully coupled framework to characterize the ablation process of the modified composites, especially for those of large components with complex shapes.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Innovation Capability Support Program of Shaanxi (No. 2021KJXX-66).
-
Funding information: This work was supported by the Innovation Capability Support Program of Shaanxi (No. 2021KJXX-66).
-
Author contributions: Shibu Zhu: writing – original draft, writing – review and editing, and interpretation; Guangxi Zhang: writing – review and resource; Yanling Bao: proposed and designed the review and writing – refining and editing; Danyu Sun, Qiang Zhang, Xiangli Meng, Yang Hu, Liansheng Yan: writing – refining. All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.
-
Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.
-
Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
[1] Wuchina, E., E. Opila, M. Opeka, W. Fahrenholtz, and I. Talmy. UHTCs: Ultra-high temperature ceramic materials for extreme environment applications. Electrochemical Society Interface, Vol. 16, 2007, pp. 30–36.10.1149/2.F04074IFSearch in Google Scholar
[2] Padture, N. P. Advanced structural ceramics in aerospace propulsion. Nature Materials, Vol. 15, 2016, pp. 804–809.10.1038/nmat4687Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[3] Li, J. and R. Luo. Study of the mechanical properties of carbon nanofiber reinforced carbon/carbon composites. Composites Part A, Vol. 39, 2008, pp. 1700–1704.10.1016/j.compositesa.2008.07.009Search in Google Scholar
[4] Yang, Y., K. Li, Z. Zhao, and H. Li. Ablation resistance of HfC-SiC coating prepared by supersonic atmospheric plasma spraying for SiC-coated C/C composites. Ceramics International, Vol. 42, 2016, pp. 4768–4774.10.1016/j.ceramint.2015.11.161Search in Google Scholar
[5] Fu, Q., P. Zhang, L. Zhuang, L. Zhou, J. Zhang, J. Wang, et al. Micro/nano multiscale reinforcing strategies toward extreme high-temperature applications: Take carbon/carbon composites and their coatings as the examples. Journal of Materials Science & Technology, Vol. 96, 2022, pp. 31–68.10.1016/j.jmst.2021.03.076Search in Google Scholar
[6] Sakraker, I. and C. O. Asma. Experimental investigation of passive/active oxidation behavior of SiC based ceramic thermal protection materials exposed to high enthalpy plasma. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, Vol. 33, 2013, pp. 351–359.10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2012.09.002Search in Google Scholar
[7] Fahrenholtz, W. G. and G. E. Hilmas. Ultra-high-temperature ceramics: Materials for extreme environments. Scripta Materialia, Vol. 129, 2017, pp. 94–99.10.1016/j.scriptamat.2016.10.018Search in Google Scholar
[8] Opeka, M. M., I. G. Talmy, and J. A. Zaykoski. Oxidation-based materials selection for 2000°C + hypersonic aero-surfaces: Theoretical considerations and historical experience. Journal of Materials Science, Vol. 39, 2004, pp. 5887–5904.10.1023/B:JMSC.0000041686.21788.77Search in Google Scholar
[9] Zhao, Z., K. Z. Li, and W. Li. Ablation behavior of ZrC-SiC-ZrB2 and ZrC-SiC inhibited carbon/carbon composites components under ultra-high-temperature conditions. Corrosion Science, Vol. 189, 2021, id. 109598.10.1016/j.corsci.2021.109598Search in Google Scholar
[10] Shen, X., N. Gao, Z. Q. Shi, X. Wang, L. L. Zhang, J. F. Huang, et al. New insight into the ablation behavior of C/C-ZrC composites in a nitrogen plasma torch with a high heat flux of ∼25 MW·m−2. Corrosion Science, Vol. 185, 2021, id. 109409.10.1016/j.corsci.2021.109409Search in Google Scholar
[11] Zeng, Y., D. Wang, X. Xiong, X. Zhang, P. J. Withers, W. Sun, et al. Ablation-resistant carbide Zr0.8Ti0.2C0.74B0.26 for oxidizing environments up to 3000°C. Nature Communications, Vol. 8, 2017, id. 15836.10.1038/ncomms15836Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[12] Lu, J., K. Hao, L. Liu, H. Li, K. Li, J. Qu, et al. Ablation resistance of SiC–HfC–ZrC multiphase modified carbon/carbon composites. Corrosion Science, Vol. 103, 2016, pp. 1–9.10.1016/j.corsci.2015.06.037Search in Google Scholar
[13] Liu, L., B. Y. Li, W. Feng, C. W. Tang, J. P. Zhang, X. Y. Yao, et al. Effect of loading spectrum with different single pulsing time on the cyclic ablation of C/C-SiC-ZrB2-ZrC composites in plasma. Corrosion Science, Vol. 192, 2021, id. 109817.10.1016/j.corsci.2021.109817Search in Google Scholar
[14] Rueschhoff, L. M., C. M. Carney, Z. D. Apostolov, and M. K. Cinibulk. Processing of fiber-reinforced ultra-high temperature ceramic composites: A review. International Journal of Ceramic Engineering & Science, Vol. 2, 2020, pp. 22–37.10.1002/ces2.10033Search in Google Scholar
[15] Xie, C., M. Chen, X. Wei, M. Ge, and W. Zhang. Synthesis and microstructure of zirconium diboride formed from polymeric precursor pyrolysis. Journal of the American Ceramic Society, Vol. 95, 2012, pp. 866–869.10.1111/j.1551-2916.2011.05060.xSearch in Google Scholar
[16] Uhlmann, F., C. Wilhelmi, S. Schmidt-Wimmer, S. Beyer, C. Badini, and E. Padovano. Preparation and characterization of ZrB2 and TaC containing Cf/SiC composites via Polymer-Infiltration-Pyrolysis process. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, Vol. 37, 2017, pp. 1955–1960.10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.12.048Search in Google Scholar
[17] Ma, C., L. J. Guo, H. J. Li, W. L. Tan, T. Duan, N. K. Liu, et al. Effects of high-temperature annealing on the microstructures and mechanical properties of C/C–ZrC–SiC composites prepared by precursor infiltration and pyrolysis. Materials & Design, Vol. 90, 2016, pp. 373–378.10.1016/j.matdes.2015.10.140Search in Google Scholar
[18] Zhao, X., Y. Wang, L. Duan, L. Luo, and Y. Lu. Improved ablation resistance of C/SiC-ZrB2 composites via polymer precursor impregnation and pyrolysis. Ceramics International, Vol. 43, 2017, pp. 12480–12489.10.1016/j.ceramint.2017.06.118Search in Google Scholar
[19] Yan, C., R. Liu, B. Zha, and C. Zhang. Fabrication and properties of 3-dimensional 4-directional Cf/HfC-SiC composites by precursor impregnation and pyrolysis process. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, Vol. 739, 2018, pp. 955–960.10.1016/j.jallcom.2017.12.059Search in Google Scholar
[20] Liu, L., H. Li, W. Feng, X. Shi, H. Wu, and J. Zhu. Effect of surface ablation products on the ablation resistance of C/C-SiC composites under oxyacetylene torch. Corrosion Science, Vol. 67, 2013, pp. 60–66.10.1016/j.corsci.2012.10.003Search in Google Scholar
[21] Liu, L., H. Li, K. Hao, X. Shi, K. Li, and C. Ni. Effect of SiC location on the ablation of C/C–SiC composites in two heat fluxes. Journal of Materials Science & Technology, Vol. 31, 2015, pp. 345–354.10.1016/j.jmst.2014.11.021Search in Google Scholar
[22] Li, C., K. Z. Li, H. J. Li, H. B. Ouyang, Y. L. Zhang, and L. J. Guo. Ablation resistance and thermal conductivity of carbon/carbon composites containing hafnium carbide. Corrosion Science, Vol. 75, 2013, pp. 169–175.10.1016/j.corsci.2013.05.029Search in Google Scholar
[23] Xue, L., Z. A. Su, X. Yang, D. Huang, T. Yin, C. Liu, et al. Microstructure and ablation behavior of C/C-HfC composites prepared by precursor infiltration and pyrolysis. Corrosion Science, Vol. 94, 2015, pp. 165–170.10.1016/j.corsci.2015.01.053Search in Google Scholar
[24] Liu, C. X., J. X. Chen, Z. A. Su, X. Yang, L. X. Cao, and Q. Z. Huang. Pyrolysis mechanism of ZrC precursor and fabrication of C/C–ZrC composites by precursor infiltration and pyrolysis. Transaction Nonferrous Metals Society of China, Vol. 24, 2014, pp. 1779–1784.10.1016/S1003-6326(14)63253-2Search in Google Scholar
[25] Zhao, Z. G., K. Z. Li, G. Kou, T. Y. Liu, and W. Li. Mechanical properties and ablation behavior of C/C-ZrC and C/C-ZrC-SiC composites prepared by precursor infiltration and pyrolysis combined with chemical vapor infiltration. Ceramics International, Vol. 44, 2018, pp. 23191–23201.10.1016/j.ceramint.2018.09.131Search in Google Scholar
[26] Li, C., K. Li, H. Li, Y. Zhang, H. Ouyang, D. Yao, et al. Microstructure and ablation resistance of carbon/carbon composites with a zirconium carbide rich surface layer. Corrosion Science, Vol. 85, 2014, pp. 160–166.10.1016/j.corsci.2014.04.013Search in Google Scholar
[27] Xie, J., K. Z. Li, G. D. Sun, and H. Li. Effects of precursor concentration on the microstructure and properties of ZrC modified C/C composites prepared by precursor infiltration and pyrolysis. Ceramics International, Vol. 43, 2017, pp. 14642–14651.10.1016/j.ceramint.2017.07.177Search in Google Scholar
[28] Li, Y., X. J. Meng, Y. Jia, S. A. Chen, M. Mei, and G. D. Li. Properties of C/C–ZrC composites prepared by precursor infiltration and pyrolysis with a meltable precursor. Materials Research Express, Vol. 6, 2019, id. 085632.10.1088/2053-1591/ab2785Search in Google Scholar
[29] Li, Y., S. A. Chen, H. F. Hu, C. R. Zou, Z. H. Chen, and X. Ma. A meltable precursor for zirconium carbide ceramics and C/C-ZrC composites. Ceramic International, Vol. 44, 2018, pp. 10175–101080.10.1016/j.ceramint.2018.03.007Search in Google Scholar
[30] Zhang, J. P., Q. G. Fu, M. D. Tong, and X. Liu. Microstructure, ablation behavior and thermal retardant ability of C/C-HfB2 composites prepared by precursor infiltration pyrolysis combined with chemical vapor infiltration. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, Vol. 742, 2018, pp. 123–129.10.1016/j.jallcom.2018.01.284Search in Google Scholar
[31] Xu, B. S., S. B. Zhou, C. Q. Hong, J. C. Han, and X. Zhang. Mechanical enhancement of lightweight ZrB2-modified carbon-bonded carbon fiber composites with self-grown carbon nanotubes. Carbon, Vol. 102, 2016, pp. 487–493.10.1016/j.carbon.2016.02.077Search in Google Scholar
[32] Tong, Y., S. X. Bai, Y. L. Hu, X. B. Liang, Y. C. Ye, and Q. H. Qin. Laser ablation resistance and mechanism of Si-Zr alloyed melt infiltrated C/C-SiC composite. Ceramics International, Vol. 44, 2018, pp. 3692–3698.10.1016/j.ceramint.2017.11.141Search in Google Scholar
[33] Wu, H. T., X. Wei, S. Q. Yu, and W. G. Zhang. Ablation Performances of Multi-phased C/C-ZrC-SiC Ultra-high-Temperature Composites. Journal of Inorganic Materials, Vol. 26, 2011, pp. 852–856.10.3724/SP.J.1077.2011.00852Search in Google Scholar
[34] Feng, B., H. Li, Y. Zhang, L. Liu, and M. Yan. Effect of SiC/ZrC ratio on the mechanical and ablation properties of C/C–SiC–ZrC composites. Corrosion Science, Vol. 82, 2014, pp. 27–35.10.1016/j.corsci.2013.12.017Search in Google Scholar
[35] Xie, J., K. Z. Li, H. J. Li, Q. G. Fu, and L. J. Guo. Ablation behavior and mechanism of C/C–ZrC–SiC composites under an oxyacetylene torch at 3000°C. Ceramics International, Vol. 39, 2013, pp. 4171–4178.10.1016/j.ceramint.2012.10.273Search in Google Scholar
[36] Ma, C. H., L. J. Guo, H. J. Li, W. L. Tan, T. Duan, N. K. Liu, et al. Effects of high temperature annealing on the microstructures and mechanical properties of C/C-ZrC-SiC composites prepared by precursor infiltration and pyrolysis. Materials & Design, Vol. 90, 2016, pp. 373–378.10.1016/j.matdes.2015.10.140Search in Google Scholar
[37] Zhang, M. Y., K. Z. Li, X. H. Shi, L. J. Guo, J. J. Sun, and Q. L. Shen. Effects of low-temperature thermal cycling treatment on the microstructures, mechanical properties and oxidation resistance of C/C-ZrC-SiC composites. Journal of Alloys Compounds, Vol. 721, 2017, pp. 28–35.10.1016/j.jallcom.2017.05.263Search in Google Scholar
[38] Wu, X. W., Z. A. Su, Q. Z. Huang, K. Tong, X. M. Xie, and C. Zeng. Effect of ZrC particle distribution on the ablation resistance of C/C-SiC-ZrC composites fabricated using precursor infiltration pyrolysis. Ceramics International, Vol. 46, 2020, pp. 16062–16067.10.1016/j.ceramint.2020.03.157Search in Google Scholar
[39] Tan, W. L., K. Z. Li, H. J. Li, J. P. Zhang, C. Ni, A. Z. Cao, et al. Ablation behavior and mechanism of C/C-HfC-SiC composites. Vacuum, Vol. 116, 2015, pp. 124–129.10.1016/j.vacuum.2015.03.024Search in Google Scholar
[40] Li, K. Z., T. Duan, J. P. Zhang, N. K. Liu, and M. Y. Zhang. Ablation mechanism of carbon/carbon composites modified by HfC-SiC in two conditions under oxyacetylene torch. Journal of Materials Science & Technology, Vol. 33, 2017, pp. 71–78.10.1016/j.jmst.2016.01.013Search in Google Scholar
[41] Yan, C., R. Liu, C. Zhang, Y. Cao, and Y. Wang. Effects of SiC/HfC ratios on the ablation and mechanical properties of 3D Cf/HfC-SiC composites. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, Vol. 37, 2017, pp. 2343–2351.10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2017.01.017Search in Google Scholar
[42] Appiah, K. A., Z. L. Wang, and W. J. Lackey. Characterization of interfaces in C fiber-reinforced laminated C–SiC matrix composites. Carbon, Vol. 38, 2000, pp. 831–838.10.1016/S0008-6223(99)00177-3Search in Google Scholar
[43] Hu, C. L., W. H. Hong, X. J. Xu, S. F. Tang, S. Y. Du, and H. M. Cheng. Sandwich-structured C/C-SiC composites fabricated by electromagnetic-coupling chemical vapor infiltration. Scientific Reports, Vol. 7, 2017, id. 13120.10.1038/s41598-017-13569-9Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[44] Pierson, H. Handbook of chemical vapour deposition: Principles, technology and applications, William Andrew Publishing, New York, 1999.Search in Google Scholar
[45] Xiong, X., Y. L. Wang, Z. K. Chen, and G. D. Li. Mechanical properties and fracture behaviors of C/C composites with PyC/TaC/PyC, PyC/SiC/TaC/PyC multi-interlayers. Solid State Science, Vol. 11, 2009, pp. 1386–1392.10.1016/j.solidstatesciences.2009.04.021Search in Google Scholar
[46] Chen, Z. K., X. Xiong, B. Y. Huang, G. D. Li, P. Xiao, H. B. Zhang, et al. Ablation behaviors of C/C composites with pyrocarbon (PyC)-TaC-PyC multi-interlayers in oxyacetylene flame. Acta Materiae Compositae Sinica, Vol. 26, 2009, pp. 155–161.Search in Google Scholar
[47] Chen, Z. and X. Xiong. Microstructure, mechanical properties and oxidation behavior of carbon fiber reinforced PyC/C-TaC/PyC layered-structure ceramic matrix composites prepared by chemical vapor infiltration. Materials Chemistry and Physics, Vol. 141, 2013, pp. 613–619.10.1016/j.matchemphys.2013.05.008Search in Google Scholar
[48] Tong, M., Q. G. Fu, D. Hu, L. Zhou, and T. Feng. Improvement of ablation resistance of CVD-HfC/SiC coating on hemisphere shaped C/C composites by introducing diffusion interface. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, Vol. 41, 2021, pp. 4067–4075.10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2021.02.004Search in Google Scholar
[49] Zhang, J., Y. L. Zhang, Y. Q. Fu, Y. T. Zhang, and X. F. Zhu. Growth mechanism and ablation behavior of CVD-HfC coating on the surface of C/C composites and CVD-SiC coating. Composites Part B, Vol. 192, 2021, id. 109819.10.1016/j.corsci.2021.109819Search in Google Scholar
[50] Ren, J. C., E. R. Feng, Y. L. Zhang, J. Zhang, D. H. Ding, and L. Li. Influences of deposition temperature, gas flow rate and ZrC content on the microstructure and anti-ablation performance of CVD-HfC-ZrC coating. Ceramics International, Vol. 47, 2021, pp. 556–566.10.1016/j.ceramint.2020.08.163Search in Google Scholar
[51] Luo, X., X. Yang, Q. Z. Huang, A. H. Shi, C. Q. Fang, and Y. Q. Weng. Ablative property and mechanism of ZrC-TaC/ZrC-SiC coatings on C/C composites under different heat fluxes. Journal of Thermal Spray Technology, Vol. 30, 2021, pp. 1582–1594.10.1007/s11666-021-01215-wSearch in Google Scholar
[52] Zhang, J., Y. L. Zhang, Y. Q. Fu, D. Hu, J. C. Meng, and T. Li. Ablation behavior of HfC coating with different thickness for carbon/carbon composites at ultra-high temperature. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, Vol. 41, 2021, pp. 1769–1778.10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2020.10.055Search in Google Scholar
[53] Chen, S. A., H. L. Ji, Y. Li, G. D. Li, M. Mei, and H. F. Hu. Effects of high temperature annealing on the microstructure and properties of C/ZrC composites prepared by reactive melt infiltration. Materials Science and Engineering A, Vol. 686, 2017, pp. 41–45.10.1016/j.msea.2016.12.059Search in Google Scholar
[54] Zou, L. H., N. Wali, J. M. Yang, N. P. Bansal, and D. Yan. Microstructural development of a Cf/ZrC composite manufactured by reactive melt infiltration. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, Vol. 30, 2010, pp. 1527–1535.10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2009.10.016Search in Google Scholar
[55] Wang, Y. G., X. J. Zhu, L. T. Zhang, and L. F. Cheng. Reaction kinetics and ablation properties of C/C-ZrC composites fabricated by reactive melt infiltration. Ceramics International, Vol. 37, 2011, pp. 1277–1283.10.1016/j.ceramint.2010.12.002Search in Google Scholar
[56] Schulte-Fischedick, J., A. Zern, J. Mayer, M. Rühle, M. Frieß, W. Krenke, et al. The morphology of silicon carbide in C/C-SiC composites. Materials Science and Engineering A, Vol. 332, 2002, pp. 146–152.10.1016/S0921-5093(01)01719-1Search in Google Scholar
[57] Li, Y., P. Xiao, Z. Li, W. Zhou, T. Liensdorf, W. Freudenberg, et al. Strength evolution of cyclic loaded LSI-based C/C-SiC composites. Ceramics International, Vol. 42, 2016, pp. 14505–14510.10.1016/j.ceramint.2016.06.061Search in Google Scholar
[58] Liu, L., L. L. Zhang, W. Feng, J. P. Li, Y. P. Bai, D. Tao, et al. Microstructure and properties of C/C–SiC composites prepared by reactive melt infiltration at low temperature in vacuum. Ceramics International, Vol. 46, 2020, pp. 8469–8472.10.1016/j.ceramint.2019.11.195Search in Google Scholar
[59] Zhou, W. Y., L. P. Ran, K. Peng, Y. C. Ge, H. Wu, and M. Z. Yi. Microstructure and ablation property of a carbon/carbon–ZrC composite fabricated by reactive melt infiltration with Zr/Cu powder mixture. Advanced Engineering Materials, Vol. 18, 2016, pp. 162–168.10.1002/adem.201500206Search in Google Scholar
[60] Zhu, Y., S. Wang, H. Chen, W. Li, J. Jiang, and Z. Chen. Fabrication of Cf/ZrC composites by infiltrating Cf/C preforms with Zr–Cu alloys. Materials Letter, Vol. 108, 2013, pp. 204–207.10.1016/j.matlet.2013.06.111Search in Google Scholar
[61] Chen, S. A., C. R. Zhang, Y. D. Zhang, and H. F. Hu. Influence of pyrocarbon amount in C/C preform on the microstructure and properties of C/ZrC composites prepared via reactive melt infiltration. Materials & Design, Vol. 58, 2014, pp. 570–576.10.1016/j.matdes.2013.12.071Search in Google Scholar
[62] Li, Z. Q., H. J. Li, S. Y. Zhang, J. Wang, W. Li, and F. J. Sun. Effect of reaction melt infiltration temperature on the ablation properties of 2D C/C–SiC–ZrC composites. Corrosion Science, Vol. 58, 2012, pp. 12–19.10.1016/j.corsci.2012.01.001Search in Google Scholar
[63] Chang, Y. B., W. Sun, X. Xiong, Z. K. Chen, Y. L. Wang, Z. H. Hao, et al. Microstructure and ablation behaviors of a novel gradient C/C-ZrC-SiC composite fabricated by an improved reactive melt infiltration. Ceramics International, Vol. 42, 2016, pp. 16906–16915.10.1016/j.ceramint.2016.07.190Search in Google Scholar
[64] Wang, Y. G., X. J. Zhu, L. T. Zhang, and L. F. Cheng. C/C–SiC–ZrC composites fabricated by reactive melt infiltration with Si0.87Zr0.13 alloy. Ceramics International, Vol. 38, pp. 4337–4343.10.1016/j.ceramint.2012.02.016Search in Google Scholar
[65] Chen, B. W., D. W. Ni, J. X. Wang, Y. L. Jiang, Q. Ding, L. Gao, et al. Ablation behavior of Cf/ZrC-SiC-based composites fabricated by an improved reactive melt infiltration. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, Vol. 39, 2019, pp. 4617–4624.10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2019.07.007Search in Google Scholar
[66] Duan, L., X. Zhao, and Y. G. Wang. Comparative ablation behaviors of C/SiC-HfC composites prepared by reactive melt infiltration and precursor infiltration and pyrolysis routes. Ceramics International, Vol. 43, 2017, pp. 16114–16120.10.1016/j.ceramint.2017.08.175Search in Google Scholar
[67] Chen, Y. T., W. Sun, X. Xiong, Y. B. Chang, Y. L. Xu, Z. Peng, et al. Microstructure, thermophysical properties, and ablation resistance of C/HfC-ZrC-SiC composites. Ceramics International, Vol. 45, 2019, pp. 4685–4691.10.1016/j.ceramint.2018.11.160Search in Google Scholar
[68] Makurunje, P., F. Monteverde, and I. Sigalas. Self-generating oxidation protective high temperature glass-ceramic coatings for Cf/C-SiC-TiC-TaC UHTC matrix composites. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, Vol. 37, 2017, pp. 3227–3239.10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2017.03.068Search in Google Scholar
[69] Liu, Y., Q. G. Fu, B. B. Wang, T. Y. Liu, and J. Sun. The ablation behavior and mechanical property of C/C-SiC-ZrB2 composites fabricated by reactive melt infiltration. Ceramics International, Vol. 43, 2017, pp. 6138–6147.10.1016/j.ceramint.2017.02.008Search in Google Scholar
[70] Chen, X. W., S. M. Dong, Y. M. Kan, H. J. Zhou, D. W. Ni, and D. K. Wang. Microstructure and mechanical properties of three dimensional Cf/SiC-ZrC-ZrB2 composites prepared by reactive melt infiltration method. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, Vol. 36, 2016, pp. 3969–3976.10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.07.002Search in Google Scholar
[71] Zhou, H. J., D. W. Ni, P. He, J. S. Yang, J. B. Hu, and S. M. Dong. Ablation behavior of C/C-ZrC and C/SiC-ZrC composites fabricated by a joint process of slurry impregnation and chemical vapor infiltration. Ceramics International, Vol. 44, 2018, pp. 4777–4782.10.1016/j.ceramint.2017.12.062Search in Google Scholar
[72] Sha, J. J., S. H. Wang, J. X. Dai, Y. F. Zu, W. Q. Li, and R. Y. Sha. Improved microstructure and high temperature mechanical properties of C/C–SiC composites by introduction of ZrC nanoparticles. Ceramics International, Vol. 45, 2020, pp. 8082–8091.10.1016/j.ceramint.2019.12.034Search in Google Scholar
[73] Djugum, R. and K. Sharp. The fabrication and performance of C/C composites impregnated with TaC filler. Carbon, Vol. 115, 2017, pp. 105–115.10.1016/j.carbon.2016.12.019Search in Google Scholar
[74] Ran, L. P., F. Rao, K. Peng, H. Yin, and M. Z. Yi. Preparation and properties of C/C−ZrB2−SiC composites by high-solid-loading slurry impregnation and polymer infiltration and pyrolysis (PIP). Transaction of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, Vol. 29, 2019, pp. 2141–2150.10.1016/S1003-6326(19)65120-4Search in Google Scholar
[75] Tang, S. F., J. Y. Deng, S. J. Wang, W. C. Liu, and K. Yang. Ablation behaviors of ultra-high temperature ceramic composites. Materials Science and Engineering A, Vol. 465, 2007, pp. 1–7.10.1016/j.msea.2007.02.040Search in Google Scholar
[76] Jia, Y., S. A. Chen, Y. Li, S. Wang, and H. F. Hu. High-temperature mechanical properties and microstructure of C/C‒ZrC‒SiC‒ZrB2 composites prepared by a joint process of precursor infiltration and pyrolysis and slurry infiltration. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, Vol. 811, 2019, id. 151953.10.1016/j.jallcom.2019.151953Search in Google Scholar
[77] Hu, C., S. Pang, S. Tang, Y. Wang, and H. M. Cheng. An integrated composite with a porous Cf/C–ZrB2–SiC core between two compact outer layers of Cf/C–ZrB2–SiC and Cf/C–SiC. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, Vol. 35, 2015, pp. 1113–1117.10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2014.10.005Search in Google Scholar
[78] Baker, B., V. Rubio, P. Ramanujam, J. Binner, A. Hussain, T. Ackerman, et al. Development of a slurry injection technique for continuous fibre ultra-high temperature ceramic matrix composites. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, Vol. 39, 2019, pp. 3927–3937.10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2019.05.070Search in Google Scholar
[79] Hu, P., Y. Cheng, X. Guo, C. Ma, P. Hu, Q. Qu, et al. Architectural engineering inspired method of preparing Cf/ZrC-SiC with graceful mechanical responses. Journal of the American Ceramic Society, Vol. 102, 2019, pp. 70–78.10.1111/jace.16018Search in Google Scholar
[80] Hu, P., D. Y. Zhang, S. Dong, Q. Qu, and X. H. Zhang. A novel vibration-assisted slurry impregnation to fabricate Cf/ZrB2-SiC composite with enhanced mechanical properties. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, Vol. 39, 2019, pp. 798–805.10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2018.10.029Search in Google Scholar
[81] Cheng, Y., P. Hu, W. Z. Zhang, C. Ma, J. X. Feng, Q. P. Fan, et al. One-step introduction of ZrC-SiC inside carbon fabric to fabricate high homogeneous and damage-tolerant composite inspired by vibration. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, Vol. 39, 2019, pp. 2251–2256.10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2019.02.030Search in Google Scholar
[82] Zhang, D. Y., J. X. Feng, P. Hu, L. C. Xun, M. Liu, S. Dong, et al. Enhanced mechanical properties and thermal shock resistance of Cf/ZrB2-SiC composite via an efficient slurry injection combined with vibration-assisted vacuum infiltration. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, Vol. 40, 2020, pp. 5059–5066.10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2020.07.003Search in Google Scholar
[83] Hu, P., Y. Cheng, M. S. Xie, Y. Yang, C. Liu, Q. Qu, et al. Damage mechanism analysis to the carbon fiber and fiber-ceramic interface tailoring of Cf/ZrC-SiC using PyC coating. Ceramics International, Vol. 44, 2018, pp. 19038–19043.10.1016/j.ceramint.2018.07.065Search in Google Scholar
[84] Hu, P., Y. Cheng, D. Zhang, L. Xun, M. Liu, C. Zhang, et al. From ferroconcrete to Cf/UHTC-SiC: A totally novel densification method and mechanism at 1300°C without pressure. Composites Part B, Vol. 174, 2019, p. 107023.10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.107023Search in Google Scholar
[85] Zhang, D., H. Y. Yu, A. Z. Wan, P. Hu, L. Ren, and D. B. Sun. Ablation behavior and mechanisms of 3D Cf/ZrB2-SiC composite applied in long-term temperature up to 2400°C. Corrosion Science, Vol. 190, 2021, id. 109706.10.1016/j.corsci.2021.109706Search in Google Scholar
[86] Larrimbe, L., M. Pettinà, K. Nikbin, E. L. Jones, A. P. Katz, C. J. Hawkins, et al. Vandeperre. High heat flux laser testing of HfB2 cylinders. Journal of the American Ceramic Society, Vol. 100, 2017, pp. 293–303.10.1111/jace.14474Search in Google Scholar
[87] Scatteia, L., D. Alfano, S. Cantoni, F. Monteverde, A. Di Maso, and M. De Stefano Fumo. Plasma torch test of an ultra-high-temperature ceramics nose cone demonstrator. Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, Vol. 47, 2010, pp. 271–279.10.2514/1.42834Search in Google Scholar
[88] Sciti, D., L. Zoli, L. Silvestroni, A. Cecere, G. D. D. Martino, and R. Savino. Design, fabrication and high velocity oxy-fuel torch tests of a Cf-ZrB2-fiber nozzle to evaluate its potential in rocket motors. Materials & Design, Vol. 109, 2016, pp. 709–717.10.1016/j.matdes.2016.07.090Search in Google Scholar
[89] Paul, A., J. G. P. Binner, B. Vaidhyanathan, A. C. J. Heaton, and P. M. Brown. Oxyacetylene torch testing and microstructural characterization of tantalum carbide. Journal of Microscopy, Vol. 250, 2013, pp. 122–129.10.1111/jmi.12028Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[90] Savino, R., M. De Stefano Fumo, D. Paterna, A. D. Maso, and F. Monteverde. Arcjet testing of ultra-high-temperature-ceramics. Aerospace Science and Technology, Vol. 14, 2010, pp. 178–187.10.1016/j.ast.2009.12.004Search in Google Scholar
[91] Parthasarathy, T. A., M. D. Petry, G. Jefferson, M. K. Cinibulk, T. Mathur, and M. R. Gruber. Development of a test to evaluate aerothermal response of materials to hypersonic flow using a scramjet wind tunnel. International Journal of Applied Ceramic Technology, Vol. 8, 2011, pp. 832–847.10.1111/j.1744-7402.2010.02515.xSearch in Google Scholar
[92] Purwar, A., V. Thiruvenkatam, and B. Basu. Experimental and computational analysis of thermo-oxidative-structural stability of ZrB2–SiC–Ti during arcjet testing. Journal of the American Ceramic Society, Vol. 100, 2017, pp. 4860–4873.10.1111/jace.15001Search in Google Scholar
[93] Ritt, P. J., P. A. Williams, S. C. Splinter, and J. H. Perepezko. Arc jet testing and evaluation of Mo–Si–B coated Mo and SiC–ZrB2 ceramics. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, Vol. 34, 2014, pp. 3521–3533.10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2014.06.011Search in Google Scholar
[94] Li, K. Z., J. Xie, H. J. Li, and Q. G. Fu. Ablative and mechanical properties of C/C-ZrC composites prepared by precursor infiltration and pyrolysis process. Journal of Materials Science & Technology, Vol. 31, 2015, pp. 77–82.10.1016/j.jmst.2014.01.015Search in Google Scholar
[95] Li, S. P., K. Z. Li, H. J. Li, Y. L. Li, and Y. Q. Yuan. Effect of HfC on the ablative and mechanical properties of C/C composites. Materials Science and Engineering A, Vol. 517, 2009, pp. 61–67.10.1016/j.msea.2009.03.040Search in Google Scholar
[96] Li, J., X. Yang, Z. A. Su, L. Xue, P. Zhong, S. P. Li, et al. Effect of ZrC-SiC content on microstructure and ablation properties of C/C composites. Transaction of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, Vol. 26, 2016, pp. 2653–2664.10.1016/S1003-6326(16)64392-3Search in Google Scholar
[97] Wang, S. L., H. Li, M. S. Ren, Y. Z. Zuo, M. Yang, J. B. Zhang, et al. Microstructure and ablation mechanism of C/C-ZrC-SiC composites in a plasma flame. Ceramics International, Vol. 43, 2017, pp. 10661–10667.10.1016/j.ceramint.2017.04.089Search in Google Scholar
[98] Xie, J., K. Z. Li, G. D. Sun, H. Li, X. H. Su, Y. S. Han, et al. Effects of surface structure unit of 2D needled carbon fiber preform on the microstructure and ablation properties of C/C-ZrC-SiC composites. Ceramics International, Vol. 45, 2019, pp. 11912–11919.10.1016/j.ceramint.2019.03.078Search in Google Scholar
[99] Li, Z. Q., H. J. Li, S. Y. Zhang, and K. Z. Li. Microstructure and ablation behaviors of integer felt reinforced C/C–SiC–ZrC composites prepared by a two-step method. Ceramics International, Vol. 38, 2012, pp. 3419–3425.10.1016/j.ceramint.2011.12.054Search in Google Scholar
[100] Liu, Y., Q. G. Fu, Y. W. Guan, B. B. Wang, and Q. L. Shen. Ablation behavior of sharp-shape C/C-SiC-ZrB2 composites under oxyacetylene flame. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, Vol. 713, 2017, pp. 19–27.10.1016/j.jallcom.2017.04.188Search in Google Scholar
[101] Wang, C., K. Z. Li, Y. Lu, L. Peng, B. L. Li, and Z. G. Zhao. Effect of ablative angles on the ablation behaviors of ZrB2-SiC modified carbon/carbon composites. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, Vol. 745, 2018, pp. 569–578.10.1016/j.jallcom.2018.02.228Search in Google Scholar
[102] Li, H. J., X. Y. Yao, Y. L. Zhang, K. Z. Li, L. J. Guo, and L. Liu. Effect of heat flux on ablation behaviour and mechanism of C/C–ZrB2–SiC composite under oxyacetylene torch flame. Corrosion Science, Vol. 74, 2013, pp. 265–270.10.1016/j.corsci.2013.04.052Search in Google Scholar
[103] Chen, B. W., D. W. Ni, C. J. Liao, Y. L. Jiang, J. Lu, and S. M. Dong. Long-term ablation behavior and mechanisms of 2D-Cf/ZrB2-SiC composites at temperatures up to 2400°C. Corrosion Science, Vol. 177, 2020, id. 108967.10.1016/j.corsci.2020.108967Search in Google Scholar
[104] Yan, M., H. J. Li, Q. G. Fu, J. Xie, L. Liu, and B. Feng. Ablative Property of C/C–SiC–HfC Composites Prepared via Precursor Infiltration and Pyrolysis under 3000°C Oxyacetylene Torch. Acta Metallurgica Sinica (English Letters), Vol. 27, 2014, pp. 981–987.10.1007/s40195-014-0110-ySearch in Google Scholar
[105] Zhang, J. P., Q. G. Fu, and L. Wang. Preparation, ablation behavior and thermal retardant ability of C/C-HfB2-SiC composites. Materials & Design, Vol. 132, 2017, pp. 552–558.10.1016/j.matdes.2017.07.041Search in Google Scholar
[106] Zhang, J. P., J. L. Qu, and Q. G. Fu. Ablation behavior of nose shaped HfB2-SiC modified carbon/carbon composites exposed to oxyacetylene torch. Corrosion Science, Vol. 151, 2019, pp. 87–96.10.1016/j.corsci.2019.02.015Search in Google Scholar
[107] Yang, X., Q. Z. Huang, Z. A. Su, X. Chang, L. Xue, P. Zhong, et al. Ablative property and mechanism of C/C-ZrB2-ZrC-SiC composites reinforced by SiC networks under plasma flame. Corrosion Science, Vol. 107, 2016, pp. 9–20.10.1016/j.corsci.2016.02.015Search in Google Scholar
[108] Yang, X., Z. Su, Q. Huang, X. Chang, C. Fang, L. Chen, et al. Effects of oxidizing species on ablation behavior of C/C-ZrB2-ZrC-SiC composites prepared by precursor infiltration and pyrolysis. Ceramics International, Vol. 42, 2016, pp. 19195–19205.10.1016/j.ceramint.2016.09.083Search in Google Scholar
[109] Li, Q. G., S. M. Dong, Z. Wang, and G. Shi. Fabrication and properties of 3-D Cf/ZrB2-ZrC-SiC composites via polymer infiltration and pyrolysis. Ceramics International, Vol. 39, 2013, pp. 5937–5941.10.1016/j.ceramint.2012.11.074Search in Google Scholar
[110] Duan, L. Y., L. Luo, L. P. Liu, and Y. G. Wang. Ablation of C/SiC-HfC composite prepared by precursor infiltration and pyrolysis in plasma wind tunnel. Journal of Advanced Ceramics, Vol. 9, 2020, pp. 393–402.10.1007/s40145-020-0379-4Search in Google Scholar
[111] Yan, C. L., R. J. Liu, Y. B. Cao, C. R. Zhang, and D. K. Zhang. Ablation behavior and mechanism of C/ZrC, C/ZrC-SiC and C/SiC composites fabricated by polymer infiltration and pyrolysis process. Corrosion Science, Vol. 86, 2014, pp. 131–141.10.1016/j.corsci.2014.05.005Search in Google Scholar
[112] Chen, S. A., H. Hu, Y. Zhang, C. Zhang, and Q. Wang. Effects of high-temperature annealing on the microstructure and properties of C/SiC-ZrB2 composites. Materials & Design, Vol. 53, 2014, pp. 791–796.10.1016/j.matdes.2013.06.073Search in Google Scholar
[113] Oana, M. M., P. Neff, M. Valdez, A. Powell, M. Packard, L. S. Walker, et al. Oxidation behavior of aerospace materials in high enthalpy flows using an oxyacetylene torch facility. Journal of the American Ceramic Society, Vol. 98, 2015, pp. 1300–1307.10.1111/jace.13462Search in Google Scholar
[114] Wang, D. C., Y. Lei, W. Jiao, Y. F. Liu, C. H. Mu, and X. Jian. A review of helical carbon materials structure, synthesis and application. Rare Metals, Vol. 40, 2021, pp. 3–19.10.1007/s12598-020-01622-ySearch in Google Scholar
[115] Yin, X. M., L. Y. Han, H. M. Liu, N. Li, Q. Song, Q. G. Fu, et al. Recent progress in 1D nanostructures reinforced carbon/carbon composites. Advanced Functional Materials, Vol. 32, 2022, id. 2204965.10.1002/adfm.202204965Search in Google Scholar
[116] Poorathingal, S. J., B. M. Soto, and C. Brewer. Effective permeability of carbon composites under reentry conditions. AIAA Journal, Vol. 60, 2022, pp. 1293–1302.10.2514/1.J060630Search in Google Scholar
[117] Yang, X. X., L. W. Wu, J. Hou, B. Y. Meng, R. Ali, Y. F. Liu, et al. Symmetrical growth of carbon nanotube arrays on FeSiAl micro-flake for enhancement of lithium-ion battery capacity. Carbon, Vol. 189, 2022, pp. 93–103.10.1016/j.carbon.2021.12.033Search in Google Scholar
[118] Dong, Y. W., E. T. Wang, Y. C. You, C. P. Yin, and Z. P. Wu. Thermal protection system and thermal management for combined-cycle engine: Review and prospects. Energies, Vol. 12, 2019, id. 240.10.3390/en12020240Search in Google Scholar
[119] Arai, Y., R. Inoue, K. Goto, and Y. Kogo. Carbon fiber reinforced ultra-high temperature ceramic matrix composites: A review. Ceramics International, Vol. 45, 2019, pp. 14481–14489.10.1016/j.ceramint.2019.05.065Search in Google Scholar
[120] Squire, T. H., and J. Marschal. Materials property requirements for analysis and design of UHTC components in hypersonic applications. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, Vol. 30, 2010, pp. 2239–2251.10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2010.01.026Search in Google Scholar
© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Articles in the same Issue
- Review Articles
- Progress in preparation and ablation resistance of ultra-high-temperature ceramics modified C/C composites for extreme environment
- Solar lighting systems applied in photocatalysis to treat pollutants – A review
- Technological advances in three-dimensional skin tissue engineering
- Hybrid magnesium matrix composites: A review of reinforcement philosophies, mechanical and tribological characteristics
- Application prospect of calcium peroxide nanoparticles in biomedical field
- Research progress on basalt fiber-based functionalized composites
- Evaluation of the properties and applications of FRP bars and anchors: A review
- A critical review on mechanical, durability, and microstructural properties of industrial by-product-based geopolymer composites
- Multifunctional engineered cementitious composites modified with nanomaterials and their applications: An overview
- Role of bioglass derivatives in tissue regeneration and repair: A review
- Research progress on properties of cement-based composites incorporating graphene oxide
- Properties of ultra-high performance concrete and conventional concrete with coal bottom ash as aggregate replacement and nanoadditives: A review
- A scientometric review of the literature on the incorporation of steel fibers in ultra-high-performance concrete with research mapping knowledge
- Weldability of high nitrogen steels: A review
- Application of waste recycle tire steel fibers as a construction material in concrete
- Wear properties of graphene-reinforced aluminium metal matrix composite: A review
- Experimental investigations of electrodeposited Zn–Ni, Zn–Co, and Ni–Cr–Co–based novel coatings on AA7075 substrate to ameliorate the mechanical, abrasion, morphological, and corrosion properties for automotive applications
- Research evolution on self-healing asphalt: A scientometric review for knowledge mapping
- Recent developments in the mechanical properties of hybrid fiber metal laminates in the automotive industry: A review
- A review of microscopic characterization and related properties of fiber-incorporated cement-based materials
- Comparison and review of classical and machine learning-based constitutive models for polymers used in aeronautical thermoplastic composites
- Gold nanoparticle-based strategies against SARS-CoV-2: A review
- Poly-ferric sulphate as superior coagulant: A review on preparation methods and properties
- A review on ceramic waste-based concrete: A step toward sustainable concrete
- Modification of the structure and properties of oxide layers on aluminium alloys: A review
- A review of magnetically driven swimming microrobots: Material selection, structure design, control method, and applications
- Polyimide–nickel nanocomposites fabrication, properties, and applications: A review
- Design and analysis of timber-concrete-based civil structures and its applications: A brief review
- Effect of fiber treatment on physical and mechanical properties of natural fiber-reinforced composites: A review
- Blending and functionalisation modification of 3D printed polylactic acid for fused deposition modeling
- A critical review on functionally graded ceramic materials for cutting tools: Current trends and future prospects
- Heme iron as potential iron fortifier for food application – characterization by material techniques
- An overview of the research trends on fiber-reinforced shotcrete for construction applications
- High-entropy alloys: A review of their performance as promising materials for hydrogen and molten salt storage
- Effect of the axial compression ratio on the seismic behavior of resilient concrete walls with concealed column stirrups
- Research Articles
- Effect of fiber orientation and elevated temperature on the mechanical properties of unidirectional continuous kenaf reinforced PLA composites
- Optimizing the ECAP processing parameters of pure Cu through experimental, finite element, and response surface approaches
- Study on the solidification property and mechanism of soft soil based on the industrial waste residue
- Preparation and photocatalytic degradation of Sulfamethoxazole by g-C3N4 nano composite samples
- Impact of thermal modification on color and chemical changes of African padauk, merbau, mahogany, and iroko wood species
- The evaluation of the mechanical properties of glass, kenaf, and honeycomb fiber-reinforced composite
- Evaluation of a novel steel box-soft body combination for bridge protection against ship collision
- Study on the uniaxial compression constitutive relationship of modified yellow mud from minority dwelling in western Sichuan, China
- Ultrasonic longitudinal torsion-assisted biotic bone drilling: An experimental study
- Green synthesis, characterizations, and antibacterial activity of silver nanoparticles from Themeda quadrivalvis, in conjugation with macrolide antibiotics against respiratory pathogens
- Performance analysis of WEDM during the machining of Inconel 690 miniature gear using RSM and ANN modeling approaches
- Biosynthesis of Ag/bentonite, ZnO/bentonite, and Ag/ZnO/bentonite nanocomposites by aqueous leaf extract of Hagenia abyssinica for antibacterial activities
- Eco-friendly MoS2/waste coconut oil nanofluid for machining of magnesium implants
- Silica and kaolin reinforced aluminum matrix composite for heat storage
- Optimal design of glazed hollow bead thermal insulation mortar containing fly ash and slag based on response surface methodology
- Hemp seed oil nanoemulsion with Sapindus saponins as a potential carrier for iron supplement and vitamin D
- A numerical study on thin film flow and heat transfer enhancement for copper nanoparticles dispersed in ethylene glycol
- Research on complex multimodal vibration characteristics of offshore platform
- Applicability of fractal models for characterising pore structure of hybrid basalt–polypropylene fibre-reinforced concrete
- Influence of sodium silicate to precursor ratio on mechanical properties and durability of the metakaolin/fly ash alkali-activated sustainable mortar using manufactured sand
- An experimental study of bending resistance of multi-size PFRC beams
- Characterization, biocompatibility, and optimization of electrospun SF/PCL composite nanofiber films
- Morphological classification method and data-driven estimation of the joint roughness coefficient by consideration of two-order asperity
- Prediction and simulation of mechanical properties of borophene-reinforced epoxy nanocomposites using molecular dynamics and FEA
- Nanoemulsions of essential oils stabilized with saponins exhibiting antibacterial and antioxidative properties
- Fabrication and performance analysis of sustainable municipal solid waste incineration fly ash alkali-activated acoustic barriers
- Electrostatic-spinning construction of HCNTs@Ti3C2T x MXenes hybrid aerogel microspheres for tunable microwave absorption
- Investigation of the mechanical properties, surface quality, and energy efficiency of a fused filament fabrication for PA6
- Experimental study on mechanical properties of coal gangue base geopolymer recycled aggregate concrete reinforced by steel fiber and nano-Al2O3
- Hybrid bio-fiber/bio-ceramic composite materials: Mechanical performance, thermal stability, and morphological analysis
- Experimental study on recycled steel fiber-reinforced concrete under repeated impact
- Effect of rare earth Nd on the microstructural transformation and mechanical properties of 7xxx series aluminum alloys
- Color match evaluation using instrumental method for three single-shade resin composites before and after in-office bleaching
- Exploring temperature-resilient recycled aggregate concrete with waste rubber: An experimental and multi-objective optimization analysis
- Study on aging mechanism of SBS/SBR compound-modified asphalt based on molecular dynamics
- Evolution of the pore structure of pumice aggregate concrete and the effect on compressive strength
- Effect of alkaline treatment time of fibers and microcrystalline cellulose addition on mechanical properties of unsaturated polyester composites reinforced by cantala fibers
- Optimization of eggshell particles to produce eco-friendly green fillers with bamboo reinforcement in organic friction materials
- An effective approach to improve microstructure and tribological properties of cold sprayed Al alloys
- Luminescence and temperature-sensing properties of Li+, Na+, or K+, Tm3+, and Yb3+ co-doped Bi2WO6 phosphors
- Effect of molybdenum tailings aggregate on mechanical properties of engineered cementitious composites and stirrup-confined ECC stub columns
- Experimental study on the seismic performance of short shear walls comprising cold-formed steel and high-strength reinforced concrete with concealed bracing
- Failure criteria and microstructure evolution mechanism of the alkali–silica reaction of concrete
- Mechanical, fracture-deformation, and tribology behavior of fillers-reinforced sisal fiber composites for lightweight automotive applications
- UV aging behavior evolution characterization of HALS-modified asphalt based on micro-morphological features
- Preparation of VO2/graphene/SiC film by water vapor oxidation
- A semi-empirical model for predicting carbonation depth of RAC under two-dimensional conditions
- Comparison of the physical properties of different polyimide nanocomposite films containing organoclays varying in alkyl chain lengths
- Effects of freeze–thaw cycles on micro and meso-structural characteristics and mechanical properties of porous asphalt mixtures
- Flexural performance of a new type of slightly curved arc HRB400 steel bars reinforced one-way concrete slabs
- Alkali-activated binder based on red mud with class F fly ash and ground granulated blast-furnace slag under ambient temperature
- Facile synthesis of g-C3N4 nanosheets for effective degradation of organic pollutants via ball milling
- DEM study on the loading rate effect of marble under different confining pressures
- Conductive and self-cleaning composite membranes from corn husk nanofiber embedded with inorganic fillers (TiO2, CaO, and eggshell) by sol–gel and casting processes for smart membrane applications
- Laser re-melting of modified multimodal Cr3C2–NiCr coatings by HVOF: Effect on the microstructure and anticorrosion properties
- Damage constitutive model of jointed rock mass considering structural features and load effect
- Thermosetting polymer composites: Manufacturing and properties study
- CSG compressive strength prediction based on LSTM and interpretable machine learning
- Axial compression behavior and stress–strain relationship of slurry-wrapping treatment recycled aggregate concrete-filled steel tube short columns
- Space-time evolution characteristics of loaded gas-bearing coal fractures based on industrial μCT
- Dual-biprism-based single-camera high-speed 3D-digital image correlation for deformation measurement on sandwich structures under low velocity impact
- Effects of cold deformation modes on microstructure uniformity and mechanical properties of large 2219 Al–Cu alloy rings
- Basalt fiber as natural reinforcement to improve the performance of ecological grouting slurry for the conservation of earthen sites
- Interaction of micro-fluid structure in a pressure-driven duct flow with a nearby placed current-carrying wire: A numerical investigation
- A simulation modeling methodology considering random multiple shots for shot peening process
- Optimization and characterization of composite modified asphalt with pyrolytic carbon black and chicken feather fiber
- Synthesis, characterization, and application of the novel nanomagnet adsorbent for the removal of Cr(vi) ions
- Multi-perspective structural integrity-based computational investigations on airframe of Gyrodyne-configured multi-rotor UAV through coupled CFD and FEA approaches for various lightweight sandwich composites and alloys
- Influence of PVA fibers on the durability of cementitious composites under the wet–heat–salt coupling environment
- Compressive behavior of BFRP-confined ceramsite concrete: An experimental study and stress–strain model
- Interval models for uncertainty analysis and degradation prediction of the mechanical properties of rubber
- Preparation of PVDF-HFP/CB/Ni nanocomposite films for piezoelectric energy harvesting
- Frost resistance and life prediction of recycled brick aggregate concrete with waste polypropylene fiber
- Synthetic leathers as a possible source of chemicals and odorous substances in indoor environment
- Mechanical properties of seawater volcanic scoria aggregate concrete-filled circular GFRP and stainless steel tubes under axial compression
- Effect of curved anchor impellers on power consumption and hydrodynamic parameters of yield stress fluids (Bingham–Papanastasiou model) in stirred tanks
- All-dielectric tunable zero-refractive index metamaterials based on phase change materials
- Influence of ultrasonication time on the various properties of alkaline-treated mango seed waste filler reinforced PVA biocomposite
- Research on key casting process of high-grade CNC machine tool bed nodular cast iron
- Latest research progress of SiCp/Al composite for electronic packaging
- Special Issue on 3D and 4D Printing of Advanced Functional Materials - Part I
- Molecular dynamics simulation on electrohydrodynamic atomization: Stable dripping mode by pre-load voltage
- Research progress of metal-based additive manufacturing in medical implants
Articles in the same Issue
- Review Articles
- Progress in preparation and ablation resistance of ultra-high-temperature ceramics modified C/C composites for extreme environment
- Solar lighting systems applied in photocatalysis to treat pollutants – A review
- Technological advances in three-dimensional skin tissue engineering
- Hybrid magnesium matrix composites: A review of reinforcement philosophies, mechanical and tribological characteristics
- Application prospect of calcium peroxide nanoparticles in biomedical field
- Research progress on basalt fiber-based functionalized composites
- Evaluation of the properties and applications of FRP bars and anchors: A review
- A critical review on mechanical, durability, and microstructural properties of industrial by-product-based geopolymer composites
- Multifunctional engineered cementitious composites modified with nanomaterials and their applications: An overview
- Role of bioglass derivatives in tissue regeneration and repair: A review
- Research progress on properties of cement-based composites incorporating graphene oxide
- Properties of ultra-high performance concrete and conventional concrete with coal bottom ash as aggregate replacement and nanoadditives: A review
- A scientometric review of the literature on the incorporation of steel fibers in ultra-high-performance concrete with research mapping knowledge
- Weldability of high nitrogen steels: A review
- Application of waste recycle tire steel fibers as a construction material in concrete
- Wear properties of graphene-reinforced aluminium metal matrix composite: A review
- Experimental investigations of electrodeposited Zn–Ni, Zn–Co, and Ni–Cr–Co–based novel coatings on AA7075 substrate to ameliorate the mechanical, abrasion, morphological, and corrosion properties for automotive applications
- Research evolution on self-healing asphalt: A scientometric review for knowledge mapping
- Recent developments in the mechanical properties of hybrid fiber metal laminates in the automotive industry: A review
- A review of microscopic characterization and related properties of fiber-incorporated cement-based materials
- Comparison and review of classical and machine learning-based constitutive models for polymers used in aeronautical thermoplastic composites
- Gold nanoparticle-based strategies against SARS-CoV-2: A review
- Poly-ferric sulphate as superior coagulant: A review on preparation methods and properties
- A review on ceramic waste-based concrete: A step toward sustainable concrete
- Modification of the structure and properties of oxide layers on aluminium alloys: A review
- A review of magnetically driven swimming microrobots: Material selection, structure design, control method, and applications
- Polyimide–nickel nanocomposites fabrication, properties, and applications: A review
- Design and analysis of timber-concrete-based civil structures and its applications: A brief review
- Effect of fiber treatment on physical and mechanical properties of natural fiber-reinforced composites: A review
- Blending and functionalisation modification of 3D printed polylactic acid for fused deposition modeling
- A critical review on functionally graded ceramic materials for cutting tools: Current trends and future prospects
- Heme iron as potential iron fortifier for food application – characterization by material techniques
- An overview of the research trends on fiber-reinforced shotcrete for construction applications
- High-entropy alloys: A review of their performance as promising materials for hydrogen and molten salt storage
- Effect of the axial compression ratio on the seismic behavior of resilient concrete walls with concealed column stirrups
- Research Articles
- Effect of fiber orientation and elevated temperature on the mechanical properties of unidirectional continuous kenaf reinforced PLA composites
- Optimizing the ECAP processing parameters of pure Cu through experimental, finite element, and response surface approaches
- Study on the solidification property and mechanism of soft soil based on the industrial waste residue
- Preparation and photocatalytic degradation of Sulfamethoxazole by g-C3N4 nano composite samples
- Impact of thermal modification on color and chemical changes of African padauk, merbau, mahogany, and iroko wood species
- The evaluation of the mechanical properties of glass, kenaf, and honeycomb fiber-reinforced composite
- Evaluation of a novel steel box-soft body combination for bridge protection against ship collision
- Study on the uniaxial compression constitutive relationship of modified yellow mud from minority dwelling in western Sichuan, China
- Ultrasonic longitudinal torsion-assisted biotic bone drilling: An experimental study
- Green synthesis, characterizations, and antibacterial activity of silver nanoparticles from Themeda quadrivalvis, in conjugation with macrolide antibiotics against respiratory pathogens
- Performance analysis of WEDM during the machining of Inconel 690 miniature gear using RSM and ANN modeling approaches
- Biosynthesis of Ag/bentonite, ZnO/bentonite, and Ag/ZnO/bentonite nanocomposites by aqueous leaf extract of Hagenia abyssinica for antibacterial activities
- Eco-friendly MoS2/waste coconut oil nanofluid for machining of magnesium implants
- Silica and kaolin reinforced aluminum matrix composite for heat storage
- Optimal design of glazed hollow bead thermal insulation mortar containing fly ash and slag based on response surface methodology
- Hemp seed oil nanoemulsion with Sapindus saponins as a potential carrier for iron supplement and vitamin D
- A numerical study on thin film flow and heat transfer enhancement for copper nanoparticles dispersed in ethylene glycol
- Research on complex multimodal vibration characteristics of offshore platform
- Applicability of fractal models for characterising pore structure of hybrid basalt–polypropylene fibre-reinforced concrete
- Influence of sodium silicate to precursor ratio on mechanical properties and durability of the metakaolin/fly ash alkali-activated sustainable mortar using manufactured sand
- An experimental study of bending resistance of multi-size PFRC beams
- Characterization, biocompatibility, and optimization of electrospun SF/PCL composite nanofiber films
- Morphological classification method and data-driven estimation of the joint roughness coefficient by consideration of two-order asperity
- Prediction and simulation of mechanical properties of borophene-reinforced epoxy nanocomposites using molecular dynamics and FEA
- Nanoemulsions of essential oils stabilized with saponins exhibiting antibacterial and antioxidative properties
- Fabrication and performance analysis of sustainable municipal solid waste incineration fly ash alkali-activated acoustic barriers
- Electrostatic-spinning construction of HCNTs@Ti3C2T x MXenes hybrid aerogel microspheres for tunable microwave absorption
- Investigation of the mechanical properties, surface quality, and energy efficiency of a fused filament fabrication for PA6
- Experimental study on mechanical properties of coal gangue base geopolymer recycled aggregate concrete reinforced by steel fiber and nano-Al2O3
- Hybrid bio-fiber/bio-ceramic composite materials: Mechanical performance, thermal stability, and morphological analysis
- Experimental study on recycled steel fiber-reinforced concrete under repeated impact
- Effect of rare earth Nd on the microstructural transformation and mechanical properties of 7xxx series aluminum alloys
- Color match evaluation using instrumental method for three single-shade resin composites before and after in-office bleaching
- Exploring temperature-resilient recycled aggregate concrete with waste rubber: An experimental and multi-objective optimization analysis
- Study on aging mechanism of SBS/SBR compound-modified asphalt based on molecular dynamics
- Evolution of the pore structure of pumice aggregate concrete and the effect on compressive strength
- Effect of alkaline treatment time of fibers and microcrystalline cellulose addition on mechanical properties of unsaturated polyester composites reinforced by cantala fibers
- Optimization of eggshell particles to produce eco-friendly green fillers with bamboo reinforcement in organic friction materials
- An effective approach to improve microstructure and tribological properties of cold sprayed Al alloys
- Luminescence and temperature-sensing properties of Li+, Na+, or K+, Tm3+, and Yb3+ co-doped Bi2WO6 phosphors
- Effect of molybdenum tailings aggregate on mechanical properties of engineered cementitious composites and stirrup-confined ECC stub columns
- Experimental study on the seismic performance of short shear walls comprising cold-formed steel and high-strength reinforced concrete with concealed bracing
- Failure criteria and microstructure evolution mechanism of the alkali–silica reaction of concrete
- Mechanical, fracture-deformation, and tribology behavior of fillers-reinforced sisal fiber composites for lightweight automotive applications
- UV aging behavior evolution characterization of HALS-modified asphalt based on micro-morphological features
- Preparation of VO2/graphene/SiC film by water vapor oxidation
- A semi-empirical model for predicting carbonation depth of RAC under two-dimensional conditions
- Comparison of the physical properties of different polyimide nanocomposite films containing organoclays varying in alkyl chain lengths
- Effects of freeze–thaw cycles on micro and meso-structural characteristics and mechanical properties of porous asphalt mixtures
- Flexural performance of a new type of slightly curved arc HRB400 steel bars reinforced one-way concrete slabs
- Alkali-activated binder based on red mud with class F fly ash and ground granulated blast-furnace slag under ambient temperature
- Facile synthesis of g-C3N4 nanosheets for effective degradation of organic pollutants via ball milling
- DEM study on the loading rate effect of marble under different confining pressures
- Conductive and self-cleaning composite membranes from corn husk nanofiber embedded with inorganic fillers (TiO2, CaO, and eggshell) by sol–gel and casting processes for smart membrane applications
- Laser re-melting of modified multimodal Cr3C2–NiCr coatings by HVOF: Effect on the microstructure and anticorrosion properties
- Damage constitutive model of jointed rock mass considering structural features and load effect
- Thermosetting polymer composites: Manufacturing and properties study
- CSG compressive strength prediction based on LSTM and interpretable machine learning
- Axial compression behavior and stress–strain relationship of slurry-wrapping treatment recycled aggregate concrete-filled steel tube short columns
- Space-time evolution characteristics of loaded gas-bearing coal fractures based on industrial μCT
- Dual-biprism-based single-camera high-speed 3D-digital image correlation for deformation measurement on sandwich structures under low velocity impact
- Effects of cold deformation modes on microstructure uniformity and mechanical properties of large 2219 Al–Cu alloy rings
- Basalt fiber as natural reinforcement to improve the performance of ecological grouting slurry for the conservation of earthen sites
- Interaction of micro-fluid structure in a pressure-driven duct flow with a nearby placed current-carrying wire: A numerical investigation
- A simulation modeling methodology considering random multiple shots for shot peening process
- Optimization and characterization of composite modified asphalt with pyrolytic carbon black and chicken feather fiber
- Synthesis, characterization, and application of the novel nanomagnet adsorbent for the removal of Cr(vi) ions
- Multi-perspective structural integrity-based computational investigations on airframe of Gyrodyne-configured multi-rotor UAV through coupled CFD and FEA approaches for various lightweight sandwich composites and alloys
- Influence of PVA fibers on the durability of cementitious composites under the wet–heat–salt coupling environment
- Compressive behavior of BFRP-confined ceramsite concrete: An experimental study and stress–strain model
- Interval models for uncertainty analysis and degradation prediction of the mechanical properties of rubber
- Preparation of PVDF-HFP/CB/Ni nanocomposite films for piezoelectric energy harvesting
- Frost resistance and life prediction of recycled brick aggregate concrete with waste polypropylene fiber
- Synthetic leathers as a possible source of chemicals and odorous substances in indoor environment
- Mechanical properties of seawater volcanic scoria aggregate concrete-filled circular GFRP and stainless steel tubes under axial compression
- Effect of curved anchor impellers on power consumption and hydrodynamic parameters of yield stress fluids (Bingham–Papanastasiou model) in stirred tanks
- All-dielectric tunable zero-refractive index metamaterials based on phase change materials
- Influence of ultrasonication time on the various properties of alkaline-treated mango seed waste filler reinforced PVA biocomposite
- Research on key casting process of high-grade CNC machine tool bed nodular cast iron
- Latest research progress of SiCp/Al composite for electronic packaging
- Special Issue on 3D and 4D Printing of Advanced Functional Materials - Part I
- Molecular dynamics simulation on electrohydrodynamic atomization: Stable dripping mode by pre-load voltage
- Research progress of metal-based additive manufacturing in medical implants
