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A case study on the environmental and economic impact of photovoltaic systems in wastewater treatment plants

  • Dounia Bellar , Oumaima Choukai , Mustapha Tahaikt , Azzeddine El Midaoui , Yassine Ezaier , Muhammad Ijaz Khan EMAIL logo , Manish Gupta , Salman A. AlQahtani and Mohammad Yusuf
Published/Copyright: December 28, 2023
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Open Physics
From the journal Open Physics Volume 21 Issue 1

Abstract

Ibn Tofail University of Kenitra, Morocco, is committed to a national policy of control and mobilization of water resources and the adoption of a planning approach and integrated water management. Within this framework, the university, which contains 40,000 students, produces a quantity of wastewater of 200 m3 per day. After treatment, the water is used for watering the university’s green space. The treatment process chosen is a membrane bioreactor (MBR), which is considered to be energy intensive. Therefore, the production of energy for the station will be made by renewable energy wind and photovoltaic (PV). The dimensioning of the MBR was made by a research department, which estimated that the energy necessary for the station is 1061.76 kW h/day. The aim of this work is to dimension and optimize the platform for the production of energy, using the Matlab program for the wind turbine and the PVsyst program for PV. The results of coupling our plant with an on-grid PV system and wind turbine show that it was able to reach an electrical coverage of about 72% of the wastewater treatment (WWT) plant’s energy needs. Thus, an estimated reduction of electricity of 0.53 euro on each m3 of water produced by the WWT plant and thus 106.76 euro on the 200 m3 produced daily by the station.

Keywords: membrane bioreactor; wastewater treatment; renewable energy; photovoltaic; wind turbine

1 Introduction

Ibn Tofail University of Kenitra, Morocco, is among the universities that give importance to clean energy and wastewater treatment (WWT). Within the framework of environmental preservation, it is strongly involved in environmental issues and participates actively in the realization of sustainable green projects, which has given it the identity of a “green and open university.” Ibn Tofail University is ranked among the best universities in the field of clean energy and water treatment in the world [1]. Due to the high consumption of energy and the multiple uses of water, the university decided to take the initiative to exploit scientific research in the development of natural resources. Creating a set of projects benefits the university and stimulates constructive scientific research aimed at making Ibn Tofaïl University a “SMART University.” Indeed, the university had already carried out a project of solar energy production in order to reduce the operating bill and a project of the construction of a WWT plant, which is underway in order to reuse the treated water in the watering of any green space of the university. Global sustainable development is based on the link between energy and water as essential resources and, indeed, has been the subject of several recent research [2,3]. In addition to examining the average energy usage for each cubic meter of treated water. Therefore, the optimization of energy in WWT plants is an option for reducing electricity costs and energy savings [4,5]. The sludge produced can be used as an energy source, which could contribute to waste management and environmental sustainability [6].

The problem of concerns about global climate change and rising energy prices requires the use of alternative energy sources to ensure the energy independence of the station. It can be solved through saving energy by improving the efficiency of unit processes and obtaining energy from renewable energy sources, solar energy, wind energy [7] or a grid-connected solar-wind hybrid system and therefore human development [8]. The use of clean energy, solar energy, wind energy, and biodiesel [9] has grown rapidly lately, and the associated costs are decreasing. These are naturally replenishing energy sources. is an alternative to current and future scenarios, For energy production and reducing carbon emissions and environmental pollution [10,11]. This transition to renewable energy – wind, solar, and solar–wind hybrid systems – has become an essential option for powering membrane desalination processes [12], and WWT plants. Huang et al. [13,14] and Li et al. [15] examined wind turbine significance with the help of a simple numerical technique in the presence of monopile foundation and noise labels and wind power forecast via a modified hidden Markov model, respectively. Yan and Wen [16], Song et al. [17], and Zhang et al. [18] recently considered electricity theft detection based on extreme gradient boosting, fast iterative-interpolated DFT phasor estimator, and time windows in a time-dependent traffic environment, respectively.

In Morocco, the activated sludge treatment process is used to treat urban wastewater and eliminate heavy metals present in domestic and industrial wastewater [19]. It is the result of the coupling of a biological treatment process with membrane separation. There are several WWT plants in Morocco using the membrane bioreactor (MBR) process, the largest of which is the Marrakech city plant, which is powered by a 300 kW solar photovoltaic (PV) plant and is capable of treating up to 60,000 m³ of wastewater per day, and provides about 20% of the electricity needed to operate the plant. In addition to establishing other stations, such as the Casablanca station which uses the BRM process and which has the capacity to treat up to 200,000 m³ of wastewater per day. The University IBN TOFAIL has also chosen the biological process to treat its wastewater because it is effective and meets the standards required by the ITU. WWT plants, in general, are supplied with electrical energy from the public grid. Scientific research has proposed the use of renewable energy as a source of energy for powering sewage treatment plants [20], which need a lot of electricity. Due to the sludge treatment process and the electrical load remaining stable does not change because it operates continuously [21]. The most common renewable energy source of power generation for WWT plant is solar PV and wind [22], because the sun and wind are inexhaustible sources. Tian et al. [23], Su et al. [24], and Xiao et al. [25] investigated environmental assessment of SOFC-based cogeneration system, high-efficient and salt-rejecting 2D film for photothermal evaporation and energy conversion in a thermo-osmotic system using low-grade heat. Liu et al. [26], Chen et al. [27], and Zhu et al. [28] scrutinized the alleviation of regional integrated energy framework in the presence of cross-system failures, low-carbon economic dispatch of integrated energy system and DFIG-based wind turbines, respectively.

Power generation from solar energy is a less expensive option; in fact, WWTP-PV projects can adopt the self-consumption mode of energy and increase their economic performance [29,30]. The grid-connected PV system can cover 53% of the treatment plant’s electrical load and inject 510 MW h/year into the grid, which is 65% of the load [5,31]. A study has also been analyzed combining a PV system with wind turbines, in which case an energy efficiency of 90% [32], and another study was conducted whose purpose of a sewage treatment plant, 100% renewable by combining a PV system with a wind turbine system to absorb excess electricity production [22,33]. Long-term optimization strategies that take into account the technological limitations of a system and the possibility of using grid-connected PV energy are suggested. This is accomplished by using an alternative energy source to offset a specific percentage of the plant’s overall annual energy consumption [5]. Wind technologies can be operated with average annual wind speeds of 5.6 m/s or higher is suitable for wind power installations [34]. Integrating renewable, solar, and wind energy in the water sector leads to energy independence and improved community and environmental health. Previous studies [35–37] highlighted the significance of the energy optimal schedule method for distribution networks with generation and energy storage, virtual synchronous generators based on energy reshaping, and temperature monitoring method for IGBT modules via CNN technique. Liao et al. [38] and Jiang et al. [39], respectively, depicted the physical importance of power smoothing of the wind energy systems and the performance of power to gas storage technology integrated with energy hub system.

The objective of this study is to power the WWT plant using renewable energy. It is PV or wind energy or a combination of both connected to the electrical distribution network. The Ibn Tofail University WWT plant is of an average size equivalent to 40,000 population equivalents (PEs), located in the city of Kenitra, in the North-East of Morocco. The PV and wind power system was dimensioned using PVsyst and Matlab Simulink software. A survey of the power requirements of the treatment plant and measurement of the electrical power demand per wet day and dry day was carried out. A proposal for a combined wind and PV system was also sized. The actual prices of the components available on the local market were used to evaluate the total cost of electricity production and m3 of treated wastewater.

2 Technical-economic study of the installation of self-consumption of electricity PV/wind turbine

2.1 Geographical conditions of Kenitra

Country: Morocco, Latitude: 34.30 North, Longitude: −6.60 West and Altitude: 14.

Secondary data related to the energy part of the WWT systems of the Ibn Tofail plant are collected, analyzed, and applied to a case study (Figure 1). The WWT plant, located in the city of Kenitra in the North-East of Morocco, was selected because of its available data. Meteonorm is the source of all the data we used in this study, as it is software that provides access to many meteorological data (irradiation, temperature, wind speed, etc.) necessary for the design and development of applications and systems using solar and wind energy [40].

Figure 1 WWT plant of Ibn Tofail University.
Figure 1

WWT plant of Ibn Tofail University.

2.2 WWT plant of Ibn Tofail University

The treatment plant of the university Ibn Tofail is a representative treatment plant that extends over an area of about 1,000 m2 with a nominal capacity of 200 m3/day with an energy consumption of 1061.76 kW h/day (Table 1), which was chosen as a test site for this study (Figure 2, red color). The treatment plant considered is equipped with mechanical and biological treatment stages of aerobic type, coupled with a membrane process of ultrafiltration type, immersed in the membrane tank, and has a built capacity of 40,000 PE. The WWTP employs an activated sludge process, and our site evaluation suggested that energy production from solar PV and wind power is due to favorable conditions. The Ibn Tofail WWT plant was selected because of its available data. Regarding the station’s energy requirements, we decided to employ renewable energy sources. Given the city of Kenitra’s reliable power grid, utilizing batteries would not be cost-effective. Instead, we chose to combine wind and PV systems to enhance energy coverage throughout the day and achieve a satisfactory percentage of coverage throughout the year. The operation of the WWTP is 24 h/24 and 7 days/7 in order to treat the wastewater volumes.

Table 1

Consumption balance of the WWTP

Voltage 400 (V) Frequency 50 (Hz)
Consumer data Power required Power installed Motor data Miscellaneous
Consumer Total number Number of function Total simultaneous apparent power (kAV) Active power (kW) Simultaneity factor Puissance apparent (kWV) Active power (kW) Power (Kw) Number of Poles Power factor Yield (%) Stand By Start type
Lift pump 2 1 5.8 4.7 1.00 5.8 4.7 4.2 0.8 90.0 Direct
Pretreatment 1 1 2.9 2.3 1.00 2.9 2.3 2.2 0.8 90.0 Direct
BT pump 2 1 1.8 1.4 1.00 1.8 1.4 1.3 0.8 90.0 Direct
BT stirrer 1 1 2.6 2.1 1.00 2.6 2.1 1.9 0.8 90.0 Direct
Bwer aeration 3 2 15.3 12.2 1.00 15.3 12.2 5.5 0.8 90.0 Direct
Alm MBR pump 2 1 1.7 1.3 1.00 1.7 1.3 1.2 0.8 90.0 Direct
Recir sludge pump 2 1 1.9 1.6 1.00 1.9 1.6 1.4 0.8 90.0 Direct
Permeate pump 2 1 2.1 1.7 1.00 2.1 1.7 1.5 0.8 90.0 Direct
MBR blower 1 1 7.6 6.1 1.00 7.6 6.1 5.5 0.8 90.0 Direct
C.I.P pump 1 1 0.0 0.0 1.00 1.5 1.2 1.1 0.8 90.0 Direct
CIP stirrer 1 1 0.0 0.0 1.00 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.8 90.0 Direct
Sludge trai pump 1 1 0.8 0.6 1.00 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.8 90.0 Direct
Sludge treatment 1 1 2.8 2.2 1.00 2.8 2.2 2.0 0.8 90.0 Direct
Coal tower 2 2 3.1 2.4 1.00 3.1 2.4 1.1 0.8 90.0 Direct
Handling 1 1 0.4 0.4 1.00 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.8 90.0 Direct
Instrumentation 1 1 2.2 2.0 1.00 2.2 2.0 — — 0.9
Inside lighting 1 1 1.1 1.0 1.00 1.1 1.0 — — 0.9
Exterior lighting 1 1 1.1 1.0 1.00 1.1 1.0 — — 0.9
Plug 1 1 2.0 2.0 1.00 2.0 — — — —
The total apparent power 55.3 kVA
Figure 2 Satellite view of the WWTP (exploitable part for the renewable energy installation in red).
Figure 2

Satellite view of the WWTP (exploitable part for the renewable energy installation in red).

2.3 PV system specifications

Depending on the season, the angle of the sunlight varies [41]. Keep solar irradiation as well as the tilt angle of the PV panels equal to the latitude of the corresponding location to have maximum energy and solar radiation [42]. For the site, Ibn Tofail, the optimal tilt angle of the PV array was estimated to be 35°, which is within the range of latitude in the simulated area and an azimuth angle of 0°. This PV field will be south-facing, and the modules used will be monocrystalline. In our study, the simulations were carried out with the program PVsyst, which is characterized by a simple procedure and the ability to import meteorological data. Also, it contains a large database of models of PV panels and inverters, and it offers the possibility of setting the required power and the characteristics of the area of interest. PVsyst provides detailed technical analysis in several applications such as pumped solar, grid-connected PV, and even stand-alone systems; the energy results of PVsyst software are close to the actual measured data with a small difference [43]. The power of our PV system has been estimated to be 36 kWp to guarantee maximum production while avoiding excess energy loss.

Here, 10 parallel strings of 12 PV modules in series, model 72M-300. PV monocrystalline with an inverter model HPC-030HT was proposed for our simulation. Thus, we had an expected production of 48.35 MW h/year and consequently a deliverability of 1,343 kW h/kWp/year.

Figure 3 shows the daily energy consumption for the four seasons. According to the figure, summer is the period of the highest energy consumption. There is a slight decrease in autumn, but the energy consumption is divided by two in spring and winter. In the first step of the PVsyst procedure, we select the geographical area of interest. The weather data are automatically imported into the software. The geographical orientation of the WWTP location, the angle of inclination of the ground where they are installed, the type of PV panels, and the number of inverters and modules were chosen.

Figure 3 Daily energy at the field exit.
Figure 3

Daily energy at the field exit.

Our research is entirely based on the PVsyst software. The software is used for modeling purposes. The graphs and tables presented here in the documentation were generated only during simulations at the Ibn Tofail site. Since this article represents computer modeling, we only provide simulation results that we have obtained.

The consumption of the Ibn Tofail site. This represents the average of the monthly energy injected into the network in MW h. The maximum energy injected into the network in December was 5.050 MW h (Table 2). The smallest amount of energy pumped into the network in June was 2.911 MW h. 48.346 MW h/year of energy has been added to the network overall.

Table 2

Energy injected into the grid

Month E_Grid (MW h)
January 4.973
February 4.094
March 4.281
April 3.571
May 3.155
June 2.911
July 3.140
August 3.528
September 3.988
October 4.711
November 4.944
December 5.050
Year 48.346

The performance ratio (PR) is the ratio of the final PV system yield (Y f) and the reference yield (Y r) [10]

(1) PR = Y f Y r .

The PR of the network-connected system for the Ibn Tofail site is described in Table 3. The PR is 0.775 on an annualized basis.

Table 3

Normalized performance coefficients – PVsyst simulation

Month Yr (kW h/m2 day) Lc Ya (kW h/kWp/day) Ls Yf (kW h/kWp/day) Lcr Lsr PR
January 5.82 1.127 4.69 0.232 4.46 0.194 0.040 0.766
February 5.26 0.993 4.27 0.210 4.06 0.189 0.040 0.771
March 4.96 0.922 4.04 0.205 3.84 0.186 0.041 0.773
April 4.28 0.775 3.50 0.197 3.31 0.181 0.046 0.773
May 3.65 0.949 3.00 0.177 2.83 0.178 0.048 0.774
June 3.46 0.597 2.87 0.172 2.70 0.172 0.050 0.778
July 3.59 0.603 2.98 0.170 2.81 0.168 0.047 0.785
August 4.01 0.665 3.35 0.184 3.16 0.166 0.046 0.788
September 4.72 0.826 3.90 0.203 3.69 0.175 0.043 0.782
October 5.43 0.993 4.44 0.218 4.22 0.183 0.040 0.777
November 5.92 0.113 4.81 0.232 4.58 0.188 0.039 0.773
December 5.92 0.152 4.77 0.241 4.52 0.195 0.041 0.765
Year 4.75 0.867 3.88 0.203 3.68 0.183 0.043 0.775

The meteorological and incident energy of the PV system is shown in Table 4. The global horizontal irradiation (GlobHor) is 1,988 kW h/m2/year. The horizontal diffuse irradiation (DiffHor) is 979.55 kW h/m2. The collecting plane has a total incident energy of 1733.7 kW h/m2.

Table 4

Meteo and incident energy – PVsyst simulation

Month GlobHor (kW h/m2) DiffHor (kW h/m2) T_Amb (°C) Windvel (m/s) GlobInc (kW h/m2) DifSInc (kW h/m2) Alb_Inc (kW h/m2)
January 167.9 88.63 27.63 2.4 180.3 90.28 3.036
February 148.6 85.18 27.97 2.6 147.4 82.04 2.686
March 170.8 92.72 28.17 2.6 153.8 84.39 3.089
April 163.7 77.95 27.43 2.6 128.3 66.20 2.954
May 163.4 80.45 27.40 3.0 113.2 64.50 2.940
June 162.6 73.18 25.58 3.5 103.9 56.68 2.928
July 169.2 73.43 24.93 3.6 111.2 57.74 3.044
August 167.3 82.78 25.33 3.7 124.3 68.35 3.954
September 167.2 75.96 25.76 3.7 141.7 67.42 3.015
October 174.6 85.71 26.50 3.2 168.4 81.48 3.023
November 167.0 81.36 26.33 2.8 177.7 81.87 3.019
December 165.6 82.20 27.20 2.6 183.4 82.40 2.995
Year 1988.0 979.55 26.68 3.0 1733.7 886.35 35.885

The precise monthly average system losses, expressed in kW h, are shown in Table 5. The loss in module quality (Mod Qual) is 793.19 kW h per year. The annual mismatch loss (Mis Loss) for modules is 572.95 kW h. The annualized ohmic wiring loss (Ohm loss) is 14,814 kW h. EArrMPP is 51,017 kW h/year for the array’s virtual energy at the maximum power point. The total annual inverter loss is 2670.4 kW h.

Table 5

Detailed system losses – PVsyst simulation

Month ModQual (kW h) MisLoss (kW h) OhmLoss (kW h) EArrMPP (kW h) InvLoss (kW h)
January 81.51 58.88 61.58 5,232 258.6
February 67.01 48.40 46.33 4,306 212.0
March 70.12 50.65 44.74 4,509 228.6
April 58.75 42.44 32.37 3,723 212.4
May 51.98 37.54 23.29 3,352 197.0
June 47.98 34.66 19.54 3,097 185.9
July 51.61 37.28 22.30 3,329 189.3
August 57.93 41.85 28.48 3,734 205.5
September 65.39 47.23 39.44 4,207 219.1
October 77.10 55.69 52.76 4,954 243.2
November 80.92 58.45 60.88 5,194 250.1
December 82.89 59.88 65.01 5,317 268.6
Year 793.19 572.95 496.70 51,017 2670.4

The balances and key outcomes of a solar system that is connected to the grid are shown in Table 6. The average annual global horizontal irradiation is 1,988 kW h/m2. On the collector plane, there is a total incident energy of 1733.7 kW h/m2 per year. The electricity available at the PV generator’s output is 1,988 kW h/m2. About 48.35 MW h of electricity was added to the grid. The ambient temperature is 26.68°C on average.

Table 6

Balance and main results – PVsyst simulation

Month GlobHor (kW h/m2) DiffHor (kW h/m2) T_Amb (°C) GlobInc (kW h/m2) GlobEff (kW h/m2) Earray (MW h) E_Grid (MW h) PR
January 167.9 88.63 27.63 180.3 175.6 5.232 4.973 0.766
February 148.6 85.18 27.97 147.4 143.1 4.306 4.094 0.771
March 170.8 92.72 28.17 153.8 148.6 4.509 4.281 0.773
April 163.7 77.95 27.43 128.3 122.8 3.723 3.571 0.773
May 163.4 80.45 27.40 113.2 107.2 3.352 3.155 0.774
June 162.6 73.18 25.58 103.9 97.6 3.097 2.911 0.778
July 169.2 73.43 24.93 111.2 104.8 3.329 3.140 0.785
August 167.3 82.78 25.33 124.3 118.6 3.734 3.528 0.788
September 167.2 75.96 25.76 141.7 136.2 4.207 3.988 0.782
October 174.6 85.71 26.50 168.4 163.1 4.954 4.711 0.777
November 167.0 81.36 26.33 177.7 172.9 5.194 4.944 0.773
December 165.6 82.20 27.20 183.4 178.9 5.317 5.050 0.765
Year 1988.0 979.55 26.68 1733.7 1669.3 51.017 48.346 0.775

The PR of incident energy for each month of the year is graphically depicted in Figure 4. The PR on average is 0.775.

Figure 4 PR–PVsyst simulation.
Figure 4

PR–PVsyst simulation.

Figure 5 represents the incident energy in the plane of the collector. The overall incident energy is 1733.7 kW h/m2. The incident beam in the collector plane is 940.7 kW h/m2.

Figure 5 Incident energy.
Figure 5

Incident energy.

The transposition factor is shown in Figure 6. The worldwide incident energy on the collector plane divided by horizontal global irradiation is known as the transposition factor. For our website, the transposition factor is 1.

Figure 6 Transposition factor.
Figure 6

Transposition factor.

The entire system loss diagram for our placer is shown in Figure 7. The total horizontal irradiation is 2,034 kW h/m2. The collection plane has an effective irradiation of 1,969 kW h/m2. So, 3.2% of the energy is lost. Solar energy is then transformed into electrical energy by the PV cell. The nominal energy table is 2,001 MW h after PV conversion.

Figure 7 Global system loss.
Figure 7

Global system loss.

The PV array’s efficiency under standard test conditions is 15.35%. A 1,618 MW h of virtual grid energy was obtained. After the inverter is lost, there remains 1,523 MW h of energy left in the inverter’s output. As a result, 1,523 MW h of energy was injected into the system (Figure 8).

Figure 8 Power versus time.
Figure 8

Power versus time.

2.4 Wind system specifications

The wind turbine for electricity generation is an electromechanical device for converting kinetic energy from wind into electricity. Wind energy represents the second source of electricity of renewable origin after hydro, with a capacity that reached globally nearly 722 GW by the end of 2020 [44]. In Morocco, the installed wind power capacity reached 1,405 MW in the same year [45]. The literature abounds with mathematical models of wind generation. For most of these models, the wind speed is required as input. The power curve of wind turbines is defined as the power output of the machine as a function of the wind speed at the hub height. In the current work, a simplified linear model available in the literature is used to estimate the energy produced by the wind. The probabilistic power output of the wind turbine is as follows [46,47,48,49]:

(2) u w = 0 v wind ( t ) < v c P w ( A w + B w v wind ( t ) ) v c ≤ v wind ( t ) ≤ v r P w v r ≤ v wind ( t ) ≤ v f 0 v wind ( t ) > v f ,

(3) A w = v c v c − v r B w = 1 v r − v c .

Figure 9 shows for a typical day, the evolution of the power of the wind turbine with the following characteristics.

Figure 9 Power produced by an installation of three wind turbines (W).
Figure 9

Power produced by an installation of three wind turbines (W).

Three PERFEO-5000 wind turbines were selected to provide 15.000 kW of power for an estimated 34% coverage (Table 7).

Table 7

Technical data of the wind turbines

Wind turbine Nominal power (kW) Starting speed Nominal speed Cutting speed
PERFEO-5000 5,000 3 10 16

Figure 9 also shows the production curve of our wind system for wind conditions on an average day in the year 2022 on Metronome.

3 Results and discussions

Our simulations established on the PVsyst software show that the proposed PV system produces an average of 159.50kW h/day. In contrast, the chosen wind system produces an average amount of energy 616.43kW h/day.

Thus, we obtain total renewable energy power generation curve as shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10 Total renewable energy power generation.
Figure 10

Total renewable energy power generation.

Given that the analyzed WWT plant records an energy consumption of 1061.76 kW h/day. Our production/consumption profile is shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11 Profile of energy production/consumption.
Figure 11

Profile of energy production/consumption.

According to Figure 11, we can say that, thanks to our wind/PV installation, we will be able to reach an electrical coverage of 72% of the energy needs of our WWTP. In fact, we can note that we will have a self-generated energy consumed of 764.41 kW h/day with a surplus blocked or reinjected on the distribution network of 11.52 kW h/day. If this solution is implemented, the electricity costs related to the supply of the WWTP will decrease by 72% compared to the costs of the conventional network. That is to say, savings of more than 3,204.52 euros monthly and thus a reduction of 0.53 euro on each m3 of water produced by our WWTP. In addition, we will be able to avoid 203.7 tons of CO2 eq per year.

4 Conclusions

The aim of this article is to reduce the electrical consumption needs of the Ibn Tofail WWTP through its coupling to a PV and wind power installation connected to the grid, with respective powers of 36 kWp and 15 kW. In this sense, a design and then a technical dimensioning have been carried out through mathematical calculations and software of the two sub-installations, namely, our PV field of 120 monocrystalline series/parallel modules with a unit power of 300 Wp and our wind power system of 3 wind turbines of 5 kW power each.

The superposition of the wind and solar production curves with the consumption profile of the water treatment plant informed us about the self-consumption rate, which reached 72%, and about the savings in dirhams and CO2 expected to be realized by our solution. Thus, we could estimate a reduction of 0.53 euro on each m3 of water produced by the WWTP and thus 106.76 euro on the 200 m3 produced daily by the station. It should be noted that the surplus of energy produced via our PV/wind turbine solution does not exceed 1.48% of the total production obtained, thanks to the dimensioning we have recommended. However, a configuration that opts for greater coverage in PV production is possible since the surplus can be injected into the buildings closest to the station and will therefore allow for a greater reduction in the overall bill of the university. This is due to the significant electricity consumption of other teaching buildings during the day.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the support by Research Supporting Project Number (RSPD2024R585), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  1. Funding information: This work was supported by Research Supporting Project Number (RSPD2024R585), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2023-08-20
Revised: 2023-11-09
Accepted: 2023-11-21
Published Online: 2023-12-28

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  5. Behaviour and onset of low-dimensional chaos with a periodically varying loss in single-mode homogeneously broadened laser
  6. Ammonia gas-sensing behavior of uniform nanostructured PPy film prepared by simple-straightforward in situ chemical vapor oxidation
  7. Analysis of the working mechanism and detection sensitivity of a flash detector
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  11. Bioconvection effect in the Carreau nanofluid with Cattaneo–Christov heat flux using stagnation point flow in the entropy generation: Micromachines level study
  12. Study on the impulse mechanism of optical films formed by laser plasma shock waves
  13. Analysis of sweeping jet and film composite cooling using the decoupled model
  14. Research on the influence of trapezoidal magnetization of bonded magnetic ring on cogging torque
  15. Tripartite entanglement and entanglement transfer in a hybrid cavity magnomechanical system
  16. Compounded Bell-G class of statistical models with applications to COVID-19 and actuarial data
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  18. Multiple Lie symmetry solutions for effects of viscous on magnetohydrodynamic flow and heat transfer in non-Newtonian thin film
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  24. Controlling the physical field using the shape function technique
  25. Significance of heat and mass transport in peristaltic flow of Jeffrey material subject to chemical reaction and radiation phenomenon through a tapered channel
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  28. Research on WPD and DBSCAN-L-ISOMAP for circuit fault feature extraction
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https://doi.org/10.1515/phys-2023-0158
Keywords for this article
membrane bioreactor; wastewater treatment; renewable energy; photovoltaic; wind turbine
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Dynamic properties of the attachment oscillator arising in the nanophysics
  3. Parametric simulation of stagnation point flow of motile microorganism hybrid nanofluid across a circular cylinder with sinusoidal radius
  4. Fractal-fractional advection–diffusion–reaction equations by Ritz approximation approach
  5. Behaviour and onset of low-dimensional chaos with a periodically varying loss in single-mode homogeneously broadened laser
  6. Ammonia gas-sensing behavior of uniform nanostructured PPy film prepared by simple-straightforward in situ chemical vapor oxidation
  7. Analysis of the working mechanism and detection sensitivity of a flash detector
  8. Flat and bent branes with inner structure in two-field mimetic gravity
  9. Heat transfer analysis of the MHD stagnation-point flow of third-grade fluid over a porous sheet with thermal radiation effect: An algorithmic approach
  10. Weighted survival functional entropy and its properties
  11. Bioconvection effect in the Carreau nanofluid with Cattaneo–Christov heat flux using stagnation point flow in the entropy generation: Micromachines level study
  12. Study on the impulse mechanism of optical films formed by laser plasma shock waves
  13. Analysis of sweeping jet and film composite cooling using the decoupled model
  14. Research on the influence of trapezoidal magnetization of bonded magnetic ring on cogging torque
  15. Tripartite entanglement and entanglement transfer in a hybrid cavity magnomechanical system
  16. Compounded Bell-G class of statistical models with applications to COVID-19 and actuarial data
  17. Degradation of Vibrio cholerae from drinking water by the underwater capillary discharge
  18. Multiple Lie symmetry solutions for effects of viscous on magnetohydrodynamic flow and heat transfer in non-Newtonian thin film
  19. Thermal characterization of heat source (sink) on hybridized (Cu–Ag/EG) nanofluid flow via solid stretchable sheet
  20. Optimizing condition monitoring of ball bearings: An integrated approach using decision tree and extreme learning machine for effective decision-making
  21. Study on the inter-porosity transfer rate and producing degree of matrix in fractured-porous gas reservoirs
  22. Interstellar radiation as a Maxwell field: Improved numerical scheme and application to the spectral energy density
  23. Numerical study of hybridized Williamson nanofluid flow with TC4 and Nichrome over an extending surface
  24. Controlling the physical field using the shape function technique
  25. Significance of heat and mass transport in peristaltic flow of Jeffrey material subject to chemical reaction and radiation phenomenon through a tapered channel
  26. Complex dynamics of a sub-quadratic Lorenz-like system
  27. Stability control in a helicoidal spin–orbit-coupled open Bose–Bose mixture
  28. Research on WPD and DBSCAN-L-ISOMAP for circuit fault feature extraction
  29. Simulation for formation process of atomic orbitals by the finite difference time domain method based on the eight-element Dirac equation
  30. A modified power-law model: Properties, estimation, and applications
  31. Bayesian and non-Bayesian estimation of dynamic cumulative residual Tsallis entropy for moment exponential distribution under progressive censored type II
  32. Computational analysis and biomechanical study of Oldroyd-B fluid with homogeneous and heterogeneous reactions through a vertical non-uniform channel
  33. Predictability of machine learning framework in cross-section data
  34. Chaotic characteristics and mixing performance of pseudoplastic fluids in a stirred tank
  35. Isomorphic shut form valuation for quantum field theory and biological population models
  36. Vibration sensitivity minimization of an ultra-stable optical reference cavity based on orthogonal experimental design
  37. Effect of dysprosium on the radiation-shielding features of SiO2–PbO–B2O3 glasses
  38. Asymptotic formulations of anti-plane problems in pre-stressed compressible elastic laminates
  39. A study on soliton, lump solutions to a generalized (3+1)-dimensional Hirota--Satsuma--Ito equation
  40. Tangential electrostatic field at metal surfaces
  41. Bioconvective gyrotactic microorganisms in third-grade nanofluid flow over a Riga surface with stratification: An approach to entropy minimization
  42. Infrared spectroscopy for ageing assessment of insulating oils via dielectric loss factor and interfacial tension
  43. Influence of cationic surfactants on the growth of gypsum crystals
  44. Study on instability mechanism of KCl/PHPA drilling waste fluid
  45. Analytical solutions of the extended Kadomtsev–Petviashvili equation in nonlinear media
  46. A novel compact highly sensitive non-invasive microwave antenna sensor for blood glucose monitoring
  47. Inspection of Couette and pressure-driven Poiseuille entropy-optimized dissipated flow in a suction/injection horizontal channel: Analytical solutions
  48. Conserved vectors and solutions of the two-dimensional potential KP equation
  49. The reciprocal linear effect, a new optical effect of the Sagnac type
  50. Optimal interatomic potentials using modified method of least squares: Optimal form of interatomic potentials
  51. The soliton solutions for stochastic Calogero–Bogoyavlenskii Schiff equation in plasma physics/fluid mechanics
  52. Research on absolute ranging technology of resampling phase comparison method based on FMCW
  53. Analysis of Cu and Zn contents in aluminum alloys by femtosecond laser-ablation spark-induced breakdown spectroscopy
  54. Nonsequential double ionization channels control of CO2 molecules with counter-rotating two-color circularly polarized laser field by laser wavelength
  55. Fractional-order modeling: Analysis of foam drainage and Fisher's equations
  56. Thermo-solutal Marangoni convective Darcy-Forchheimer bio-hybrid nanofluid flow over a permeable disk with activation energy: Analysis of interfacial nanolayer thickness
  57. Investigation on topology-optimized compressor piston by metal additive manufacturing technique: Analytical and numeric computational modeling using finite element analysis in ANSYS
  58. Breast cancer segmentation using a hybrid AttendSeg architecture combined with a gravitational clustering optimization algorithm using mathematical modelling
  59. On the localized and periodic solutions to the time-fractional Klein-Gordan equations: Optimal additive function method and new iterative method
  60. 3D thin-film nanofluid flow with heat transfer on an inclined disc by using HWCM
  61. Numerical study of static pressure on the sonochemistry characteristics of the gas bubble under acoustic excitation
  62. Optimal auxiliary function method for analyzing nonlinear system of coupled Schrödinger–KdV equation with Caputo operator
  63. Analysis of magnetized micropolar fluid subjected to generalized heat-mass transfer theories
  64. Does the Mott problem extend to Geiger counters?
  65. Stability analysis, phase plane analysis, and isolated soliton solution to the LGH equation in mathematical physics
  66. Effects of Joule heating and reaction mechanisms on couple stress fluid flow with peristalsis in the presence of a porous material through an inclined channel
  67. Bayesian and E-Bayesian estimation based on constant-stress partially accelerated life testing for inverted Topp–Leone distribution
  68. Dynamical and physical characteristics of soliton solutions to the (2+1)-dimensional Konopelchenko–Dubrovsky system
  69. Study of fractional variable order COVID-19 environmental transformation model
  70. Sisko nanofluid flow through exponential stretching sheet with swimming of motile gyrotactic microorganisms: An application to nanoengineering
  71. Influence of the regularization scheme in the QCD phase diagram in the PNJL model
  72. Fixed-point theory and numerical analysis of an epidemic model with fractional calculus: Exploring dynamical behavior
  73. Computational analysis of reconstructing current and sag of three-phase overhead line based on the TMR sensor array
  74. Investigation of tripled sine-Gordon equation: Localized modes in multi-stacked long Josephson junctions
  75. High-sensitivity on-chip temperature sensor based on cascaded microring resonators
  76. Pathological study on uncertain numbers and proposed solutions for discrete fuzzy fractional order calculus
  77. Bifurcation, chaotic behavior, and traveling wave solution of stochastic coupled Konno–Oono equation with multiplicative noise in the Stratonovich sense
  78. Thermal radiation and heat generation on three-dimensional Casson fluid motion via porous stretching surface with variable thermal conductivity
  79. Numerical simulation and analysis of Airy's-type equation
  80. A homotopy perturbation method with Elzaki transformation for solving the fractional Biswas–Milovic model
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