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Fiber-reinforced polyvinyl alcohol hydrogel via in situ fiber formation

  • Zheng Guo EMAIL logo , Zebo Wang , Wei Pan EMAIL logo , Jintao Zhang , Yu Qi , Yajie Qin and Yi Zhang
Published/Copyright: August 19, 2023
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e-Polymers
From the journal e-Polymers Volume 23 Issue 1

Abstract

Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) hydrogels have been extensively investigated for drug release, artificial cartilage, biosensing, and other applications owing to their good chemical stability, biocompatibility, high water absorption, and ease of processing. However, the conventional hydrogel preparation method is complex and energy-intensive, and the mechanical performance of the pure PVA hydrogel is poor, which severely limits its application in related fields. In this study, a PVA hydrogel was functionally modified using polybutylene succinate (PBS) nanofibers prepared using in situ fiber-forming technology to fabricate a PBS-enhanced PVA composite hydrogel. The strength of the PBS/PVA hydrogel fabricated in this study is 3.88 MPa, which is 4.94 times that of the pure PVA hydrogel; thus, the strength of the hydrogel was effectively improved. The hydrogel preparation method used in this study is novel and straightforward. Moreover, the resulting materials are biodegradable and non-toxic. Compared to conventional methods, this method has the advantages of conserving resources and being environmentally friendly.

Keywords: in situ fiber; fiber-enhanced; polyvinyl alcohol hydrogel; polybutylene succinate fiber; reinforced hydrogel

1 Introduction

In recent years, environmental issues have received considerable attention, and environmentally friendly materials are gaining popularity in many industries. Biodegradable and non-toxic hydrogels are becoming increasingly popular owing to their unique performance. Recently, many researchers have applied hydrogels for drug delivery (1), tissue engineering (2,3,4), wound dressings (5,6,7), artificial cartilage (2,3), artificial skin (8), flexible sensors (9,10,11), antibacterial agents (12,13), and filters (14,15). More extensive, in-depth, and comprehensive research has been conducted in this area. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and polybutylene succinate (PBS) are non-toxic, biodegradable, economical, and practical materials for hydrogels. The PVA hydrogel is a viscoelastic material with a high water content, good biocompatibility, and good chemical stability and durability. It has the general performance of a gel and the advantage of being environmentally friendly. Therefore, it is considered a promising biological material. However, the three-dimensional (3D) network of the hydrogel is composed of a cross-linked hydrophilic polymer chain with a high water content. Therefore, conventional PVA hydrogels have poor mechanical properties, limiting their practical applications. Maintaining the high elasticity of hydrogels while increasing their strength is challenging. PBS is a biodegradable green material that is formed by two-step polycondensation of succinic acid and butanediol. Dicarboxylic acid and diol are first esterified and then polycondensed at high temperature to form high molecular weight PBS. When combined with PVA for hydrogel production, PBS and PVA molecules can form hydrogen bonds, thus effectively strengthening the PVA hydrogel.

To ensure the widespread application of hydrogels in various fields, researchers have been exploring methods to improve their strength without compromising their original performance. To improve the mechanical properties of hydrogels, Kong et al. (16) used poly(ε-caprolactone)-poly (ethylene glycol) microfibers to create a grid scaffold and injected gelatin methacrylate into the scaffold to prepare a hydrogel with a 3D fiber structure. The strength of the prepared hydrogel was 3.79 MPa. To improve the strength and toughness of hydrogels, Sugawara et al. (17) introduced supramolecular inclusions at the cellulose/polymer interface, such as β-cyclodextrin as the main molecule and adamantane as the target molecule, to prepare enhanced hydrogels. The prepared hydrogels attained a pressure of 60 kPa. Gao et al. (18) used biodegradable supramolecular polymers composed of poly(N-acrylo2-glycine) and gelatin methacrylate to enhance hydrogels via photo-induced polymerization. The strength of the hydrogel was 1.1 MPa. Zhu et al. (19) prepared biodegradable glass-fiber-reinforced PVA hydrogels for cartilage repair. The strength of the hydrogel was 12.44 MPa. Inspired by anisotropic biotissues, Li et al. (20) developed composite hydrogels with excellent mechanical properties and conductivity by integrating thermo-responsive poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) hydrogels with highly aligned carbon fibers. A simple method for preparing hydrogels that conserve resources and time while improving their performance is urgently required. Many researchers have attempted various methods, such as the freeze–thaw cycle (11,12,21), optical cross-linking (6,14), low temperatures (2,21), use of dual networks (22), addition of particle enhancers (23), and addition of reinforced fibers (24). However, these methods have drawbacks, including lengthy preparation times, substantial resource consumption, and cumbersome preparation processes.

Hydrogels prepared with water as a solvent have poor stability, and their mechanical properties are insufficient to meet human requirements. In this study, water and glycerin were blended as a binary solvent for hydrogel production. The hydrogels prepared with this binary solvent exhibited high toughness and good stability. This is because glycerin contains many hydroxyl groups that form polar groups during the hydrogel preparation. A hydrogen bond is formed between the water molecules to maintain moisture and improve the stability of the hydrogel. Because PVA also contains many hydroxyl groups, during the preparation of the hydrogel, the hydrogen bond between glycerin and PVA improves the flexibility of the hydrogel.

This study used a novel and straightforward method to prepare fiber-reinforced composite hydrogels. Nanofibers were prepared using in situ fiber-based technology. Moreover, they were used as a reinforcing material for the hydrogels. PBS and PVA were used as the dispersed and continuous phases, respectively. After high-temperature melting extrusion by a twin-screw extruder, PBS nanofibers with a specific length-to-diameter ratio were formed under the combined action of the shear and tensile flow fields. The nanofibers were directly formed in the PVA matrix before the hydrogel was prepared, and the PBS/PVA composite material containing the in situ PBS nanofibers and nanofibers was cut using a granulator. A biodegradable PBS/PVA composite hydrogel with high elasticity, strength, and flexibility was prepared by heating and dissolving the PBS/PVA composite in a water and glycerin binary solvent. Compared to the method of directly adding enhancers during the hydrogel production, the diameter of the microfiber prepared by the in situ fiber method can reach the nanometer level; it is evenly dispersed in the matrix, and the binding strength within the matrix is higher. In addition, the direct formation of microfibers in the matrix eliminated the possibility of contamination caused by the gel enhancement effect.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Experimental material

PVA (Japan Cola PVA117 powder, originally imported by Shanghai Yingjia Agent), glycerin (Zhengzhou Paini Chemical Reagent Factory), PBS (Tianjin Hengxing Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd.), and self-made deionized water were used.

2.2 Preparation of in situ microfibers

Glycerin was added to PVA with a mass ratio of 55:45, mixed evenly, and then plasticized in a 60°C oven for 5 h. During the plasticizing period, the mixture was stirred every 30 min to prevent glycerin from accumulating at the bottom and promote uniform plasticization. After adding PBS with different weight fractions to the plasticized sample and stirring it evenly, it was extruded at a high temperature using a twin-screw extruder and cut into grains for later use.

2.3 Preparation of PBS/PVA hydrogel

As shown in Figure 1, an appropriate amount of PBS/PVA particles, water, and glycerin were weighed and placed in a conical bottle to prepare a mixture with a PVA concentration of 18 wt%. The PBS contents in the glycerin plasticized PBS/PVA hydrogel samples are 0, 2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 wt%, which are recorded as PBS-0, PBS-2.5, PBS-5, PBS-7.5, and PBS-10, respectively, as listed in Table 1. The conical bottle containing the sample was then placed in a constant temperature oscillating water bath at room temperature (25°C), after which the temperature was increased to 40°C and maintained for 1.5 h. Then, the temperature was increased to 60°C and maintained for 1 h, and finally to 95°C and maintained for 1 h. The purpose of the 5 h hot water bath was to obtain a bubble-free hydrogel solution. The hydrogel solution was poured on a glass mold that had been maintained at 95°C in the oven and spread evenly. A glass cover was slowly pressed onto the hydrogel solution from one side of the mold to minimize bubbles. The cover was pressed for 15 s with both hands and then compacted with a heavy object for 15 h to ensure film integrity. Then, the upper cover was removed and the hydrogel was placed in air for 5 h to obtain the prepared PBS/PVA hydrogel.

Figure 1 Synthesis route and synthetic mechanism of the PBS/PVA hydrogel.
Figure 1

Synthesis route and synthetic mechanism of the PBS/PVA hydrogel.

Table 1

Weight ratio of PBS/PVA used to fabricate PBS/PVA composite hydrogels

Sample ID PVA (g) PBS (g)
PBS-0 100 0
PBS-2.5 97.5 2.5
PBS-5 95 5
PBS-7.5 92.5 7.5
PBS-10 90 10

PVA – polyvinyl alcohol; PBS – polybutylene succinate.

2.4 Characterization

The strength of the PBS/PVA composite hydrogel was determined using the AI-7000S1 tensile testing machine (High Speed Rail Technology Co., Ltd.). The functional groups of the PBS/PVA composite hydrogel were assessed using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR; Nicolet210-IR, Shanghai Jinghong Experiment Equipment Co., Ltd.), and the surface of the PBS/PVA composite hydrogel was examined using a scanning electron microscope (SEM; Quanta 250 FEG). Furthermore, the microcrystalline structure of the PBS/PVA composite hydrogel was investigated using X-ray diffraction (XRD; Escalab 250, USA).

3 Results and discussion

This study prepared an enhanced PBS/PVA composite hydrogel via in situ fiber formation. PBS and PVA were mixed evenly after plasticization, and a twin-screw extruder was used to melt and cut them at a high temperature to prepare PBS/PVA composite materials containing in situ PBS microfibers. PBS and PVA are thermodynamically incompatible and have different melting points; therefore, the dispersion phase is stretched by the twin-screw extruder at a temperature above its melting point, and microfibers with a specific length-to-diameter ratio are formed under the combined action of the tensile and shear flow fields, forming PBS nanofibers to enhance the PVA hydrogel. The long fibers extruded by the twin-screw extruder were cut into particles as a masterbatch for preparing the PBS/PVA hydrogel. As shown in Figure 1, during the hydrogel preparation, the PVA in the PBS/PVA particles is dissolved as a matrix in the binary solvent of water and glycerin. PBS nanofibers are used as enhancers for the PBS/PVA composite hydrogels because PBS contains numerous hydroxyl and carbonyl groups, and hydroxyl groups in the PVA molecular chain form intermolecular hydrogen bonds that increase the strength of the hydrogel.

FTIR analysis was performed to assess the chemical structure and composition of the PBS/PVA hydrogel. The FTIR spectra of the pure PVA hydrogel, PBS/PVA composite hydrogel, and pure PBS are shown in Figure 2a. The −OH vibration absorption peak in PBS-5 shifts from 3,438 to 3,426 cm−1, indicating the destruction of the original hydrogen bond of PVA and the formation of new hydrogen bonds between the PBS and PVA molecular chains. The vibration absorption peaks of C═O at 1,718 cm−1 are the characteristic peaks of the PBS carbonyl group. This confirms the presence of PBS in the PBS/PVA hydrogel. During the preparation of the hydrogel, some PVA forms intermolecular hydrogen bonds to form crystalline regions. Hydrogen bonds were formed between PVA and PBS, resulting in physical intersections. The shift in the resonance absorption peak to the wavelet range indicates the formation of hydrogen bonds in the blended system, thus enhancing the strength of the hydrogel.

Figure 2 (a) FTIR spectrum of the prepared hydrogel. (b) XRD patterns of PBS-0 and PBS-5 hydrogels. (c)–(g) SEM microstructural images of PBS-0, PBS-2.5, PBS-5, PBS-7.5, and PBS-10 hydrogels, respectively.
Figure 2

(a) FTIR spectrum of the prepared hydrogel. (b) XRD patterns of PBS-0 and PBS-5 hydrogels. (c)–(g) SEM microstructural images of PBS-0, PBS-2.5, PBS-5, PBS-7.5, and PBS-10 hydrogels, respectively.

The XRD patterns in Figure 2b demonstrate that the peak intensity of PBS-5 is slightly less than that of PBS-0, indicating that hydrogen bonds are formed in PBS-5 and that the formation of new hydrogen bonds inhibits the formation of PVA microcrystals. The peak at 2θ = 23.4° represents the characteristic peak of PBS. Its appearance confirms the integrity of the PBS structure. During the hydrogel formation, some hydrogen bonds were still present between the PBS molecular chains.

The microstructure of the PBS/PVA composite hydrogel, shown in Figure 2c–g, indicates that the PBS/PVA composite hydrogel has a typical 3D network structure. The pore density of the hydrogels increases with increasing PBS content. Simultaneously, the nanofibers in the hydrogels are randomly and evenly distributed. With increasing PBS content, the fiber content also increases. Compared with all the prepared samples, the PBS nanofiber content is the highest when the PBS content is 10 wt% (PBS-10).

As shown in Figure 3a, with increasing PBS concentration, the strength of the PBS/PVA composite hydrogel first increases and then decreases. When the PBS content is 5 wt%, the maximum strength of the hydrogel is 3.88 MPa, and the fracture elongation is 435.40%. Therefore, the strength and fracture elongation of PBS-5 are 4.94 and 1.55 times those of PBS-0, respectively. This is because PBS and PVA form numerous hydrogen bonds in binary solvents. The improved strength of the hydrogel is directly attributable to the hydrogen bonds between the PBS and PVA molecules. In addition, the combined action of water and glycerin enhances the stability and flexibility of the hydrogels. However, with increased PBS content, the content of PBS nanofibers in the PBS/PVA hydrogel also increases. Because of their dispersion in the hydrogel production process, an excessive amount of PBS nanofibers cannot be evenly dispersed in the hydrogel. The reason is that when the PBS nanofibers increase, more cross-linking points are formed with PVA, thus creating a tighter network structure. This increases the overall stiffness of the hydrogel, leading to an increase in Young’s modulus. However, when the PBS nanofiber loading is too high (>5 wt%), the cross-linking points with PVA become sparse. This is because excessive PBS nanofibers will agglomerate and loosen the structure of the hydrogel network, reducing the overall stiffness and resulting in a decrease in Young’s modulus. Accordingly, Young’s moduli shown in Figure 3b demonstrate that PBS-5 has the highest strength. This is consistent with the data trends shown in Figure 3a. As shown in Figure 3c, the PBS-5 hydrogel with a length of 100 mm, a width of 10 mm, and a thickness of 1 mm can lift a weight of 500 g for a long time. The image reveals that the hydrogel is significantly elongated and that no cracks are present.

Figure 3 (a) Stress–strain curves of PBS/PVA hydrogels; (b) Young’s modulus of PBS/PVA hydrogels; and (c) strength of the PBS-5 hydrogel.
Figure 3

(a) Stress–strain curves of PBS/PVA hydrogels; (b) Young’s modulus of PBS/PVA hydrogels; and (c) strength of the PBS-5 hydrogel.

As shown in Figure 4a, the PBS/PVA hydrogel exhibits good plasticity and can be cooled and shaped in a mold to form different shapes, such as fists and crescents. Moreover, prior to cooling, PBS/PVA hydrogels can be formed into different shapes, such as “O,” “V,” “M,” and “L.” As shown in Figure 4b, when the PBS/PVA hydrogel is placed on a ballpoint pen, the two ends of the hydrogel are almost parallel to the vertical cylindrical pen, indicating that the PBS/PVA hydrogel has excellent flexibility. Figure 4c demonstrates that the 5 cm PBS-5 hydrogel can be easily stretched to 20 cm without cracks, indicating that the PBS/PVA hydrogel is highly elastic.

Figure 4 (a) Plasticity of PBS/PVA hydrogels; (b) flexibility of PBS/PVA hydrogels; and (c) elasticity of the PBS-5 hydrogel.
Figure 4

(a) Plasticity of PBS/PVA hydrogels; (b) flexibility of PBS/PVA hydrogels; and (c) elasticity of the PBS-5 hydrogel.

4 Conclusions

This study proposed a method for preparing high-strength PVA composite hydrogels using in situ fibers that effectively improves the mechanical properties of hydrogels. A novel and straightforward hydrogel preparation method was adopted to address the issue of the lengthy preparation cycle of existing PVA hydrogels. In situ PBS microfibers were used as an enhanced material in PBS/PVA blends. The PVA composite hydrogel was prepared by substituting the single aqueous solvent of a traditional hydrogel with a glycerin/water binary mixed solvent. When the content of PBS was 5 wt%, the mechanical properties of the PBS/PVA composite hydrogel were the most apparent; the strength of PBS-5 hydrogel was 3.88 MPa, which was 4.94 times that of the pure PVA hydrogel. This method significantly shortens the preparation cycle of PVA hydrogels, and the resulting PBS/PVA composite hydrogel has excellent mechanical properties, good biocompatibility, and satisfactory biodegradability.

  1. Funding information: The authors appreciate the financial support received from the College Students’ Innovative Entrepreneurial Training Plan Program of Higher Education of Henan Province (202210465017).

  2. Author contributions: Zheng Guo: investigation, conceptualization, methodology, writing – original draft, writing – review and editing, supervision; Zebo Wang: writing – original draft, writing – review and editing; Jintao Zhang: writing – review and editing, formal analysis; Yu Qi: formal analysis; Yajie Qin: formal analysis; Yi Zhang: formal analysis; Wei Pan: writing – original draft, writing – review and editing, supervision, formal analysis.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: Datasets generated and/or analyzed during this study can be obtained from the corresponding authors upon reasonable request.

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Received: 2023-05-27
Revised: 2023-07-26
Accepted: 2023-07-29
Published Online: 2023-08-19

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  70. Enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of Krestin–chitosan nanocomplex for cancer medication via activation of the mitochondrial intrinsic pathway
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  74. Numerical simulation into influence of airflow channel quantities on melt-blowing airflow field in processing of polymer fiber
  75. Cellulose acetate oleate-reinforced poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) composite materials
  76. Radiation shielding capability and exposure buildup factor of cerium(iv) oxide-reinforced polyester resins
  77. Recyclable polytriazole resins with high performance based on Diels-Alder dynamic covalent crosslinking
  78. Adsorption and recovery of Cr(vi) from wastewater by Chitosan–Urushiol composite nanofiber membrane
  79. Comprehensive performance evaluation based on electromagnetic shielding properties of the weft-knitted fabrics made by stainless steel/cotton blended yarn
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  82. Wood-derived high-performance cellulose structural materials
  83. Flammability properties of polymers and polymer composites combined with ionic liquids
  84. Polymer-based nanocarriers for biomedical and environmental applications
  85. A review on semi-crystalline polymer bead foams from stirring autoclave: Processing and properties
  86. Rapid Communication
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  88. Special Issue: Biodegradable and bio-based polymers: Green approaches (Guest Editors: Kumaran Subramanian, A. Wilson Santhosh Kumar, and Venkatajothi Ramarao)
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  90. Fatigue behaviour of Kevlar/carbon/basalt fibre-reinforced SiC nanofiller particulate hybrid epoxy composite
  91. Effect of citric acid on thermal, phase morphological, and mechanical properties of poly(l-lactide)-b-poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(l-lactide)/thermoplastic starch blends
  92. Dose-dependent cytotoxicity against lung cancer cells via green synthesized ZnFe2O4/cellulose nanocomposites
https://doi.org/10.1515/epoly-2023-0056
Keywords for this article
in situ fiber; fiber-enhanced; polyvinyl alcohol hydrogel; polybutylene succinate fiber; reinforced hydrogel
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  88. Special Issue: Biodegradable and bio-based polymers: Green approaches (Guest Editors: Kumaran Subramanian, A. Wilson Santhosh Kumar, and Venkatajothi Ramarao)
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