Materials-based drug delivery approaches: Recent advances and future perspectives
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JinJin Pei
Abstract
Materials-based drug delivery approaches have garnered substantial attention in recent years due to their potential to revolutionize pharmaceutical interventions. This abstract provides a concise overview of recent advancements and future prospects in this rapidly evolving field. Materials such as nanoparticles, liposomes, polymers, and hydrogels have emerged as versatile carriers for drug delivery. These materials facilitate precise control over drug release kinetics, enabling targeted and sustained therapeutic effects. Smart materials with responsiveness to external stimuli or physiological conditions have further enhanced drug delivery precision. Personalized medicine approaches are gaining traction, tailoring drug delivery systems to individual patient profiles and needs. The horizon for materials-based drug delivery is bright. Ongoing research is focused on refining material design, streamlining production processes, and ensuring safety profiles. Collaborative efforts among researchers, clinicians, and industry stakeholders are crucial for translating these advancements into clinical practice. Additionally, the convergence of drug delivery with diagnostics and imaging holds immense potential for personalized and efficient healthcare solutions. As materials-based drug delivery continues to evolve, it stands poised to reshape the landscape of pharmaceuticals, offering the promise of more effective and patient-centered therapies for a wide range of medical conditions.
1 Introduction
Nanotechnology, the science and engineering of materials and systems at the nanoscale, has emerged as a groundbreaking field with far-reaching implications across various industries, particularly in the realm of medicine [1]. The ability to manipulate and engineer materials at the nanoscale, typically defined as dimensions ranging from 1 to 100 nm, has paved the way for revolutionary advancements in drug delivery systems. In this introduction, we will delve into the significance of nanotechnology in the context of drug delivery, emphasizing the role of nanoparticles (NPs) in making drug delivery safer and more target-specific [2].
Drug delivery refers to the delivery of a pharmaceutical to a specific disease site in order to achieve safe and secure as well as efficient therapeutic outcomes. Drug delivery refers to the delivery of a pharmaceutical to a specific disease site in order to achieve safe and secure as well as efficient therapeutic outcomes. The fundamental problems of Drug Delivery Systems (DDS) are the safe delivery of medications to pathogenic areas [3]. Drug loading can be done successfully with NPs. In addition to enhancing pharmacokinetics, it can also enhance pharmacodynamics. Additionally, NPs maximize drug stability and can facilitate intravenous medication administration. A NP can be easily modified to target disease areas, thus making it an effective delivery system for drugs [4]. Targeted drug delivery can be achieved by selecting the right medication and nanocarriers. When targeting a drug to a specific disease site, it is important to understand how nanomedicine works, its biocompatibility, and its ability to pass through the biological barrier and release the drugs where they are needed. Nanocarriers have been studied by several research groups to see how their size and form affect cellular absorption. Drug delivery systems (DDSs) also require the preparation of nanocarriers. In order to deliver a drug to a targeted region of activity, a wide range of delivery systems have been used. There are advantages and disadvantages of each substance (Table 1) [5]. Natural-based derived drugs, often referred to as natural products or natural medicines, are pharmaceutical compounds that originate from natural sources such as plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms. These drugs have been used for centuries in traditional medicine systems and continue to be a valuable source of pharmacologically active compounds. Natural-based derived drugs offer a rich source of pharmacologically active compounds with diverse applications in both traditional and modern medicine. Their potential for drug discovery and development remains an important focus of pharmaceutical research and development [6].
Merits and demerits of DDS
| S. No. | Merits | Demerits |
|---|---|---|
| 1. | Increasing the duration of action, decreasing the frequency of dosing, and ensuring drug bioavailability | Possibility of toxicity of drug delivery device |
| 2. | Protecting drug from degradation | Possibility of harmful degradation products |
| 3. | Minimization of negative side effects of drugs | The necessity of surgical intervention either on systems application or removal |
| 4. | Improving patient compliance | Patients’ discomfort with DDS device usage |
| 5. | Improving medication use by reducing volatility in plasma concentration. | High cost of DDS and its utilization |
1.1 Importance of nanotechnology in drug delivery
Nanotechnology plays a pivotal role in drug delivery, offering numerous advantages that have transformed the pharmaceutical and medical fields [7]. The importance of nanotechnology in drug delivery can be understood through the following key points: Improved drug efficacy: Nanotechnology allows for the design of DDSs at the nanoscale, which enables more efficient drug delivery to target sites. Drugs delivered using NPs often have enhanced bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy. This means that lower doses of drugs can be used to achieve the desired therapeutic effect, reducing the risk of side effects [8]. Enhanced targeting: NPs can be engineered to target specific cells, tissues, or organs within the body. This level of precision minimizes the exposure of healthy tissues to the drug, reducing off-target effects. For example, NPs can be designed to accumulate in cancer cells, making them highly effective for targeted cancer therapy [9]. Overcoming biological barriers: The human body has natural defense mechanisms, such as the blood–brain barrier, that can prevent drugs from reaching their intended targets. NPs can be designed to bypass or breach these barriers, allowing drugs to reach sites that were previously inaccessible. This is particularly important for treating diseases like neurological disorders and brain tumors [10]. Sustained and controlled release: NPs can be engineered to release drugs in a controlled and sustained manner. This controlled release profile ensures that therapeutic concentrations of the drug are maintained over an extended period, reducing the need for frequent dosing and improving patient compliance [11]. Protection of labile drugs: Some drugs are sensitive to factors like light, heat, and enzymatic degradation. NPs can serve as protective carriers, shielding these labile drugs from degradation until they reach their target. This preservation of drug stability is crucial for ensuring drug efficacy [12]. Personalized medicine: Nanotechnology allows for the customization of DDSs based on individual patient profiles. By tailoring NPs to a patient’s unique characteristics, healthcare providers can optimize treatments for better therapeutic outcomes [13]. Reduced side effects: NP-based drug delivery can minimize systemic side effects since the drug is primarily delivered to the disease site. This reduces the impact of adverse reactions on a patient’s overall health and quality of life [14]. Minimized drug resistance: In the case of antimicrobial and chemotherapeutic drugs, NPs can help combat drug resistance. By targeting drug-resistant cells or bacteria more effectively, NPs can improve the effectiveness of treatment and slow down the development of resistance [15]. Combination therapies: Nanotechnology enables the incorporation of multiple drugs or therapeutic agents into a single nanoparticle, allowing for combination therapies. This can be especially beneficial for complex diseases or conditions that require a multifaceted approach to treatment [16]. Non-invasive delivery: NPs can be administered via various non-invasive routes, such as oral, nasal, or transdermal, making drug administration more convenient and comfortable for patients. Nanotechnology has revolutionized drug delivery by addressing some of the fundamental challenges in medicine. The ability to design NPs for targeted, controlled, and sustained drug delivery has the potential to improve treatment outcomes, reduce side effects, and open up new possibilities for personalized medicine. As research in nanotechnology continues to advance, it holds the promise of transforming the way we deliver and experience medical treatments [17].
1.2 NPs in drug delivery
NPs have gained widespread attention in DDSs due to their unique properties, which make them safer and more target-specific compared to traditional drug formulations; Size control: NPs can be precisely engineered to specific sizes, allowing them to navigate through the bloodstream and cellular barriers more effectively. Their small size enables them to access disease sites that larger drug carriers cannot reach. Surface functionalization: NPs can be modified with various functional groups and ligands that enable them to recognize and bind to specific cells or tissues. This customization ensures that the drug payload is delivered only to the intended target, minimizing off-target effects. Sustained release: NPs can be designed to release drugs in a controlled and sustained manner. This prolonged drug release profile not only enhances drug efficacy but also reduces the frequency of administration, improving patient compliance. Protection of drug payload: NPs can shield drugs from degradation, enzymatic breakdown, and premature release. This protection enhances the stability and bioavailability of the drug, resulting in a more effective therapeutic intervention. Nanotechnology has ushered in a new era of DDSs that offer improved efficacy, reduced toxicity, and greater precision in targeting disease sites. NPs, with their size control, surface functionalization capabilities, sustained release profiles, and drug protection features, are at the forefront of these innovations. As research and development in nanomedicine continue to advance, the potential for safer and more effective DDSs becomes increasingly promising, holding the promise of revolutionizing healthcare and improving patient outcomes [18].
2 Methods in synthesis of therapeutic nanomaterial
Therapeutic nanomaterials can be synthesized using various methods, including chemical, biological, and physical approaches. Each of these methods has its advantages and is chosen based on the desired properties of the nanomaterial and the intended therapeutic application [19]. An overview of each synthesis method is given below.
2.1 Chemical synthesis
Chemical synthesis is a widely used method for producing therapeutic nanomaterials with precise control over their size, shape, composition, and surface properties. This method involves chemical reactions that lead to the formation of NPs or nanomaterials [20]. Sol–gel method: This involves the conversion of a solution (sol) into a gel-like substance (gel) and then into a solid material. It is often used for creating nanomaterials like silica NPs and hydrogels for drug delivery [21]. Precipitation method: In this method, reactants are mixed in a solution, resulting in the formation of solid NPs as a precipitate. It is commonly used for metal and metal oxide NPs [22]. Emulsion techniques: Emulsion-based methods, such as the oil-in-water or water-in-oil emulsions, are used to prepare nanomaterials like polymeric NPs and liposomes for drug encapsulation [23]. Microfluidic synthesis: Microfluidic devices allow for precise control over reactant mixing, enabling the production of NPs with narrow size distributions. It is used for various nanomaterials, including liposomes, polymeric NPs, and lipid NPs [24]. Chemical reduction: This method is often employed to synthesize metallic NPs like gold and silver. Metal ions are reduced to form nanoscale metal particles in a controlled manner [25]. Polymerization techniques: Polymer NPs can be synthesized through methods such as emulsion polymerization, nanoprecipitation, and polymer–drug conjugation. These are widely used in DDSs. Chemical synthesis provides precise control over the characteristics of therapeutic nanomaterials, making it a versatile method for various applications, including drug delivery, imaging agents, and nanoscale therapeutics. Researchers continue to develop and refine chemical synthesis techniques to tailor nanomaterials for specific medical applications, improving drug delivery efficiency and therapeutic outcomes [26].
2.2 Biological synthesis
Biological synthesis, also known as “green synthesis,” involves the use of biological agents such as microorganisms, plants, or biomolecules to create therapeutic nanomaterials. This eco-friendly approach has gained attention due to its sustainability and potential to produce nanomaterials with unique properties [27]. Biological synthesis (green synthesis): This eco-friendly approach uses biological agents like bacteria, fungi, and plants to reduce and stabilize metal ions into NPs. It is cost-effective and sustainable, and it often produces NPs with unique properties [28]. Biomimetic synthesis: This method mimics biological processes to create nanomaterials. For instance, biomineralization can be used to produce calcium carbonate NPs by emulating the formation of shells or bones in living organisms [29].
Biological synthesis offers several advantages, including sustainability, biocompatibility, and the potential for creating NPs with unique properties. This method has been applied to produce a variety of therapeutic nanomaterials, including metallic NPs, quantum dots, and biodegradable polymeric NPs, for applications in drug delivery, imaging, and tissue engineering [30].
2.3 Physical synthesis
Physical synthesis methods are employed to produce therapeutic nanomaterials through physical processes such as condensation, precipitation, or evaporation [31]. These methods are particularly useful for generating nanomaterials with precise control over their size, structure, and composition. Mechanical milling: In this mechanical process, solid materials are subjected to milling, grinding, or attrition to produce nanoscale particles. It is commonly used for metallic and ceramic NPs. Physical vapor deposition (PVD): PVD techniques like sputtering and evaporation can be used to deposit thin films of nanomaterials onto substrates. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD): CVD processes allow the controlled growth of nanomaterials on substrates by introducing gaseous precursors and promoting their chemical reactions. Laser ablation: High-energy laser pulses can be used to ablate solid targets, creating NPs in a vapor plume. This method is used for generating metal and carbon-based NPs. After the physical synthesis, the NPs are typically subjected to characterization techniques such as electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and spectroscopy to confirm their properties. Depending on the intended therapeutic application, these nanomaterials can be further functionalized, formulated, and tested for their efficacy and safety in drug delivery, imaging, or other medical uses [32,33,34,35,36,37,38].
Each synthesis method has its own advantages and limitations, and the choice depends on factors such as the desired material properties, scalability, cost-effectiveness, and environmental impact. Researchers often select the most suitable method to achieve the specific therapeutic objectives of their nanomaterials, whether it is for drug delivery, diagnostics, or other therapeutic applications [39].
3 Physicochemical properties and factors affecting the synthesis of therapeutic NPs
Therapeutic NPs exhibit a range of physicochemical properties that are crucial for their effectiveness in various applications, including drug delivery, imaging, and therapy. These properties are influenced by several factors during the synthesis process [40]. In this section, the key physicochemical properties and the factors affecting their synthesis are discussed.
3.1 Particle size and distribution
Physicochemical property: The size of NPs is a critical parameter affecting their behavior, such as circulation time, cellular uptake, and biodistribution. Factors affecting synthesis: Choice of synthesis method: Different methods yield NPs with varying sizes. Concentration of reactants: Higher concentrations can lead to larger NPs. Reaction temperature and time: These parameters can influence particle growth kinetics [41].
3.2 Surface charge (zeta potential)
Physicochemical property: Zeta potential represents the electrostatic charge on the NP surface. It influences stability, cellular uptake, and interaction with biological components. Factors affecting synthesis: Choice of stabilizing agents or surface modifiers, pH of the reaction medium, and ionic strength of the solution [42].
3.3 Surface functionalization
Physicochemical property: The modification of NP surfaces with ligands or targeting moieties enhances their specificity and interaction with target cells or tissues. Factors affecting synthesis: The choice of functionalization agents and reaction conditions for attaching functional groups [43].
3.4 Surface area and porosity
Physicochemical property: High surface area and porosity can influence drug loading capacity in nanoparticle-based DDSs. Factors affecting synthesis: Template-assisted synthesis for porous NPs and the choice of precursor materials and synthesis conditions [44].
3.5 Crystallinity and structure
Physicochemical property: The crystallinity of NPs can affect their stability, drug release kinetics, and optical properties. Factors affecting synthesis: Temperature and pressure during synthesis and the choice of precursor materials and crystallization kinetics [45].
3.6 Drug encapsulation efficiency
Physicochemical property: In drug delivery applications, NPs must efficiently encapsulate therapeutic agents. Factors affecting synthesis: The choice of polymers or lipid materials, drug-to-carrier ratio, and the solvent and method used for drug encapsulation [46].
3.7 Surface hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity
Physicochemical property: Surface hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity can influence the release rate of encapsulated drugs and NP interactions with biological fluids. Factors affecting synthesis: The choice of surfactants or surface modifiers and surface chemical modifications [47].
3.8 Optical properties
Physicochemical property: NPs may possess unique optical properties, such as fluorescence or plasmonic resonance, which can be exploited for imaging and therapy. Factors affecting synthesis: The composition and size of NPs and surface chemistry and ligands [48].
3.9 Magnetic properties
Physicochemical property: Some NPs can exhibit magnetic properties, enabling their use in targeted drug delivery or imaging applications. Factors affecting synthesis: Composition and doping of NPs and applied magnetic fields during synthesis [49].
3.10 Biocompatibility and toxicity
Physicochemical property: The interaction of NPs with biological systems, including cytotoxicity and immunogenicity. Factors affecting synthesis: The choice of materials and surface coatings, purity, and composition of NPs [50].
Factors affecting the synthesis of therapeutic NPs include the choice of synthesis method, precursor materials, reaction conditions (temperature, pH, and time), and the use of stabilizing agents or surface modifiers. Careful control of these factors is essential to tailor the physicochemical properties of NPs for specific therapeutic applications while ensuring their safety and efficacy [51].
4 Classification of therapeutic nanomaterials
The dimensions, shapes, conditions, and chemical composition of NPs determine how they are classified (Figure 1). A NP is a compound with a particle size ranging from 10 to 100 nm that is used in nanotechnology. A material can be considered to be either 0D, 1D, or 2D based on its dimension. It is possible to use NPs in biomedical systems to achieve a number of objectives, including delivering medications, detecting chemical and biological substances, sensing gases, and capturing CO2 [52].
Different types of therapeutic nanomaterials.
4.1 Nano structured materials
4.1.1 Polymer-based materials
4.1.1.1 Dendrimers
It is widely used in therapeutic applications since dendrimers have hyperbranched, compartmentalized structures and high monodispersities. This polymer-based NP-based technology allows the manufacture of extremely tiny (1–5 nm) NPs by controlling the number of branches. Spherical polymerization is one method for making them, which results in the development of cavities within the dendrimer molecule. In comparison to smaller dendrimers used for delivery of therapeutic agents, high-generation dendrimers are able to achieve greater entrapment efficiency, like those containing more than 64 surface groups. In addition, dendrimers contain free end groups, so they can easily be modified/used to conjugate biocompatible substances, improving the protein’s bioavailability and cytotoxicity. For therapeutic applications, dendrimers can be made from monomers and copolymers including polyethyleneimine, polyamidoamine, poly(propyleneimine), chitin, and others [53].
4.1.1.2 NPs
Polymer-based NPs can be biocompatible, nonimmunogenic, nontoxic, and biodegradable, making them a promising alternative to conventional therapeutics. Synthetic polymers, such as polycaprolactone (PCL) and polylactic acid (PLA), and their monomers, are being reduced in immunogenicity and toxicity by using polyester forms [18]. In contrast, natural polymer-based NPs such as chitosan, gelatin, albumin, and alginate appear to overcome the toxicity issues and provide significant improvements in therapeutic agent performance. In this application, polymeric NPs serve as the matrix system, which is uniformly dispersed. It is possible to categorize them as nanocapsules or nanospheres, depending on their composition. Therapeutic agents are enclosed in nanocapsules by polymer membranes, whereas therapeutic agents are directly distributed within the polymer matrix by nanospheres [54].
4.1.1.3 Micelles
In order to deliver water-insoluble medicinal compounds systemically, polymeric micelles are widely used. In solution, they form aggregates of approximately <100 nm in size. Because they have a hydrophilic surface, they are protected from nonspecific absorption by the reticuloendothelial system, which contributes to their great stability within physiological systems. Due to its dynamic structure, it is capable of delivering a wide range of therapeutic agents, allowing for flexible loading capacity, conjugation of specific ligands, and a decrease in dissolution rate [55].
4.1.1.4 Drug conjugates
It is common to use polymer–drug molecule conjugation in the development of low molecular weight medicines, particularly in cancer treatment. The result of such a conjugation is that the drugs acquire a pharmacokinetic disposition in the cells as a result of their increased molecular weight. A polymer–drug conjugate acts as a carrier with ideal solubility, stability, and enhances the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect in cancer cells. Conjugation of polymer molecules with drug molecules is a common method for treating cancer, particularly with low molecular weight medicines. The conjugation increases the molecular weight of the medication, which consequently affects its pharmacokinetic disposition in cells [56]. Molecular conjugates of polymers and drugs have excellent solubility and stability, and they stimulate EPR in cancer cells. In terms of prolonged drug release and increased drug potency, polymer-drugs that contain covalently conjugated groups have been found to be more reliable. Polymeric drug conjugates are created by chemically linking polymers and drugs together in a pH-responsive manner. NPs are modulated by their pH sensitivity to modulate medication release due to the acidic environment at the tumor site [24]. The combination treatment of paclitaxel and doxorubicin with polymeric drug conjugates also enhanced drug bioavailability [57].
4.1.1.5 Nanogels
There are two types of gels: non-colloidal and polymeric networks that swell in response to liquid contact. Nanogels are gel particles that possess identical properties, but have a diameter of less than 100 nm, as defined by the International Union for Pure and Applied Chemistry. A natural or synthetic polymer that has been physically or chemically cross-linked is responsible for the swelling characteristics of nanogels, as well as their flexibility and high water content. In water, cholesterol-bearing pullulans self-assemble into nanogels through hydrophobic interactions [58]. This is the very first report of a nanogel made by physically crosslinking amphiphilic polysaccharides. Compared to alternative nanocarriers, nanogels offer some benefits, including reduced premature drug leakage, encapsulating multiple therapeutic compounds in a single formulation, and being able to administer via parenteral or mucosal routes [59].
4.1.2 Protein nanomaterials
Protein nanomaterials can be broadly classified into two main categories based on their composition and structure.
4.1.2.1 Natural protein nanomaterials
Natural protein nanomaterials are derived from proteins that occur naturally in living organisms. They can be isolated and used in their native form or with minimal modification. Examples include albumin NPs, gelatin NPs, silk fibroin NPs, and viral capsids (naturally occurring protein shells of viruses).
4.1.2.2 Engineered protein nanomaterials
Engineered protein nanomaterials are designed or modified proteins, often created through genetic engineering techniques. These proteins can be tailored to have specific properties or functionalities. Examples include designed protein NPs, recombinant proteins, and protein-drug conjugates.
These two main classifications encompass a wide range of protein nanomaterials with diverse structures and properties. Natural protein nanomaterials are often used for their biocompatibility and ease of production, while engineered protein nanomaterials offer precise control over properties and functionalities, making them versatile tools in various applications, including drug delivery, diagnostics, tissue engineering, and nanotechnology [60].
4.1.3 Lipid based nanomaterials
4.1.3.1 Liquid crystalline lipid NPs
Liquid crystalline lipid NPs, often referred to as liquid crystalline NPs (LCNPs) or lipid-based LCNPs, are a type of nanocarrier system used in drug delivery and other biomedical applications. These NPs are composed of lipids that can self-assemble into liquid crystalline phases. Liquid crystalline lipid NPs continue to be a subject of research and development, with ongoing efforts to optimize their properties and explore new applications in the field of drug delivery and biomedical sciences [61].
Liquid crystalline lipid NPs, including cubosomes, hexosomes, and spongosomes, are specialized lipid-based nanocarriers with unique properties. They are versatile nanocarriers with a range of potential applications in drug delivery, vaccine development, and biomedical research. These lipid-based nanocarriers involve a higher surface area as compared to liposomes and can encapsulate both hydrophobic and hydrophilic drugs [62].
4.1.3.2 Drug–lipid conjugates
Drug–lipid conjugates, also known as lipid–drug conjugates or lipophilic prodrugs, are molecules in which a drug or therapeutic agent is covalently linked or conjugated to a lipid molecule. This conjugation imparts specific properties to the drug, altering its pharmacokinetics, biodistribution, solubility, and bioavailability. Examples of lipid-drug conjugates include lipid prodrugs of anticancer agents, lipid-conjugated antiviral drugs, and lipid-based formulations of poorly water-soluble drugs. The design and optimization of drug–lipid conjugates continue to be an active area of research in the field of pharmaceutical sciences, aiming to improve drug delivery and therapeutic outcomes [63].
4.1.3.3 Micelles
Lipid systems can indeed form micelles under certain conditions. Micelles are self-assembled colloidal structures formed by amphiphilic molecules, which have both hydrophilic (water-attracting) and hydrophobic (water-repelling) regions. Lipids are a classic example of amphiphilic molecules, and they can form micelles when their concentration exceeds a critical value, known as the critical micelle concentration, and the environmental conditions are suitable. Lipid micelles are versatile structures with various applications in both scientific and industrial settings, offering unique solutions for the solubilization and delivery of hydrophobic compounds in aqueous environments [64].
4.1.3.4 Liposomes
Typical liposomes consist of a bilayer of lipid enclosing a hollow core of 50–1,000 nm in diameter. Medicines can be loaded into the hollow core and delivered through it. Multilamellar liposomes, small unilamellar liposomes, and large unilamellar liposomes are the three fundamental types. A liposome is composed of dry phospholipids that are hydrated to form a vesicle. In order to achieve diverse structure, composition, size, and flexibility, different lipid molecules could be used and their surfaces could be modified to produce them. A liposome is an intelligent carrier system that includes a membrane capable of fusing with the cytoplasm and releasing their contents into it. Today, liposomes are being studied for a wide range of clinical purposes, including cancer diagnosis and therapy, vaccinations, brain-targeted drug delivery, and antimicrobial treatment [65].
4.1.3.5 Exosomes
A variety of cell types can produce and release exosomes spontaneously. In bodily fluids, such as saliva, blood, urine, and breast milk, these extracellular vesicles are formed from endosomes with sizes ranging from 30–150 nm. RNA, DNA, proteins, and glycolipids are all contained within the lipid bilayer of exosomes, which resembles cell membranes. In physiological systems such as immune response, neuronal communication, and antigen presentation in diseases like cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and inflammation, exosomes contribute to intracellular communication. Because allogenic exosomes are isolated from a patient’s body fluids, they can protect the cargo from rapid clearance and improve drug delivery to targeted sites. Cancer and autoimmune diseases are being treated with exosomes as drug delivery carriers, as diagnostic biomarkers, and even as tissue regeneration agents [66].
4.1.3.6 Solid lipid NPs
A solid lipid NP can have a size between 10 and 1,000 nm, depending on how it is produced. NPs of solid lipids are lipid carriers that are capable of encapsulating large quantities of lipophilic and hydrophilic drugs as well as nucleic acids, making them a flexible means of drug delivery. Several studies have shown that they are effective carriers for cancer, pulmonary, and oral medications [67].
4.1.4 Non-polymeric particles
4.1.4.1 Carbon nanotubes
A carbon nanotube is a tubular structure made of carbon with a diameter of 1 nm and a length of 1–100 nm. A carbon nanotube is of three types: a single-walled nanotube, a multi-walled nanotube, and a C60 fullerene. Since carbon nanotubes are small and have consistent geometric structures, they are widely used in medicine as non-polymeric carriers. Furthermore, free radicals can be delivered to damaged mitochondria in order to protect them. Mitochondrial targeting can be achieved by using this property, enabling therapeutic drugs to be delivered to specific tissues [68].
4.1.4.2 Nanodiamonds
Carbon-based nanoscale materials are called nanodiamonds because their diameter is less than 100 nm. As a result of its chemically inert core and nitrogen defects, nanodiamonds have distinctive characteristics, such as electrostatic properties, low cytotoxicity, and low photobleaching. By immobilizing a wide variety of biomolecules, they can be functionalized, making them a good choice for biomedical applications such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), contact lens manufacture, and cancer treatment drugs. MRI can use a combination of diamonds and gadolinium(iii) as a contrast material, and the signal produced with this compound is many times larger than that produced with contrast agents containing Gd(iii) [69].
4.1.4.3 Metallic NPs
A majority of metallic NPs used in medical applications are made of cobalt, nickel, iron, gold, and associated oxides such as magnetite, maghemite, cobalt ferrite, and chromium dioxide. A variety of functional chemical groups can be added to them, allowing them to be adorned with medicinal agents, proteins, peptides, and DNA. Their magnetic properties, stability, and biocompatibility make them unique as carriers. A type of metallic NPs called gold NPs (AuNPs) are widely used for cancer diagnostics and treatment [70].
4.1.4.4 Quantum dots
A quantum dot is a very small semiconducting particle or nanocrystal that ranges in size from two to ten nanometers. There are unique colors associated with quantum dots. Quantum dots emit color in response to the structure of their core, whereas their outermost aqueous shell can be used to conjugate biomolecules such as peptides, proteins, and DNA. Since quantum dots emit a limited amount of light, are highly fluorescent, and have excellent photo-stability, they can be used to track therapeutic drugs in cells/tissues. Quantum dots are still being researched for medicinal applications, but their flexible surface, adaptive photophysical properties, and enhanced stability over extended study periods make them a better choice than other fluorescent agents for multiplexed detection [71].
4.1.4.5 Silica-based NPs
Silica-based NPs are advantageous in nanotechnology because of their adaptability for developing complex systems and their cost-effectiveness. As a result of the vast surface area of silica NPs, these molecules are coated with polar silanol groups, thereby enhancing water absorption and increasing the stability of therapeutic compounds. Furthermore, silica-based NPs are capable of interacting with nucleic acids, making them suitable for targeting the delivery of therapeutic substances [72].
4.2 Nanocrystalline materials
The term nanocrystalline particles refers to particles that are nanocrystalline in nature. It is common practice to use nanocrystal formulations for the treatment of poorly water-soluble medicines that have low bioavailability and absorption. Cost-effectiveness makes them a very attractive option. In addition to increasing surface area, the crystalline structure promotes dissolving at a faster rate. In particular, this property promotes solubility, which is important when the therapeutic index of the medication is limited as a result of difficulty in absorption. Nanocrystalline particles are advantageous for treatments that require rapid action due to their rapid breakdown, which allows for rapid absorption of therapeutic drugs. It is possible to generate a sustained or targeted release by altering the nanocrystalline surface, which allows medicines to be administered in low doses with reduced side effects [73].
Nanocrystalline materials, also known as nanocrystalline solids or nanocrystals, are materials with a crystalline structure characterized by nanoscale grain sizes. They exhibit unique properties due to their small grain dimensions. Nanocrystalline materials can be classified based on their composition as follows [74].
4.2.1 Metallic nanocrystalline materials
Metallic nanocrystalline materials are a class of materials composed of metallic elements or alloys with nanoscale grain sizes. These materials exhibit unique properties and characteristics due to the small grain dimensions, making them valuable for various industrial and technological applications. The development and use of metallic nanocrystalline materials continue to expand as researchers explore new alloy compositions and processing techniques, unlocking their potential in a wide range of industries and technologies [75].
4.2.2 Ceramic nanocrystalline materials
Ceramic nanocrystalline materials, often referred to as nanoceramics, are a class of ceramic materials characterized by nanoscale grain sizes in their crystalline structure. These materials exhibit unique properties and have a wide range of applications due to their enhanced mechanical, electrical, thermal, and optical characteristics. The unique combination of properties in ceramic nanocrystalline materials continues to drive research and innovation in various industries. Researchers are constantly exploring new ceramic compositions and fabrication techniques to further enhance their performance and expand their applications [76].
4.2.3 Polymeric nanocrystalline materials
Polymeric nanocrystalline materials, also known as nanocrystalline polymers or polymer nanocomposites, are a class of materials that combine polymers with nanoscale crystalline structures or nanoscale reinforcements. These materials offer a wide range of properties and applications due to the unique combination of polymer matrix and nanoscale features. Polymeric nanocrystalline materials continue to evolve as researchers explore new combinations of polymers and nanoscale reinforcements, leading to improved materials with novel properties and applications in a wide range of industries [77].
4.2.4 Semiconductor nanocrystalline materials
Semiconductor nanocrystalline materials, often referred to as semiconductor nanocrystals or quantum dots, are a class of semiconductor materials characterized by nanoscale dimensions. These materials have unique electronic and optical properties due to their size-dependent quantum effects, making them highly valuable for a variety of applications. Semiconductor nanocrystalline materials continue to be a subject of intensive research, leading to new applications and advancements in various fields, including electronics, photonics, energy, and medicine [78].
5 Nanocarriers for drug delivery
In the drug delivery process, a wide variety of nanocarriers (Figure 2) are employed. Examples of polymeric nanocarriers include dendrimers, polymer micelles, and other polymeric nanocarriers. Nanocarriers present several benefits for drug delivery, such as improving the stability of hydrophobic medications to facilitate their administration. In addition to improving biodistribution and pharmacokinetics, which will result in improved efficacy, An enhancement of the EPR effect, resulting in a greater degree of selective targeting, limited harmful effects due to preferred accumulation at target locations, and By using biocompatible nanomaterials, toxicity can be reduced [79].
Types of nanocarriers used in DDS.
6 Drug development
It is ultimately dependent on the characteristics of the specific medications as well as the biophysical and biochemical characteristics of nanotechnology that determine its use in medication development. Recently, the pharmaceutical and pharmacokinetic industries have worked to reduce the costs associated with the development of medications. As a result of the application of nanotechnology in the development of medication and the management of lifestyle, the development of drugs can be made more cost-effective. Medication based on nanotechnology is designed with the objective of minimizing toxicity and enhancing health outcomes. As a result of their biophysical stability and the ability to modify drug formulation, solid NPs provide significant benefits in the development of medication. Among the most commonly used polyesters are aliphatic polyesters, such as PLA, hydrophilic polyesters (glycolic acid), and their copolymers (lactide–co-glycolide). In order for NPs to be effective in the dosage, they must retain their particle size throughout their entire self-life, which can help improve the stability of medications [80].
7 Drug delivery
The field of drug delivery research is currently receiving a great deal of interest in order to successfully deliver drug molecules or therapeutic agents to their target sites for the treatment of various diseases. Over the past few years, numerous methods for delivering medications have been employed in the medical field. It is still necessary, however, to address a number of issues, such as how to successfully deliver medications to a particular location [70]. In recent years, scientists and health care professionals have become increasingly interested in nanotechnology-based medication delivery systems. A unique drug-targeting system is composed of an appropriate concentration, a therapeutic effect, and a long duration of circulation. As a result of this focused delivery, medication can be bound to specific locations and distributed to them efficiently. In medication delivery, nanotechnology has primarily been applied to NPs, which are mostly prescribed for the treatment of cancer [81].
NPs based on metals, inorganics, organics, and polymers, such as liposomes, micelles, and dendrimers, are commonly used in the development of target-specific DDS. As a result of their low solubility and absorption capacity, these NPs are responsible for the delivery of medication. It is important to note, however, that the efficiency of these NPs as drug delivery vehicles will vary depending on their form, size, and other biophysical/chemical characteristics. In addition to NPs, the term can also refer to nanostructures, nanospheres, nanovehicles, and nanocarriers. NPs were first developed by Gregory Gregoriadis for the delivery of medication. There have been numerous NP-based drug carriers established and some are being investigated for various diseases. Health care professionals use a variety of NP-based therapeutic DDSs, including polymer micelles, emulsions, and solid particles. There are currently a number of nano-based cancer treatments available, such as Caelyx®, Doxil®, Transdrug®, and Abraxane® [82].
8 DDS
The field of nanomedicine focuses on applying nanotechnology to medical care. Biopharmaceutical delivery challenges associated with drugs with extremely poor solubility (Figure 3) include limited bioaccess after oral consumption, reduced diffusion capacity into the outer membrane, higher intravenous dosage requirements, and undesired side effects prior to the intended vaccination. It is possible, however, to overcome all of these limitations by incorporating nanotechnology into the medication delivery system. In the field of NP applications, drug design at the nanoscale has been extensively researched and has been considered the most advanced technology due to its potential benefits, including the ability to alter features such as solubility, drug release patterns, diffusivity, bioavailability, and immunogenicity. Thus, more convenient methods of administration may be developed, resulting in reduced toxicity, fewer side effects, superior biodistribution, and a longer pharmaceutical life cycle [83]. In engineered DDSs, therapeutic chemicals are delivered to a specified location in a controlled manner or are directed to a specific site. During the process of self-assembly, well-defined shapes or patterns are spontaneously created from building components. There are two ways in which nanostructures can deliver medications: passively or autonomously. As a result of the hydrophobic effect of the structure, drugs are primarily incorporated into the structure’s interior cavity. Due to the hydrophobic nature of the medication, when the nanostructure materials are targeted to specific locations, the intended amount of the medication is released [84].
Various routes of drug administration in the human body.
9 NP-based DDSs: Diverse carriers and versatile routes
NPs are versatile drug delivery carriers, and their administration routes can vary depending on the type of NPs and their intended applications [85]. An overview of common NP types and their administration routes are as follows.
9.1 Liposomes
Intravenous (IV) injection: Liposomes are often administered intravenously for systemic drug delivery. This allows for rapid circulation and widespread distribution throughout the body. Topical application: Liposomal formulations are used in topical creams and ointments for localized skin drug delivery.
9.2 Polymeric NPs
Oral administration: Polymeric NPs can be formulated into oral dosage forms like pills or capsules for drug release in the gastrointestinal tract. Intravenous injection: Similar to liposomes, polymeric NPs can be administered intravenously for systemic drug delivery. Intramuscular or subcutaneous injection: Some polymeric NPs can be injected directly into muscle or under the skin for sustained drug release.
9.3 Nanocrystals
Oral administration: Nanocrystal formulations are often taken orally as suspensions or solid dosage forms for improved drug solubility and absorption in the gastrointestinal tract.
9.4 Nanotubes and nanofibers
Inhalation: Inhalable NPs, such as nanotubes and nanofibers, can be administered through inhalation devices for pulmonary drug delivery. This route is commonly used for respiratory treatments.
9.5 Metal NPs
Intravenous injection: Metal NPs, like AuNPs, can be injected intravenously for applications in targeted cancer therapy and imaging. Oral administration: Some metal NPs may be formulated for oral delivery, depending on their intended use and safety profile.
9.6 Dendrimers
Topical application: Dendrimers can be used in topical creams, gels, or ointments for localized skin drug delivery. Intravenous injection: Intravenous administration of dendrimers can enable targeted drug delivery to specific cells or tissues.
9.7 Silica NPs
Oral administration: Silica NPs may be used for oral drug delivery when encapsulated within suitable formulations. Intravenous injection: Intravenous administration allows for systemic distribution, and silica NPs can also be functionalized for targeted delivery.
9.8 Carbon nanotubes
Intravenous injection: Carbon nanotubes can be administered intravenously for applications such as cancer therapy. Inhalation: Inhalable carbon nanotubes are being explored for pulmonary drug delivery and nanoscale imaging [86].
It is important to note that the choice of administration route depends on the specific NP type, the drug being delivered, the target tissue or organ, and the therapeutic goals. Researchers continue to explore and optimize these routes to improve drug delivery efficiency and minimize side effects. The development of NP-based DDSs holds great potential for enhancing the effectiveness of various medications [87].
10 Polymeric NPs
NPs are made of biodegradable or biostabilized polymers and copolymers, and their size is less than 100 nm. As a result, the drug molecules may be entrapped or encapsulated within the particle, physically adsorb on the particle’s surface, or chemically bonded to the particle. It is possible to modify the composition of the hydrophobic and hydrophilic blocks within polymeric NPs to alter their core-shell structure. In the core of the capsule is a dense matrix of polymer that allows a hydrophobic medication to be enclosed [88].
11 Polymer DDS
In DDSs, polymer-based NPs are used as carriers. The materials are classified into two types: non-biodegradable materials and biodegradable materials (Figure 4) [80]. PLGA and PCL are two of the most commonly used synthetic polymer materials. There are no teratogenic properties associated with these polymers. They are biocompatible and nontoxic. Most drugs are stable in the presence of its degradation products, including oligomerization and final products. Peptides and polysaccharides are the most common types of natural polymers. There are some disadvantages associated with some polymer NPs. Natural polymers, such as chitosan, are incompatible with biological fluids, causing particle degradation and lowering productivity [89]. A structural change can remedy its deficiency. Combining chitosan and polyethylene glycol, the conjugate is unique in that it can be phagocytosed by macrophages as well as endocytosed. Furthermore, chitosan can be modified with polypeptides to improve its efficiency. Material that is composed of nanometer-sized units (1–100 nm) or containing at least one of them as a basic unit in three dimensions is termed nano DDS. In the field of pharmacy and modern biomedicine, nano DDSs have become a research hotspot due to their effectiveness in optimizing drug delivery. Over the past 40 years, nano-drug carriers have been studied and developed, creating a large number of nano-DDSs. Depending on their composition, nanomaterials used in nano DDSs can be classified as organic, inorganic, or composite materials. Several commonly used nano DDSs and their features are described below. Because of their excellent biocompatibility, biodegradability, and low price, several naturally occurring polymers have been found to be useful in the design of DDSs [90]. There are, however, a number of drawbacks associated with using this class of polymers, including a high immunogenic response, the potential for disease transmission, non-uniformity in characteristics between batches, and difficulties in purification. Synthetic polymers, on the other hand, provide a wide variety of compositions with variable properties (chemically, mechanically, and biologically). By modifying the building components or the preparation process, a DDS can be configured to provide specific attributes for a particular application. Due to their repeatable preparation, it is relatively easy to produce DDSs that meet the same specifications. The use of natural and synthetic polymers in the creation of DDSs is an intriguing concept. Ultimately, it is important to integrate the best properties of natural polymers (e.g., biodegradability and biocompatibility) with those of synthetic polymers (e.g., mechanical properties) [91].
Polymers in DDS.
11.1 Natural polymer
11.1.1 Protein
The protein is a high-molecular-weight structure composed of amino acid residues linked by amide bonds, which are often folded in a three-dimensional configuration. Human tissues are composed primarily of these components. It is important to note that several DDSs based on proteins have been developed, and some of the contributions are listed below. Collagen: It is the most common structural protein in the human body, and it is the primary component of connective tissues (skin, cartilage, tendons, and bones) [92]. There have been 28 types of collagen identified to date, with types I, II, III, and IV receiving the most attention. The protein collagen, which is primarily composed of glycine, proline, and hydroxyproline, is composed of three identical strands. In addition to being biodegradable, nontoxic, and low immunogenic, a natural-based polymer is also non-allergenic. Various active chemicals have been transported by collagen, including medications with low molecular weights and those with high molecular weights [93]. Gelatin: A gelatin-based DDS has been used to deliver anti-cancer medicines, proteins, and growth factors. In a study with ibuprofen as a model medication, Lin and colleagues developed a delivery system based on PCL particles embedded in gelatin. As a result of this approach, the drug was released for a longer time period and the adhesion properties were improved as well. It can therefore be used for wound healing [94]. Albumin: Approximately 50% of the total plasma mass is composed of albumin, the most abundant protein in human blood plasma. The molecular weight of the compound is approximately 66 kg·mol−1, and it is water soluble. In addition to carrying hydrophobic fatty acid molecules in the bloodstream, albumin also keeps the blood pH stable. In addition to its biodegradability, non-toxicity, non-immunogenicity, and antioxidant properties, albumin is a very promising material for biomedical/pharmaceutical applications, including drug delivery. Several studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of albumin-based drug carriers in the treatment of cancer. The reason for this is primarily due to the fact that albumin is used by cancer cells as a source of nitrogen and energy, and is absorbed by them via a mechanism of fluid phase endocytosis followed by lysosomal degradation. Consequently, medicines entrapped in albumin carriers are transported to the specific site of action, reducing the likelihood of systemic adverse effects [95]. A formulation of paclitaxel-albumin NPs called Abraxane® was approved by the Food and Drug Administration in 2005 for the treatment of cancer [96]. In recent years, this technology has been used to treat breast cancer. Additionally, albumin has been used in gene therapy, which involves delivering genetic material to specific cells in order to treat or prevent disease [97].
11.1.2 Polysaccharides
A polysaccharide is a molecule with a high molecular weight that consists of repeating monosaccharides. The features and structures of these organisms are diverse. A number of DDSs have been developed using chitosan, alginate, and dextran. Chitosan: In slightly acidic solutions, chitosan dissolves, but not in water or organic solvents. Chitosan is an appealing natural polymer for drug administration due to its high biodegradability, low toxicity, strong biocompatibility, and mucoadhesive properties [98]. Furthermore, it is capable of being functionalized with additional moieties. There have been several studies involving the use of chitosan microparticles and NPs in the encapsulation of active substances. Various methods are available for administering chitosan carriers, including intravenous, intraocular, oral, nasal, and mucosal. Generally, the most basic and gentle methods of producing chitosan particles are ionotropic gelation, polyelectrolyte complexation, and complex coacervation [99]. Alginic acid: By applying an alkaline and acidic process to brown algae, alginic acid is obtained as a cationic polymer. Their molecular weight may exceed 500 kg per molecule. There are several types of alginic acids, but sodium alginate is the most common. Due to the large number of acidic groups along the polymeric backbone, alginic acid quickly forms gels when in contact with divalent cations (e.g., Ca2+) at ambient temperatures. The ability to encapsulate active substances under mild conditions while retaining their full biological activity is an important feature of drug delivery. As far as biocompatibility and allergic reactions are concerned, alginate is non-allergenic [100]. Using gels based on alginate and crosslinked with divalent ions, low-molecular-weight and macromolecule medicines can be delivered in a sustained and localized manner. It has been found that they are unstable in biological fluids due to the exchange of crosslinking divalent ions by monovalent ions in the surrounding environment [101]. It results in a reduction in the mechanical strength of the gel, as well as a change in the properties of drug release. It is necessary to add additional molecules to alginate gels in order to avoid this problem. The use of alginate-based carriers has demonstrated efficacy in the treatment of cancer and ocular diseases. DDSs based on polysaccharides, including alginate, have also shown to be highly effective [102]. Dextran: Dextran is a homopolysaccharide that can be dissolved in water. A biomedical application would be appropriate for this material. In a variety of therapeutic applications, dextran-based carriers have been successful in delivering low- and high-molecular-weight medicines. As a result of the hydroxyl groups found in the polymeric chain, additional modification is possible, resulting in novel materials with unique properties and applications [103]. Dextran and hydrophobic chemicals were used to develop a pro-drug. When the pro-drug came in contact with water or water-miscible solvents, it self-assembled into NPs. Under pH ranges ranging from 4 to 11, these NPs were stable for several months and demonstrated good loading efficiency. Consequently, this approach proved to be effective in releasing hydrophobic medicines over a long period of time [104].
11.2 Artificial polymers
11.2.1 Cellulose derivatives
Biological polymers such as cellulose are derived from natural sources. There has been a substantial amount of research on the biological effects of cellulose derivatives such as ethers, esters, and acetals [105]. Hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose (HPMC): HPMC becomes hydrated when it is in contact with water or biological fluids, which results in the “disentanglement” of the polymeric matrix and the formation of a swelling gel layer. In HPMC matrices, drug release occurs in two stages: diffusion via the swelling gel layer and release associated with matrix degradation [106]. It is also possible that the viscosity of the gel layer generated after polymer hydration influences drug release from these matrices. A variety of medications have been administered using HPMC over the years. Several factors have been identified by Kamel and co-authors as influencing drug release behavior [107]. Ethylcellulose: Ethylcellulose is a derivative of cellulose. The chemical structure of ethylcellulose is such that it is a non-ionic cellulose ether that is insoluble in water but soluble in a number of polar organic solvents. In addition to diclofenac sodium, ketoprofen, betamethazone, nimesulide, 5-fluorouracil, and cefpodoxime proxetil, this regulation regulates the distribution of several medicines. In these contributions, certain factors, such as drug and polymer concentrations or solvent types, were investigated in order to develop distribution methods appropriate for each polymer [108]. A hydrophobically modified quaternized cellulose (HMQC) DDS has been developed by Song et al. (2011) [109]. An inadequately water-soluble medication was encapsulated in this polymer, which self-assembled in water. The toxicity of HMQC was also low [110].
11.3 Synthetic polymer
DDS is made up of a variety of synthetic polymers, each of which is described in this subsection [111]. Creating synthetic polymers with specific qualities for specific applications is one of their greatest advantages.
11.3.1 Biodegradable polymers
PLA: A wide range of applications are possible with PLA. In addition to being biocompatible, it is biodegradable. There are four different types of PLA: poly(l-lactic acid) (PLLA), poly(d-lactic acid), poly(d,l-lactic acid) (PDLLA), and meso-poly(l-lactic acid). Biomedical applications of PLLA and PDLLA have only been explored, and both materials take a long time to deteriorate in vivo. PLA NPs, however, have proven effective as carriers for a variety of active chemicals [112]. Poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA): In DDS, PLGA is one of the most widely used polymers. There are three aspects of its nature that make it biodegradable, biocompatible, and immunogenic. When PLGA is hydrolyzed, lactic acid and glycolic acid are produced, which are substances that can be effectively metabolized by the human body [113]. PCL: There is a wide range of organic solvents that dissolve PCL, a semicrystalline polymer with a low melting point (T m = 55–60°C) and a low glass transition temperature (T g = 60°C). Since it has a very low degradation rate in vivo, it has been used primarily for the construction of long-term DDSs. It has been reported that PCL microparticles and NPs have been used as drug carriers [114]. Poly(ortho esters) (POE): An eroding surface dissolves POE hydrophobic polymers with three geminal ether linkages. As a result of Heller’s extensive discussion of the DDS based on POE for many different types of medicines, POE is now classified into four families: POE I, POE II, POE III, and POE IV. The long-term release of analgesics and antiproliferative medications has already been demonstrated using POE-based carriers [115]. Poly(alkylcyanoacrylates) (PACA): In the biomedical/pharmaceutical fields, PACA polymers have a variety of applications (e.g., surgical glues, skin adhesives, drug delivery devices). It has been more than two decades since PACA particles were developed for the delivery of medications. PACA particles (microparticles, NPs, or capsules) have been successfully encapsulated with a wide variety of chemicals (peptides, proteins, oligonucleotides, anti-cancer, anti-infectious, and anti-inflammatory medications). PACA particles were discussed by Graf and colleagues [116] in terms of the manufacturing processes, the parameters that affect encapsulation efficiency, and the characteristics of drug release. An overview of some in vivo studies was presented along with their results. There has been successful use of PACA NPs in the treatment of cancer. This has resulted in PACA particles being able to overcome the multidrug resistance phenomenon that occasionally occurs in cancer treatment [117]. Drug-resistant cancer cells were not transported by PLGA or alginate NPs, but were transported by PACA NPs. There are a considerable number of research papers in the literature dealing with cancer therapy using PACA NPs [118].
11.3.2 Non-biodegradable polymers
Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA): The first acrylic polymer used in a biomedical application was PMMA, which is a biocompatible and biostable polymer. In the immediate aftermath of World War II, PMMA was used to manufacture intraocular lenses, and it is still used today to manufacture hard contact lenses [119]. A variety of biological fields can benefit from the application of PMMA as a versatile biocompatible polymer. In orthopedics, PMMA has been used for more than 20 years (e.g., in artificial joints and bone cements). Several of its applications, however, have been limited by its bio-inertness. The PMMA matrix should be filled with bioactive glasses or ceramics to address this issue [120]. It has been demonstrated that PMMA microparticles can effectively distribute antimicrobial medications to treat orthopedic infections as well as to deliver drugs to the gastrointestinal tract. It has been demonstrated that microparticles based on PMMA copolymers display stimuli-responsive behaviors, and their potential for drug administration has also been demonstrated [121]. Poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (PHEMA): There is no structural difference between PHEMA and PMMA. The polymer PHEMA has the capability of forming hydrogels as a result of its biostability. In controlled release applications, PHEMA-based polymers are widely used [122]. There are situations in which PHEMA delivery devices deliver a first medication “burst release” shortly after being hydrated. Therefore, structural adjustments may be necessary from time to time. Other areas of the biomedical field have also been accessible to PHEMA carriers, including cancer treatment and neurologic disease treatment [123].
12 Natural product-based DDS
In order to develop novel active ingredients with fewer side effects than existing molecules, the scientific community is currently focusing on researching bioactive compounds, their chemical composition, and their pharmacological potential (Figure 5). Higher plants are capable of producing natural biopolymers. A number of drugs that have also been found to contain natural therapeutic agents in their composition, such as those derived from animals, microorganisms, and algae, are already available commercially as shown in Table 2. Over the past few years, nanotechnology has been extensively researched in the medical field [124]. By using these compounds and mixtures, these difficulties might be overcome and the same composition may be prepared with multiple compounds and mixtures. Furthermore, they are capable of altering the properties and behaviors of a chemical within a biological system. Moreover, there is evidence that the combination of release systems with natural substances may assist in postponing the development of drug resistance, thus contributing to the discovery of new treatment options for a variety of diseases with low response to conventional techniques of modern medicine [125].
Various natural-based DDS involved materials.
Natural-based derived drugs
| S. No. | Disease | Drugs | Plant name | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. | Malaria | Artemotil® | Artemisia annua L. | |
| 2. | Alzheimer’s disease | Reminyl | Galanthus woronowii L. | |
| 3. | Cancer | Paclitaxel | Taxus brevifolia | [129] |
| 4. | Liver | Silymarin | Silybum marianum |
13 Targeted DDS
The structure of a drug molecule, its formulation, administration method, and dosage form all influence the design of a DDS (Figure 6). Recent advances have been made in the development of DDSs based on NPs that are capable of increasing drug concentration in certain parts of the body [126]. A targeted DDS is one of the most advanced methods of drug delivery. As a result, they are able to deliver the medicine to the target site more efficiently, resulting in greater therapeutic efficiency and a reduction in toxicity and side effects. Currently, targeted delivery is being investigated not only for the treatment of cancer but also for the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and inflammatory bowel disease [127].
Schematic diagram of targeted DDS.
Generally, the targeted DDS is a specialized approach to drug delivery that aims to deliver medications or therapeutic agents directly to a specific target site in the body while minimizing exposure to non-targeted tissues [128]. This precision drug delivery strategy offers several advantages, including increased therapeutic efficacy, reduced side effects, and improved patient compliance. Here are key components and features of targeted DDSs: Target identification: The first step in developing a targeted DDS is to identify a specific target site in the body, such as a tumor, inflamed tissue, or specific cell type. This target is usually associated with a particular disease or condition [130]. Targeting ligands: Targeted DDS often utilize targeting ligands, such as antibodies, peptides, or small molecules, that have a high affinity for receptors or biomarkers expressed on the surface of target cells or tissues. These ligands facilitate the specific binding of drug-loaded carriers to the target [131]. Drug carriers: Drugs are typically encapsulated within carrier systems, such as NPs, liposomes, micelles, or polymer-based drug carriers. These carriers protect the drug from degradation, control its release, and enhance its bioavailability [132]. Passive targeting: Passive targeting relies on the unique physiological characteristics of the target site. For instance, tumors often have leaky blood vessels and impaired lymphatic drainage, which can enhance the accumulation of drug carriers in the tumor tissue through the EPR effect [133]. Active targeting: Active targeting involves the use of targeting ligands to actively guide drug carriers to the desired target site. This approach ensures more precise drug delivery and reduces off-target effects [134]. Controlled release: Targeted DDS can provide controlled and sustained drug release at the target site, optimizing therapeutic outcomes [135]. Reduced side effects: By delivering drugs directly to the target site, these systems minimize exposure to healthy tissues, reducing the risk of adverse side effects [136]. Improved efficacy: Targeted DDSs can enhance the therapeutic efficacy of drugs by increasing their concentration at the site of action [137]. Personalized medicine: Targeted drug delivery allows for personalized treatment strategies tailored to an individual’s specific disease characteristics, improving treatment outcomes [138]. Imaging and monitoring: Some targeted DDSs incorporate imaging agents that enable real-time monitoring of drug distribution and therapy response [139]. Disease areas: Targeted DDSs are used in various disease areas, including cancer therapy, inflammatory diseases, infectious diseases, and neurological disorders [140]. Challenges: Developing targeted DDSs involves challenges related to ligand selection, carrier design, drug release kinetics, and regulatory approvals [141].
Examples of targeted DDSs include antibody–drug conjugates for cancer therapy, liposomal formulations for chemotherapy, and NP-based drug carriers for various diseases. Ongoing research continues to refine these systems and explore new approaches to improve the precision and effectiveness of drug delivery [142].
14 List of materials suitable for the development of DDSs
Various materials have been explored and utilized for the development of DDSs, each with its own unique advantages and applications. The list of materials suitable for DDSs are as follows: Lipids and liposomes: Lipid-based NPs and liposomes are excellent for encapsulating both hydrophobic and hydrophilic drugs. They mimic cell membranes, facilitating drug delivery to target cells and tissues. Polymers: Synthetic and natural polymers such as PLGA, chitosan, and alginate are commonly used for controlled drug release. They offer tunable properties and biocompatibility. Hydrogels: Hydrophilic polymers that form three-dimensional networks in water and hydrogels are suitable for localized drug delivery, particularly for wound healing and tissue engineering. NPs: Nanoscale materials, including metal NPs and dendrimers, can be engineered to carry and release drugs with high precision, making them ideal for cancer therapy and targeted drug delivery. Microparticles: Larger than NPs but still in the micrometer range, microparticles can be used for sustained release of drugs and vaccines. Dendritic polymers: These highly branched polymers offer a high degree of control over drug loading and release kinetics. Carbon nanotubes: With their unique properties, carbon nanotubes can be functionalized to transport drugs and genes to specific cells, offering potential in gene therapy and cancer treatment. Proteins and peptides: Biocompatible and biodegradable, proteins and peptides can be engineered to carry drugs, and they often exhibit targeted delivery properties. Ceramics: Porous ceramics, such as hydroxyapatite, can be used for bone-targeted drug delivery due to their biocompatibility and bone-mimicking properties. Silica NPs: These NPs can be loaded with drugs and functionalized for various applications, including cancer therapy and imaging. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs): MOFs are highly porous materials that can encapsulate drugs and release them in a controlled manner, showing promise in various biomedical applications. Gelatin: Derived from collagen, gelatin is biocompatible and has been used for drug delivery in tissue engineering and wound healing. Lignin: As an abundant natural polymer, lignin has been explored for sustained drug release in oral and transdermal applications. Graphene and graphene oxide: These materials have unique properties and can be functionalized for drug delivery, including anticancer drug delivery and biosensing [143,144,145,146,147,148,149,150].
Selecting the most suitable material depends on the specific drug, its physicochemical properties, the target site, and the desired release kinetics. Researchers continue to innovate in material design and functionalization to improve DDSs, making them more efficient, safe, and tailored to individual patient needs [151].
15 Mechanisms of therapeutic NP drug delivery
Mechanistic aspects of therapeutic NPs as effective DDSs involve a detailed understanding of how NPs are designed, interact with biological systems, and facilitate the controlled release of therapeutic agents [152]. These mechanisms are discussed in detail here.
15.1 Design and formulation
Particle size and shape: NPs are engineered with specific sizes and shapes to optimize drug loading capacity and biodistribution. Smaller NPs can penetrate tissues more effectively, while various shapes can affect circulation and cellular uptake. Surface modification: NP surfaces are often modified with functional groups, polymers, or targeting ligands to enhance biocompatibility, stability, and specific interactions with target cells or tissues. Drug encapsulation: Therapeutic agents, such as drugs or biomolecules, are encapsulated within NPs through physical entrapment, chemical conjugation, or other encapsulation methods [153].
15.2 Targeting and cellular uptake
Passive targeting: NPs can exploit the EPR effect, which is characteristic of tumor vasculature, to accumulate preferentially in tumors. Active targeting: Surface functionalization with targeting ligands (e.g., antibodies and peptides) allows NPs to recognize specific cell receptors or markers, leading to enhanced uptake by target cells. Cellular uptake mechanisms: NPs enter cells through various mechanisms, such as endocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis, or direct penetration. The choice of uptake mechanism can depend on NP size, surface charge, and surface modifications [154].
15.3 Controlled drug release
Sustained release: NPs are designed to release therapeutic agents gradually over time. This controlled release can be achieved through diffusion, erosion, or degradation of the NP carrier. Triggered release: NPs can be engineered to release drugs in response to specific triggers, such as changes in pH, temperature, or the presence of enzymes at the target site. External stimuli: External stimuli, like ultrasound, magnetic fields, or light, can trigger drug release from NPs, providing spatiotemporal control over therapy [155].
15.4 Biodistribution and pharmacokinetics
Improved circulation: NPs can extend the circulation time of drugs, reducing rapid clearance from the body. Reduced toxicity: By minimizing drug exposure to healthy tissues and organs, NPs can reduce systemic toxicity and side effects. Enhanced penetration: NPs can penetrate physiological barriers, such as the blood–brain barrier or tumor stroma, which can be challenging for free drugs [156].
15.5 Multimodal therapies
Therapeutic NPs can incorporate multiple therapeutic agents (e.g., drugs and nucleic acids) for combination therapies. Combinatorial approaches can enhance treatment efficacy, address drug resistance, and target multiple disease pathways simultaneously [157].
15.6 Imaging and monitoring
Some NPs serve dual roles as drug carriers and imaging agents. For example, iron oxide NPs can be used for MRI while delivering therapeutic agents to target sites. Imaging capabilities enable real-time monitoring of drug delivery and therapeutic responses [158].
15.7 Biodegradability and clearance
Many NPs are designed to be biodegradable, breaking down into non-toxic components that are eventually cleared from the body. The choice of NP materials and coatings influences biodegradability and clearance pathways [159].
Understanding these mechanistic aspects is critical for the successful design and implementation of therapeutic NPs as effective DDSs. By tailoring NP properties and behaviors, researchers can optimize drug delivery strategies to improve therapeutic outcomes while minimizing side effects in various medical applications [160].
16 Enhancing medical treatments with NP-based drug delivery
NPs have been employed as effective DDSs in a wide range of diseases and medical conditions, offering the potential to enhance therapeutic outcomes while reducing side effects [161]. Here are some notable diseases and conditions against which NPs are used for drug delivery: Cancer: Chemotherapy: NPs can improve the delivery of anticancer drugs directly to tumor sites while minimizing damage to healthy tissues. Examples include liposomal doxorubicin (Doxil) and Abraxane, which utilize liposomes and albumin NPs, respectively. Targeted therapies: NPs can be functionalized with targeting ligands to selectively deliver drugs or therapeutic agents to cancer cells. This approach reduces systemic toxicity and enhances the specificity of treatment. Diabetes: Insulin delivery: NPs can encapsulate insulin, providing a controlled release of the hormone over an extended period. This approach improves patient compliance and mimics the natural insulin secretion profile. Neurological disorders: Alzheimer’s disease: NPs can be engineered to deliver drugs or therapeutic agents across the blood–brain barrier, allowing for the treatment of neurological diseases like Alzheimer’s. Parkinson’s disease: NPs have been explored for the targeted delivery of neuroprotective agents to dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson’s disease. Infectious diseases: Antibiotics: NPs can be loaded with antibiotics and designed to release them slowly at infection sites. This approach enhances the efficacy of antibiotic therapy while minimizing systemic exposure. Antiviral agents: NPs have been investigated for the delivery of antiviral drugs, particularly in the treatment of diseases like HIV. Cardiovascular diseases: Thrombosis: NPs can be used to deliver anticoagulants or thrombolytic agents to treat or prevent thrombosis, a common complication in cardiovascular diseases. Atherosclerosis: NPs can be functionalized to target and reduce plaque buildup in arteries, potentially mitigating the progression of atherosclerosis. Inflammatory diseases: Rheumatoid arthritis: NPs can be utilized for the targeted delivery of anti-inflammatory drugs to inflamed joints, reducing systemic side effects. Inflammatory bowel disease: NPs have been explored for drug delivery to the gastrointestinal tract in conditions like Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis. Respiratory diseases: Asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): NPs can deliver bronchodilators and anti-inflammatory drugs directly to the lungs, improving drug efficacy and reducing systemic side effects. Genetic disorders: Cystic fibrosis: NPs have been investigated for delivering gene therapies to correct genetic mutations in cystic fibrosis patients. Ophthalmic diseases: Age-related macular degeneration (AMD): NPs can be used to deliver anti-VEGF drugs directly to the retina to treat AMD and other ocular diseases [109,162,163,164,165,166,167,168,169].
These examples highlight the versatility and potential of NPs as DDS in a wide range of diseases and medical conditions. By tailoring the properties and surface modifications of NPs, researchers continue to develop innovative strategies for more effective and targeted therapies in various healthcare fields [170] (Table 3).
Name of therapeutic NPs serving as drug delivery vehicles in the nanomedicine industry
| S. No | NPs | Materials | Applications | Quality/quantity (varies by research) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. | Liposomes | Lipids | Drug delivery, gene therapy, and vaccine delivery | Various formulations optimized for drug loading |
| 2. | Polymeric NPs | Polymers | Targeted drug delivery, cancer therapy, and controlled release | Quality control measures ensure consistent particle size and drug loading |
| 3. | AuNPs | Gold | Imaging agents, drug delivery, and photothermal therapy | Quality parameters include size, shape, and surface functionalization |
| 4. | Iron oxide NPs | Iron oxide | MRI contrast agents, drug delivery, and hyperthermia therapy | Quality assurance for particle size, stability, and magnetic properties |
| 5. | Quantum dots | Semiconductor nanocrystals | Imaging, drug delivery, and diagnostics | Quality control involves size, shape, surface chemistry, and optical properties |
| 6. | Silica NPs | Silica | Drug delivery, imaging, and biosensing | Quality assurance for particle size, porosity, and surface modifications |
| 7. | Dendrimers | Highly branched polymers | Drug delivery, gene therapy, and diagnostics | Quality standards include dendrimer size, structure, and surface groups |
17 Cytotoxicity of NPs during their applications
The cytotoxicity of NPs is a significant concern during their applications, particularly in the fields of nanomedicine, drug delivery, and biomedical research. Cytotoxicity refers to the potential of NPs to cause harm to cells, tissues, or organisms, and it can have adverse effects on both therapeutic efficacy and patient safety [171]. Here are some key considerations related to NP cytotoxicity during their applications: Material composition: The cytotoxicity of NPs often depends on their material composition. Some NPs, such as certain metal oxides or heavy metals, can be inherently toxic. For instance, NPs containing materials like cadmium or lead can pose significant risks to cells. Size and surface area: NPs have a high surface area relative to their size, which can enhance their reactivity. Smaller NPs with larger surface areas can be more cytotoxic due to increased interactions with cellular components. Surface charge and coating: The surface charge and functionalization of NPs play a role in their cytotoxicity. Positively charged NPs may interact more strongly with negatively charged cell membranes, potentially disrupting cellular integrity. Agglomeration and dispersibility: Agglomeration, where NPs clump together, can affect their cytotoxicity. Agglomerated NPs may have different interactions with cells than well-dispersed ones, potentially leading to different cytotoxic effects. Exposure duration and concentration: The duration and concentration of NP exposure can significantly impact cytotoxicity. Prolonged or high-concentration exposure may result in more pronounced toxic effects. Uptake mechanisms: NPs can enter cells through various mechanisms, such as endocytosis or direct penetration. The uptake mechanism can influence the cytotoxicity profile of NPs. Cell type specificity: Different cell types may respond differently to NP exposure. Some cells may be more susceptible to cytotoxic effects due to variations in their membrane properties, metabolic rates, or repair mechanisms. Release of ions or reactive oxygen species (ROS): Some NPs, particularly those containing metals, can release ions or generate reactive oxygen species when in contact with cellular environments. These ions or ROS can induce oxidative stress and damage cellular components. Inflammatory responses: NPs can trigger immune responses, leading to inflammation and potential cytotoxicity. This is particularly relevant in applications like drug delivery, where NPs may interact with immune cells. Biodegradability: The biodegradability of NPs can influence their cytotoxicity. Biodegradable NPs are designed to break down into non-toxic components over time, reducing the risk of long-term cytotoxic effects. Surface modifications: Surface modifications of NPs can be employed to enhance biocompatibility and reduce cytotoxicity. Coating NPs with biocompatible materials or functionalizing their surfaces can mitigate adverse effects [172,173,174,175,176,177,178,179,180].
To assess the cytotoxicity of NPs, researchers typically conduct in vitro studies using cell lines or primary cells. These studies involve evaluating cell viability, proliferation, apoptosis, and various cellular markers in the presence of NPs. Additionally, in vivo studies using animal models can provide insights into the systemic and long-term effects of NPs. To minimize cytotoxicity risks, researchers and clinicians should carefully design NPs, consider biocompatible materials, optimize NP characteristics (size, charge, coating), and conduct thorough preclinical toxicity assessments before advancing to clinical trials. Understanding the factors influencing NP cytotoxicity is crucial for the safe and effective application of nanotechnology in medicine and related fields [181].
18 Comparison of conventional and NP-based drug delivery
Conventional drug delivery methods have been used for many years, but they often have limitations, which NPs can address more effectively [182]. A comparison of conventional drug delivery methods with NP-based systems and the properties that make NPs superior are given here.
18.1 Conventional drug delivery methods
Oral administration: This is one of the most common routes for drug delivery. It involves the patient swallowing a pill or liquid containing the drug. Injections: Injections are used for rapid drug delivery. They can be intravenous (IV), intramuscular (IM), or subcutaneous (SC). Topical application: Creams, ointments, and patches are used for localized drug delivery, such as for skin conditions. Inhalation: Inhalers and nebulizers deliver drugs to the respiratory system, making them suitable for lung conditions like asthma [183].
18.2 Challenges with conventional methods
Limited targeting: Conventional methods often lack specificity, leading to systemic distribution and potential side effects. Poor bioavailability: Many drugs have low bioavailability due to degradation in the digestive system or rapid clearance. Frequent dosing: Some drugs require frequent administration to maintain therapeutic levels, leading to poor patient compliance. Limited control: Conventional methods provide limited control over drug release, which can be problematic for time-sensitive treatments [184].
18.3 NP-based DDS
NPs offer several advantages over conventional methods; Targeted delivery: NPs can be designed to target specific cells or tissues, minimizing off-target effects and improving therapeutic outcomes. Enhanced bioavailability: Encapsulation in NPs protects drugs from degradation, leading to improved bioavailability and prolonged circulation. Controlled release: NPs can provide controlled drug release, allowing for sustained therapeutic levels and reduced dosing frequency. Multimodal therapies: NPs can carry multiple drugs, combining different therapeutic agents for synergistic effects. Improved pharmacokinetics: NPs can extend drug circulation time, improving drug delivery to the target site [185].
18.4 Properties of nanomaterials that make them suitable
Size: NPs are typically in the size range of 1–100 nm, allowing them to penetrate tissues and cellular barriers more effectively. Surface area: NPs have a high surface area-to-volume ratio, facilitating drug loading and interaction with biological systems. Surface modification: NPs can be functionalized with targeting ligands, polymers, or coatings to enhance their biocompatibility and targeting capabilities. Biodegradability: Biodegradable NPs break down into non-toxic components, reducing long-term toxicity concerns. Controlled release: NPs can be engineered to release drugs in response to specific triggers, such as pH, temperature, or enzymes, ensuring precise drug delivery. Versatility: NPs can encapsulate a wide range of drugs, including hydrophobic and hydrophilic compounds, nucleic acids, and peptides. Imaging capabilities: Some NPs can serve as contrast agents for imaging, allowing for real-time monitoring of drug delivery [186].
NP-based DDS offer numerous advantages over conventional methods, including improved targeting, enhanced bioavailability, controlled release, and versatility. The unique properties of nanomaterials make them highly suitable for optimizing drug delivery and improving the effectiveness of various therapeutic treatments [187].
19 Future prospective of therapeutic nanomaterial and recommendations for practical use
The future of therapeutic nanomaterials holds great promise, with continued advancements in research and development expected to lead to innovative and more effective treatments across various medical fields [188]. Personalized medicine: Future prospect: Nanotechnology will play a pivotal role in personalized medicine, where therapies are tailored to individual patients based on their genetic, molecular, and physiological profiles. NPs can deliver precise doses of drugs or therapeutic agents, optimizing treatment outcomes. Recommendation: Invest in research and diagnostic tools that enable the identification of patient-specific biomarkers for targeted NP therapies [189]. Targeted drug delivery: Future prospect: Ongoing research will lead to the development of more advanced targeted DDSs. These systems will offer increased specificity in delivering therapeutic payloads to diseased tissues or cells, minimizing off-target effects. Recommendation: Continue to explore and refine targeting strategies, such as ligand-based targeting, to enhance the precision of NP drug delivery [190]. Combination therapies: Future prospect: NPs will facilitate the combination of multiple therapies within a single platform, addressing complex diseases and drug resistance more effectively. Recommendation: Explore synergistic combinations of drugs and therapeutic agents to maximize treatment efficacy and minimize adverse effects [191]. Immunotherapy enhancement: Future prospect: Nanomaterials will support the development of innovative immunotherapies. They can act as carriers for immune-stimulating agents or be used to target immune cells to enhance their anticancer or antiviral responses. Recommendation: Investigate NP-based strategies to potentiate the immune system’s response to diseases, including cancer and infectious diseases [192]. Regenerative medicine: Future prospect: Nanotechnology will contribute to regenerative medicine by facilitating the delivery of stem cells, growth factors, and tissue-engineered constructs to repair damaged tissues and organs. Recommendation: Focus on the development of biomimetic NPs that can replicate the microenvironments necessary for tissue regeneration [193]. Disease detection and imaging: Future prospect: NPs will continue to advance diagnostic imaging techniques, allowing for earlier and more accurate disease detection. This includes the use of NPs for targeted contrast agents in imaging modalities like MRI, CT, and ultrasound. Recommendation: Invest in research to optimize NP-based imaging agents for early disease diagnosis and monitoring [194]. Regulatory guidelines: Future prospect: As therapeutic nanomaterials become more prevalent, regulatory bodies will develop guidelines and standards for their safe and effective use in clinical settings. Recommendation: Stay informed about evolving regulatory requirements and ensure compliance during the development and clinical testing of NP-based therapies [195]. Safety and toxicology: Future prospect: Future research will further elucidate the long-term safety profiles of various nanomaterials, addressing concerns related to biocompatibility and potential toxicity. Recommendation: Conduct comprehensive toxicological studies and prioritize the use of biodegradable and biocompatible NP materials [196]. Scalability and manufacturing: Future prospect: Develop scalable and cost-effective manufacturing processes for therapeutic nanomaterials to facilitate their widespread adoption and commercialization. Recommendation: Invest in manufacturing technologies that ensure consistent quality and reproducibility of NP-based products [197]. Interdisciplinary collaboration: Future prospect: Collaborative efforts between scientists, engineers, clinicians, and regulatory experts will drive the successful translation of nanomaterial-based therapies from the lab to clinical practice. Recommendation: Encourage interdisciplinary collaboration and knowledge sharing to accelerate progress in the field [198].
The future of therapeutic nanomaterials is incredibly promising, with the potential to revolutionize healthcare by providing more precise, effective, and personalized treatments. To realize these prospects, it is essential to continue rigorous research, prioritize safety, and foster collaboration across disciplines while staying attuned to regulatory developments.
20 Conclusion
In recent years, materials-based drug delivery approaches have emerged as a promising avenue in the field of pharmaceuticals, offering innovative solutions to enhance drug efficacy and reduce side effects. This review has highlighted several key advances in this field, showcasing the versatility and potential of various materials, including NPs, hydrogels, and polymers, as drug carriers. These materials enable precise control over drug release kinetics, targeting specific sites within the body, and improving drug stability. Furthermore, the incorporation of smart and responsive materials has added a layer of sophistication, allowing for on-demand drug release triggered by physiological cues. The integration of nanotechnology has revolutionized drug delivery by enhancing bioavailability and minimizing systemic toxicity. Moreover, the development of personalized medicine approaches holds promise for tailoring DDSs to individual patient needs. As we look ahead, the future of materials-based drug delivery appears exceedingly promising. Research efforts should focus on optimizing material design, scaling up production processes, and addressing safety concerns. Collaborations between scientists, clinicians, and industry stakeholders will be essential in translating these innovations into real-world therapies, ultimately revolutionizing the way we treat diseases and improve patient outcomes. The path forward in materials-based drug delivery is marked by exciting possibilities and the potential to reshape the landscape of healthcare.
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Funding information: This work was supported by the research grant LBUS-IRG-2022-08 which was financed by Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Sibiu, Romania.
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Author contributions: JinJin Pei, Yuqiang Yan, and Selvaraj Jayaraman: validation, writing – original draft, funding acquisition, and investigation. Vishnu Priya Veeraragahavan: formal analysis. Sridevi Gurunathan, Jeane Rebecca Roy, and Janaki Coimbatore Sadagopan: data curation, formal analysis, and investigation. Prabhu Manickam Natarajan: Resources. Dwarakesh Thalamati: validation. Monica Mironescu and Chella Perumal Palanisamy: conceptualization, methodology, supervision, validation, writing – original draft, and writing – review and editing.
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Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.
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Data availability statement: Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.
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This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Articles in the same Issue
- Research Articles
- Green polymer electrolyte and activated charcoal-based supercapacitor for energy harvesting application: Electrochemical characteristics
- Research on the adsorption of Co2+ ions using halloysite clay and the ability to recover them by electrodeposition method
- Simultaneous estimation of ibuprofen, caffeine, and paracetamol in commercial products using a green reverse-phase HPTLC method
- Isolation, screening and optimization of alkaliphilic cellulolytic fungi for production of cellulase
- Functionalized gold nanoparticles coated with bacterial alginate and their antibacterial and anticancer activities
- Comparative analysis of bio-based amino acid surfactants obtained via Diels–Alder reaction of cyclic anhydrides
- Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles on yellow phosphorus slag and its application in organic coatings
- Exploring antioxidant potential and phenolic compound extraction from Vitis vinifera L. using ultrasound-assisted extraction
- Manganese and copper-coated nickel oxide nanoparticles synthesized from Carica papaya leaf extract induce antimicrobial activity and breast cancer cell death by triggering mitochondrial caspases and p53
- Insight into heating method and Mozafari method as green processing techniques for the synthesis of micro- and nano-drug carriers
- Silicotungstic acid supported on Bi-based MOF-derived metal oxide for photodegradation of organic dyes
- Synthesis and characterization of capsaicin nanoparticles: An attempt to enhance its bioavailability and pharmacological actions
- Synthesis of Lawsonia inermis-encased silver–copper bimetallic nanoparticles with antioxidant, antibacterial, and cytotoxic activity
- Facile, polyherbal drug-mediated green synthesis of CuO nanoparticles and their potent biological applications
- Zinc oxide-manganese oxide/carboxymethyl cellulose-folic acid-sesamol hybrid nanomaterials: A molecularly targeted strategy for advanced triple-negative breast cancer therapy
- Exploring the antimicrobial potential of biogenically synthesized graphene oxide nanoparticles against targeted bacterial and fungal pathogens
- Biofabrication of silver nanoparticles using Uncaria tomentosa L.: Insight into characterization, antibacterial activities combined with antibiotics, and effect on Triticum aestivum germination
- Membrane distillation of synthetic urine for use in space structural habitat systems
- Investigation on mechanical properties of the green synthesis bamboo fiber/eggshell/coconut shell powder-based hybrid biocomposites under NaOH conditions
- Green synthesis of magnesium oxide nanoparticles using endophytic fungal strain to improve the growth, metabolic activities, yield traits, and phenolic compounds content of Nigella sativa L.
- Estimation of greenhouse gas emissions from rice and annual upland crops in Red River Delta of Vietnam using the denitrification–decomposition model
- Synthesis of humic acid with the obtaining of potassium humate based on coal waste from the Lenger deposit, Kazakhstan
- Ascorbic acid-mediated selenium nanoparticles as potential antihyperuricemic, antioxidant, anticoagulant, and thrombolytic agents
- Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Illicium verum extract: Optimization and characterization for biomedical applications
- Antibacterial and dynamical behaviour of silicon nanoparticles influenced sustainable waste flax fibre-reinforced epoxy composite for biomedical application
- Optimising coagulation/flocculation using response surface methodology and application of floc in biofertilisation
- Green synthesis and multifaceted characterization of iron oxide nanoparticles derived from Senna bicapsularis for enhanced in vitro and in vivo biological investigation
- Potent antibacterial nanocomposites from okra mucilage/chitosan/silver nanoparticles for multidrug-resistant Salmonella Typhimurium eradication
- Trachyspermum copticum aqueous seed extract-derived silver nanoparticles: Exploration of their structural characterization and comparative antibacterial performance against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria
- Microwave-assisted ultrafine silver nanoparticle synthesis using Mitragyna speciosa for antimalarial applications
- Green synthesis and characterisation of spherical structure Ag/Fe2O3/TiO2 nanocomposite using acacia in the presence of neem and tulsi oils
- Green quantitative methods for linagliptin and empagliflozin in dosage forms
- Enhancement efficacy of omeprazole by conjugation with silver nanoparticles as a urease inhibitor
- Residual, sequential extraction, and ecological risk assessment of some metals in ash from municipal solid waste incineration, Vietnam
- Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using the mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) leaf extract: Comparative preliminary in vitro antibacterial study
- Simultaneous determination of lesinurad and febuxostat in commercial fixed-dose combinations using a greener normal-phase HPTLC method
- A greener RP-HPLC method for quaternary estimation of caffeine, paracetamol, levocetirizine, and phenylephrine acquiring AQbD with stability studies
- Optimization of biomass durian peel as a heterogeneous catalyst in biodiesel production using microwave irradiation
- Thermal treatment impact on the evolution of active phases in layered double hydroxide-based ZnCr photocatalysts: Photodegradation and antibacterial performance
- Preparation of silymarin-loaded zein polysaccharide core–shell nanostructures and evaluation of their biological potentials
- Preparation and characterization of composite-modified PA6 fiber for spectral heating and heat storage applications
- Preparation and electrocatalytic oxygen evolution of bimetallic phosphates (NiFe)2P/NF
- Rod-shaped Mo(vi) trichalcogenide–Mo(vi) oxide decorated on poly(1-H pyrrole) as a promising nanocomposite photoelectrode for green hydrogen generation from sewage water with high efficiency
- Green synthesis and studies on citrus medica leaf extract-mediated Au–ZnO nanocomposites: A sustainable approach for efficient photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B dye in aqueous media
- Cellulosic materials for the removal of ciprofloxacin from aqueous environments
- The analytical assessment of metal contamination in industrial soils of Saudi Arabia using the inductively coupled plasma technology
- The effect of modified oily sludge on the slurry ability and combustion performance of coal water slurry
- Eggshell waste transformation to calcium chloride anhydride as food-grade additive and eggshell membranes as enzyme immobilization carrier
- Synthesis of EPAN and applications in the encapsulation of potassium humate
- Biosynthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles from Cedrela toona leaf extracts: An exploration into their antibacterial, anticancer, and antioxidant potential
- Enhancing mechanical and rheological properties of HDPE films through annealing for eco-friendly agricultural applications
- Immobilisation of catalase purified from mushroom (Hydnum repandum) onto glutaraldehyde-activated chitosan and characterisation: Its application for the removal of hydrogen peroxide from artificial wastewater
- Sodium titanium oxide/zinc oxide (STO/ZnO) photocomposites for efficient dye degradation applications
- Effect of ex situ, eco-friendly ZnONPs incorporating green synthesised Moringa oleifera leaf extract in enhancing biochemical and molecular aspects of Vicia faba L. under salt stress
- Biosynthesis and characterization of selenium and silver nanoparticles using Trichoderma viride filtrate and their impact on Culex pipiens
- Photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes and biological potentials of biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the polar extract of Cyperus scariosus R.Br. (Cyperaceae)
- Assessment of antiproliferative activity of green-synthesized nickel oxide nanoparticles against glioblastoma cells using Terminalia chebula
- Chlorine-free synthesis of phosphinic derivatives by change in the P-function
- Anticancer, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities of nanoemulsions based on water-in-olive oil and loaded on biogenic silver nanoparticles
- Study and mechanism of formation of phosphorus production waste in Kazakhstan
- Synthesis and stabilization of anatase form of biomimetic TiO2 nanoparticles for enhancing anti-tumor potential
- Microwave-supported one-pot reaction for the synthesis of 5-alkyl/arylidene-2-(morpholin/thiomorpholin-4-yl)-1,3-thiazol-4(5H)-one derivatives over MgO solid base
- Screening the phytochemicals in Perilla leaves and phytosynthesis of bioactive silver nanoparticles for potential antioxidant and wound-healing application
- Graphene oxide/chitosan/manganese/folic acid-brucine functionalized nanocomposites show anticancer activity against liver cancer cells
- Nature of serpentinite interactions with low-concentration sulfuric acid solutions
- Multi-objective statistical optimisation utilising response surface methodology to predict engine performance using biofuels from waste plastic oil in CRDi engines
- Microwave-assisted extraction of acetosolv lignin from sugarcane bagasse and electrospinning of lignin/PEO nanofibres for carbon fibre production
- Biosynthesis, characterization, and investigation of cytotoxic activities of selenium nanoparticles utilizing Limosilactobacillus fermentum
- Highly photocatalytic materials based on the decoration of poly(O-chloroaniline) with molybdenum trichalcogenide oxide for green hydrogen generation from Red Sea water
- Highly efficient oil–water separation using superhydrophobic cellulose aerogels derived from corn straw
- Beta-cyclodextrin–Phyllanthus emblica emulsion for zinc oxide nanoparticles: Characteristics and photocatalysis
- Assessment of antimicrobial activity and methyl orange dye removal by Klebsiella pneumoniae-mediated silver nanoparticles
- Influential eradication of resistant Salmonella Typhimurium using bioactive nanocomposites from chitosan and radish seed-synthesized nanoselenium
- Antimicrobial activities and neuroprotective potential for Alzheimer’s disease of pure, Mn, Co, and Al-doped ZnO ultra-small nanoparticles
- Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles from Bauhinia variegata and their biological applications
- Synthesis and optimization of long-chain fatty acids via the oxidation of long-chain fatty alcohols
- Eminent Red Sea water hydrogen generation via a Pb(ii)-iodide/poly(1H-pyrrole) nanocomposite photocathode
- Green synthesis and effective genistein production by fungal β-glucosidase immobilized on Al2O3 nanocrystals synthesized in Cajanus cajan L. (Millsp.) leaf extracts
- Green stability-indicating RP-HPTLC technique for determining croconazole hydrochloride
- Green synthesis of La2O3–LaPO4 nanocomposites using Charybdis natator for DNA binding, cytotoxic, catalytic, and luminescence applications
- Eco-friendly drugs induce cellular changes in colistin-resistant bacteria
- Tangerine fruit peel extract mediated biogenic synthesized silver nanoparticles and their potential antimicrobial, antioxidant, and cytotoxic assessments
- Green synthesis on performance characteristics of a direct injection diesel engine using sandbox seed oil
- A highly sensitive β-AKBA-Ag-based fluorescent “turn off” chemosensor for rapid detection of abamectin in tomatoes
- Green synthesis and physical characterization of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) derived from the methanol extract of Euphorbia dracunculoides Lam. (Euphorbiaceae) with enhanced biosafe applications
- Detection of morphine and data processing using surface plasmon resonance imaging sensor
- Effects of nanoparticles on the anaerobic digestion properties of sulfamethoxazole-containing chicken manure and analysis of bio-enzymes
- Bromic acid-thiourea synergistic leaching of sulfide gold ore
- Green chemistry approach to synthesize titanium dioxide nanoparticles using Fagonia Cretica extract, novel strategy for developing antimicrobial and antidiabetic therapies
- Green synthesis and effective utilization of biogenic Al2O3-nanocoupled fungal lipase in the resolution of active homochiral 2-octanol and its immobilization via aluminium oxide nanoparticles
- Eco-friendly RP-HPLC approach for simultaneously estimating the promising combination of pentoxifylline and simvastatin in therapeutic potential for breast cancer: Appraisal of greenness, whiteness, and Box–Behnken design
- Use of a humidity adsorbent derived from cockleshell waste in Thai fried fish crackers (Keropok)
- One-pot green synthesis, biological evaluation, and in silico study of pyrazole derivatives obtained from chalcones
- Bio-sorption of methylene blue and production of biofuel by brown alga Cystoseira sp. collected from Neom region, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
- Synthesis of motexafin gadolinium: A promising radiosensitizer and imaging agent for cancer therapy
- The impact of varying sizes of silver nanoparticles on the induction of cellular damage in Klebsiella pneumoniae involving diverse mechanisms
- Microwave-assisted green synthesis, characterization, and in vitro antibacterial activity of NiO nanoparticles obtained from lemon peel extract
- Rhus microphylla-mediated biosynthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles for enhanced antibacterial and antibiofilm efficacy
- Harnessing trichalcogenide–molybdenum(vi) sulfide and molybdenum(vi) oxide within poly(1-amino-2-mercaptobenzene) frameworks as a photocathode for sustainable green hydrogen production from seawater without sacrificial agents
- Magnetically recyclable Fe3O4@SiO2 supported phosphonium ionic liquids for efficient and sustainable transformation of CO2 into oxazolidinones
- A comparative study of Fagonia arabica fabricated silver sulfide nanoparticles (Ag2S) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) with distinct antimicrobial, anticancer, and antioxidant properties
- Visible light photocatalytic degradation and biological activities of Aegle marmelos-mediated cerium oxide nanoparticles
- Physical intrinsic characteristics of spheroidal particles in coal gasification fine slag
- Exploring the effect of tea dust magnetic biochar on agricultural crops grown in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contaminated soil
- Crosslinked chitosan-modified ultrafiltration membranes for efficient surface water treatment and enhanced anti-fouling performances
- Study on adsorption characteristics of biochars and their modified biochars for removal of organic dyes from aqueous solution
- Zein polymer nanocarrier for Ocimum basilicum var. purpurascens extract: Potential biomedical use
- Green synthesis, characterization, and in vitro and in vivo biological screening of iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe3O4) generated with hydroalcoholic extract of aerial parts of Euphorbia milii
- Novel microwave-based green approach for the synthesis of dual-loaded cyclodextrin nanosponges: Characterization, pharmacodynamics, and pharmacokinetics evaluation
- Bi2O3–BiOCl/poly-m-methyl aniline nanocomposite thin film for broad-spectrum light-sensing
- Green synthesis and characterization of CuO/ZnO nanocomposite using Musa acuminata leaf extract for cytotoxic studies on colorectal cancer cells (HCC2998)
- Review Articles
- Materials-based drug delivery approaches: Recent advances and future perspectives
- A review of thermal treatment for bamboo and its composites
- An overview of the role of nanoherbicides in tackling challenges of weed management in wheat: A novel approach
- An updated review on carbon nanomaterials: Types, synthesis, functionalization and applications, degradation and toxicity
- Special Issue: Emerging green nanomaterials for sustainable waste management and biomedical applications
- Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using mature-pseudostem extracts of Alpinia nigra and their bioactivities
- Special Issue: New insights into nanopythotechnology: current trends and future prospects
- Green synthesis of FeO nanoparticles from coffee and its application for antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-oxidation activity
- Dye degradation activity of biogenically synthesized Cu/Fe/Ag trimetallic nanoparticles
- Special Issue: Composites and green composites
- Recent trends and advancements in the utilization of green composites and polymeric nanocarriers for enhancing food quality and sustainable processing
- Retraction
- Retraction of “Biosynthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles from Cedrela toona leaf extracts: An exploration into their antibacterial, anticancer, and antioxidant potential”
- Retraction of “Photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes and biological potentials of biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the polar extract of Cyperus scariosus R.Br. (Cyperaceae)”
- Retraction to “Green synthesis on performance characteristics of a direct injection diesel engine using sandbox seed oil”
Articles in the same Issue
- Research Articles
- Green polymer electrolyte and activated charcoal-based supercapacitor for energy harvesting application: Electrochemical characteristics
- Research on the adsorption of Co2+ ions using halloysite clay and the ability to recover them by electrodeposition method
- Simultaneous estimation of ibuprofen, caffeine, and paracetamol in commercial products using a green reverse-phase HPTLC method
- Isolation, screening and optimization of alkaliphilic cellulolytic fungi for production of cellulase
- Functionalized gold nanoparticles coated with bacterial alginate and their antibacterial and anticancer activities
- Comparative analysis of bio-based amino acid surfactants obtained via Diels–Alder reaction of cyclic anhydrides
- Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles on yellow phosphorus slag and its application in organic coatings
- Exploring antioxidant potential and phenolic compound extraction from Vitis vinifera L. using ultrasound-assisted extraction
- Manganese and copper-coated nickel oxide nanoparticles synthesized from Carica papaya leaf extract induce antimicrobial activity and breast cancer cell death by triggering mitochondrial caspases and p53
- Insight into heating method and Mozafari method as green processing techniques for the synthesis of micro- and nano-drug carriers
- Silicotungstic acid supported on Bi-based MOF-derived metal oxide for photodegradation of organic dyes
- Synthesis and characterization of capsaicin nanoparticles: An attempt to enhance its bioavailability and pharmacological actions
- Synthesis of Lawsonia inermis-encased silver–copper bimetallic nanoparticles with antioxidant, antibacterial, and cytotoxic activity
- Facile, polyherbal drug-mediated green synthesis of CuO nanoparticles and their potent biological applications
- Zinc oxide-manganese oxide/carboxymethyl cellulose-folic acid-sesamol hybrid nanomaterials: A molecularly targeted strategy for advanced triple-negative breast cancer therapy
- Exploring the antimicrobial potential of biogenically synthesized graphene oxide nanoparticles against targeted bacterial and fungal pathogens
- Biofabrication of silver nanoparticles using Uncaria tomentosa L.: Insight into characterization, antibacterial activities combined with antibiotics, and effect on Triticum aestivum germination
- Membrane distillation of synthetic urine for use in space structural habitat systems
- Investigation on mechanical properties of the green synthesis bamboo fiber/eggshell/coconut shell powder-based hybrid biocomposites under NaOH conditions
- Green synthesis of magnesium oxide nanoparticles using endophytic fungal strain to improve the growth, metabolic activities, yield traits, and phenolic compounds content of Nigella sativa L.
- Estimation of greenhouse gas emissions from rice and annual upland crops in Red River Delta of Vietnam using the denitrification–decomposition model
- Synthesis of humic acid with the obtaining of potassium humate based on coal waste from the Lenger deposit, Kazakhstan
- Ascorbic acid-mediated selenium nanoparticles as potential antihyperuricemic, antioxidant, anticoagulant, and thrombolytic agents
- Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Illicium verum extract: Optimization and characterization for biomedical applications
- Antibacterial and dynamical behaviour of silicon nanoparticles influenced sustainable waste flax fibre-reinforced epoxy composite for biomedical application
- Optimising coagulation/flocculation using response surface methodology and application of floc in biofertilisation
- Green synthesis and multifaceted characterization of iron oxide nanoparticles derived from Senna bicapsularis for enhanced in vitro and in vivo biological investigation
- Potent antibacterial nanocomposites from okra mucilage/chitosan/silver nanoparticles for multidrug-resistant Salmonella Typhimurium eradication
- Trachyspermum copticum aqueous seed extract-derived silver nanoparticles: Exploration of their structural characterization and comparative antibacterial performance against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria
- Microwave-assisted ultrafine silver nanoparticle synthesis using Mitragyna speciosa for antimalarial applications
- Green synthesis and characterisation of spherical structure Ag/Fe2O3/TiO2 nanocomposite using acacia in the presence of neem and tulsi oils
- Green quantitative methods for linagliptin and empagliflozin in dosage forms
- Enhancement efficacy of omeprazole by conjugation with silver nanoparticles as a urease inhibitor
- Residual, sequential extraction, and ecological risk assessment of some metals in ash from municipal solid waste incineration, Vietnam
- Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using the mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) leaf extract: Comparative preliminary in vitro antibacterial study
- Simultaneous determination of lesinurad and febuxostat in commercial fixed-dose combinations using a greener normal-phase HPTLC method
- A greener RP-HPLC method for quaternary estimation of caffeine, paracetamol, levocetirizine, and phenylephrine acquiring AQbD with stability studies
- Optimization of biomass durian peel as a heterogeneous catalyst in biodiesel production using microwave irradiation
- Thermal treatment impact on the evolution of active phases in layered double hydroxide-based ZnCr photocatalysts: Photodegradation and antibacterial performance
- Preparation of silymarin-loaded zein polysaccharide core–shell nanostructures and evaluation of their biological potentials
- Preparation and characterization of composite-modified PA6 fiber for spectral heating and heat storage applications
- Preparation and electrocatalytic oxygen evolution of bimetallic phosphates (NiFe)2P/NF
- Rod-shaped Mo(vi) trichalcogenide–Mo(vi) oxide decorated on poly(1-H pyrrole) as a promising nanocomposite photoelectrode for green hydrogen generation from sewage water with high efficiency
- Green synthesis and studies on citrus medica leaf extract-mediated Au–ZnO nanocomposites: A sustainable approach for efficient photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B dye in aqueous media
- Cellulosic materials for the removal of ciprofloxacin from aqueous environments
- The analytical assessment of metal contamination in industrial soils of Saudi Arabia using the inductively coupled plasma technology
- The effect of modified oily sludge on the slurry ability and combustion performance of coal water slurry
- Eggshell waste transformation to calcium chloride anhydride as food-grade additive and eggshell membranes as enzyme immobilization carrier
- Synthesis of EPAN and applications in the encapsulation of potassium humate
- Biosynthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles from Cedrela toona leaf extracts: An exploration into their antibacterial, anticancer, and antioxidant potential
- Enhancing mechanical and rheological properties of HDPE films through annealing for eco-friendly agricultural applications
- Immobilisation of catalase purified from mushroom (Hydnum repandum) onto glutaraldehyde-activated chitosan and characterisation: Its application for the removal of hydrogen peroxide from artificial wastewater
- Sodium titanium oxide/zinc oxide (STO/ZnO) photocomposites for efficient dye degradation applications
- Effect of ex situ, eco-friendly ZnONPs incorporating green synthesised Moringa oleifera leaf extract in enhancing biochemical and molecular aspects of Vicia faba L. under salt stress
- Biosynthesis and characterization of selenium and silver nanoparticles using Trichoderma viride filtrate and their impact on Culex pipiens
- Photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes and biological potentials of biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the polar extract of Cyperus scariosus R.Br. (Cyperaceae)
- Assessment of antiproliferative activity of green-synthesized nickel oxide nanoparticles against glioblastoma cells using Terminalia chebula
- Chlorine-free synthesis of phosphinic derivatives by change in the P-function
- Anticancer, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities of nanoemulsions based on water-in-olive oil and loaded on biogenic silver nanoparticles
- Study and mechanism of formation of phosphorus production waste in Kazakhstan
- Synthesis and stabilization of anatase form of biomimetic TiO2 nanoparticles for enhancing anti-tumor potential
- Microwave-supported one-pot reaction for the synthesis of 5-alkyl/arylidene-2-(morpholin/thiomorpholin-4-yl)-1,3-thiazol-4(5H)-one derivatives over MgO solid base
- Screening the phytochemicals in Perilla leaves and phytosynthesis of bioactive silver nanoparticles for potential antioxidant and wound-healing application
- Graphene oxide/chitosan/manganese/folic acid-brucine functionalized nanocomposites show anticancer activity against liver cancer cells
- Nature of serpentinite interactions with low-concentration sulfuric acid solutions
- Multi-objective statistical optimisation utilising response surface methodology to predict engine performance using biofuels from waste plastic oil in CRDi engines
- Microwave-assisted extraction of acetosolv lignin from sugarcane bagasse and electrospinning of lignin/PEO nanofibres for carbon fibre production
- Biosynthesis, characterization, and investigation of cytotoxic activities of selenium nanoparticles utilizing Limosilactobacillus fermentum
- Highly photocatalytic materials based on the decoration of poly(O-chloroaniline) with molybdenum trichalcogenide oxide for green hydrogen generation from Red Sea water
- Highly efficient oil–water separation using superhydrophobic cellulose aerogels derived from corn straw
- Beta-cyclodextrin–Phyllanthus emblica emulsion for zinc oxide nanoparticles: Characteristics and photocatalysis
- Assessment of antimicrobial activity and methyl orange dye removal by Klebsiella pneumoniae-mediated silver nanoparticles
- Influential eradication of resistant Salmonella Typhimurium using bioactive nanocomposites from chitosan and radish seed-synthesized nanoselenium
- Antimicrobial activities and neuroprotective potential for Alzheimer’s disease of pure, Mn, Co, and Al-doped ZnO ultra-small nanoparticles
- Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles from Bauhinia variegata and their biological applications
- Synthesis and optimization of long-chain fatty acids via the oxidation of long-chain fatty alcohols
- Eminent Red Sea water hydrogen generation via a Pb(ii)-iodide/poly(1H-pyrrole) nanocomposite photocathode
- Green synthesis and effective genistein production by fungal β-glucosidase immobilized on Al2O3 nanocrystals synthesized in Cajanus cajan L. (Millsp.) leaf extracts
- Green stability-indicating RP-HPTLC technique for determining croconazole hydrochloride
- Green synthesis of La2O3–LaPO4 nanocomposites using Charybdis natator for DNA binding, cytotoxic, catalytic, and luminescence applications
- Eco-friendly drugs induce cellular changes in colistin-resistant bacteria
- Tangerine fruit peel extract mediated biogenic synthesized silver nanoparticles and their potential antimicrobial, antioxidant, and cytotoxic assessments
- Green synthesis on performance characteristics of a direct injection diesel engine using sandbox seed oil
- A highly sensitive β-AKBA-Ag-based fluorescent “turn off” chemosensor for rapid detection of abamectin in tomatoes
- Green synthesis and physical characterization of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) derived from the methanol extract of Euphorbia dracunculoides Lam. (Euphorbiaceae) with enhanced biosafe applications
- Detection of morphine and data processing using surface plasmon resonance imaging sensor
- Effects of nanoparticles on the anaerobic digestion properties of sulfamethoxazole-containing chicken manure and analysis of bio-enzymes
- Bromic acid-thiourea synergistic leaching of sulfide gold ore
- Green chemistry approach to synthesize titanium dioxide nanoparticles using Fagonia Cretica extract, novel strategy for developing antimicrobial and antidiabetic therapies
- Green synthesis and effective utilization of biogenic Al2O3-nanocoupled fungal lipase in the resolution of active homochiral 2-octanol and its immobilization via aluminium oxide nanoparticles
- Eco-friendly RP-HPLC approach for simultaneously estimating the promising combination of pentoxifylline and simvastatin in therapeutic potential for breast cancer: Appraisal of greenness, whiteness, and Box–Behnken design
- Use of a humidity adsorbent derived from cockleshell waste in Thai fried fish crackers (Keropok)
- One-pot green synthesis, biological evaluation, and in silico study of pyrazole derivatives obtained from chalcones
- Bio-sorption of methylene blue and production of biofuel by brown alga Cystoseira sp. collected from Neom region, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
- Synthesis of motexafin gadolinium: A promising radiosensitizer and imaging agent for cancer therapy
- The impact of varying sizes of silver nanoparticles on the induction of cellular damage in Klebsiella pneumoniae involving diverse mechanisms
- Microwave-assisted green synthesis, characterization, and in vitro antibacterial activity of NiO nanoparticles obtained from lemon peel extract
- Rhus microphylla-mediated biosynthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles for enhanced antibacterial and antibiofilm efficacy
- Harnessing trichalcogenide–molybdenum(vi) sulfide and molybdenum(vi) oxide within poly(1-amino-2-mercaptobenzene) frameworks as a photocathode for sustainable green hydrogen production from seawater without sacrificial agents
- Magnetically recyclable Fe3O4@SiO2 supported phosphonium ionic liquids for efficient and sustainable transformation of CO2 into oxazolidinones
- A comparative study of Fagonia arabica fabricated silver sulfide nanoparticles (Ag2S) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) with distinct antimicrobial, anticancer, and antioxidant properties
- Visible light photocatalytic degradation and biological activities of Aegle marmelos-mediated cerium oxide nanoparticles
- Physical intrinsic characteristics of spheroidal particles in coal gasification fine slag
- Exploring the effect of tea dust magnetic biochar on agricultural crops grown in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contaminated soil
- Crosslinked chitosan-modified ultrafiltration membranes for efficient surface water treatment and enhanced anti-fouling performances
- Study on adsorption characteristics of biochars and their modified biochars for removal of organic dyes from aqueous solution
- Zein polymer nanocarrier for Ocimum basilicum var. purpurascens extract: Potential biomedical use
- Green synthesis, characterization, and in vitro and in vivo biological screening of iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe3O4) generated with hydroalcoholic extract of aerial parts of Euphorbia milii
- Novel microwave-based green approach for the synthesis of dual-loaded cyclodextrin nanosponges: Characterization, pharmacodynamics, and pharmacokinetics evaluation
- Bi2O3–BiOCl/poly-m-methyl aniline nanocomposite thin film for broad-spectrum light-sensing
- Green synthesis and characterization of CuO/ZnO nanocomposite using Musa acuminata leaf extract for cytotoxic studies on colorectal cancer cells (HCC2998)
- Review Articles
- Materials-based drug delivery approaches: Recent advances and future perspectives
- A review of thermal treatment for bamboo and its composites
- An overview of the role of nanoherbicides in tackling challenges of weed management in wheat: A novel approach
- An updated review on carbon nanomaterials: Types, synthesis, functionalization and applications, degradation and toxicity
- Special Issue: Emerging green nanomaterials for sustainable waste management and biomedical applications
- Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using mature-pseudostem extracts of Alpinia nigra and their bioactivities
- Special Issue: New insights into nanopythotechnology: current trends and future prospects
- Green synthesis of FeO nanoparticles from coffee and its application for antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-oxidation activity
- Dye degradation activity of biogenically synthesized Cu/Fe/Ag trimetallic nanoparticles
- Special Issue: Composites and green composites
- Recent trends and advancements in the utilization of green composites and polymeric nanocarriers for enhancing food quality and sustainable processing
- Retraction
- Retraction of “Biosynthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles from Cedrela toona leaf extracts: An exploration into their antibacterial, anticancer, and antioxidant potential”
- Retraction of “Photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes and biological potentials of biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the polar extract of Cyperus scariosus R.Br. (Cyperaceae)”
- Retraction to “Green synthesis on performance characteristics of a direct injection diesel engine using sandbox seed oil”
