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Characterization and compatibility of bio-based PA56/PET

  • Shouyun Zhang EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: February 6, 2023
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e-Polymers
From the journal e-Polymers Volume 23 Issue 1

Abstract

The properties and compatibility of bio-based PA56 and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) polymers were studied in detail. The experimental results showed that when compared with PET, bio-based PA56 had better moisture absorption, softness, and dyeing characteristics. By calculating and analyzing the macromolecular structures of bio-based PA56 and PET, the difference in solubility was obtained as 4.18 Cal0.5·cm1.5·mol−1. Thermodynamic analysis showed that the measured change in mixing enthalpy far exceeds the range of the compatible system when the proportion of bio-based PA56 exceeded 15%. When the content of bio-based PA56 in PET exceeded 20%, the glass transition temperature of the blends with different proportions all had double peaks and the eutectic phenomenon was not observed. Scanning electron microscopy was used to observe the cross-section morphology of bio-based PA56/PET blends before and after etching. We found that the interface between the two phases was clear and a “sea-island” dispersed structure was formed. The results of the analysis indicated that the compatibility of the bio-based PA56 and PET was not good.

Keywords: bio-based; compatibility; composite application; characteristic

1 Introduction

Polymer blends can result in improved material properties and achieve performances that cannot be realized by a single polymer. Thus, modified materials made of polymer blends are known as polymer alloys, and they represent one of the most important methods for the preparation of new materials, hence meriting further study (1). The fundamental condition for the preparation of polymer alloys is good compatibility between the different component polymers. This determines the distribution morphology and structural properties of the two polymers (2). For polymers with poor compatibility, the two-component side-by-side composite spinning or mixed fiber methods can be used to utilize the complementary advantages and disadvantages effectively and ensure a comprehensive application of the differences (3). In this study, the characteristics and compatibility of bio-based polyamide 56/polyethylene terephthalate (PA56/PET) polymers are studied to determine potential applications and to comprehensively utilize the advantages of both, improving the use value and expanding the application space. Because of the unsymmetric structures of bio-based polyamide 56 (PA56) macromolecules, there are more C═O and N‒H unsaturated polar groups between the different macromolecular chain segments of the bio-based polyamide 56 (PA56). Thus, it has good moisture absorption, affinity to dyes, elasticity, and softness. In contrast, the macromolecular structure of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is more regular, and it has a very rigid benzene ring, resulting in poor hygroscopic performance, dyeing performance, softness, and elasticity. However, it has the advantages of quick drying, easy washing, and good shape retention (4,5,6). Compared with polyamide 6 (PA6) and polyamide 66 (PA66), the bio-based polyamide 56 (PA56) and PET are more complementary in performance. At the same time, from the perspective of macromolecular structure, the N‒H unsaturated group in the bio-based polyamide PA56 macromolecule may form a hydrogen bond with the C═O group in the PET macromolecule. That is beneficial to promoting its compatibility (7,8,9). At present, there are many studies on the compatibility of polyamide 6 (PA6), polyamide 66 (PA66), and PET, and it is shown that their compatibility is not good. However, because bio-based polyamide 56 (PA56) is a new material that has come to the fore in recent years, there is insufficient literature on its compatibility and composite application with PET (10,11,12).

In order to provide a theoretical basis for the application of bio-based polyamide 56 (PA56) and PET composite, 44 dtex/36 f fully drawn yarn (FDY) fiber was taken as an example to study the wearability of bio-based polyamide 56 (PA56) and PET fiber and fabric. The compatibility of bio-based polyamide 56/polyethylene terephthalate (PA56/PET) was studied through solubility parameter estimation, thermodynamic compatibility analysis, dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and other methods.

2 Experimental methods

2.1 Materials and reagents

Fiber-grade bio-based PA56 chips with an average molecular weight of 2.16 × 104 and characteristic viscosity of 1.397 dL·g−1 were procured from DuPont. The fiber-grade PET chips with an average molecular weight of 1.63 × 104 and characteristic viscosity of 0.652 dL·g−1 were produced by Zhejiang Hengyi High-tech Material Co., Ltd. The PA6 fibers and PA66 fibers were of 44dtex/36 f FDY filament, and they were produced by Yiwu Huading Nylon Co., Ltd. A 2BLN dispersive blue dye by ShaoXing Chen Hao Chemical Co., Ltd. and 2BL neutral ash metal complex dye made by NanHe county ZhongTian Fine Chemical Co., Ltd were also used. PA-N acid ash (Shao Xing Hong Dyeing Chemical Co., Ltd.), 99.2% pure formic acid (Chong Qing city Chuan Dong Chemical Group Co., Ltd), and potassium bromide (Wu Jiang City Nuop Chemical Co., Ltd.) were also procured.

2.2 Equipment

An FBM320-type pre-crystallization drying equipment (Zheng Zhou Zhong Yuan Drying Technology Co., Ltd.) was used for the experiment along with an ATI-ⅱ 615MR/12 (Japan TMT Machinery Co., Ltd.) spinning and drawing machine, HC2000-type computer jet dyeing machine (Hang Zhou Xin Yi Xin numerical control equipment Co., Ltd.), and a double cone micromixer with a screw diameter 12 mm (Shanghai Dehong Rubber Machinery Co., Ltd). An SU8010-type scanning electron microscope (Hitachi, Japan), ARL TM EQUINOX6000-type X-ray diffractometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific Co., Ltd.), and FTIR Nicoler 8700-type Fourier Infrared Spectrometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific Co., Ltd.) were also used.

2.3 Sample preparation

2.3.1 Preparation of fiber samples

The pre-crystallization and drying process of the chips was as follows: An appropriate quantity of bio-based PA56 chips was fed through the vacuum siphon suction device, and the chips were placed in a DGD67-1 drying tower installed on the spinning device using nitrogen to protect the chips. The pre-crystallization temperature was 90°C, the pre-crystallization time was 1 h, the drying temperature was 130°C, and the drying time was 24 h. Subsequently, the moisture content of the dried chips was kept at approximately 350 ppm.

The spinning process was as follows: the chips were melted and metered using a screw extruder and the melt was used to prepare 44 dtex/36 f fully drawn filament FDY samples. The temperature of each zone of the screw was 278°C, 282°C, 284°C, 286°C, 288°C, and 290°C. Other parameters are cooling by side air, humidity 100%, and air temperature 17°C, spinning temperature 290°C, spinning speed or speed of second heating roller 4,200 m·s−1, cooling blowing speed 0.40 m·s−1, draw ratio 2.8, temperature of the first heating roller 70°C, temperature of the second heating roller 160°C, and oil content 1.2%.

2.3.2 Preparation of fiber ball for a dyeing experiment

A measured quantity of the prepared filament samples (0.5 kg) was taken and kneaded into fiber balls for testing the dyeing properties of the fibers.

2.3.3 Preparation of fiber fabrics

The fabrics were prepared as follows: The same fiber was used for warp and weft. The fabric had a 1/2 twill weave structure made by a Toyota JAT710 air-jet loom for each fiber sample using the 44 dtex/36 f fiber, fabric density 700 × 500/10 cm, fabric thickness 0.8 cm, fabric weight 70 g·m−2, and fabric width 180 cm.

2.3.4 Preparation of blend samples

Bio-based PA56 chips were dried by vacuum drum for 24 h, protected by nitrogen with a nitrogen flux of 0.12 MPa, drying temperature 140°C, and rotation speed of 1 rpm. The water content of the dried chips was approximately 350 ppm. PET chips were dried by a vacuum drum for 12 h under an air flux of 0.15 MPa, drying temperature of 165°C, and rotation speed of 1 rpm, and the water content of the dried chips was approximately 23 ppm.

The dried bio-based PA56 chips were added to the dried PET chips in different mass proportions, such as 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50%, and mixed evenly. Following this, the bio-based PA56/PET blends were prepared by a double-cone micromixer. The temperature of the double cone micromixer was 292°C, the speed was 12 rpm, and the melting and blending time was 5 min.

2.4 Testing and characterization

According to GB/T 21665.1-2008 (“Textile moisture absorption and rapid drying evaluation Part 1: single combination test method”), a YG(B)871 capillary effect tester was used to determine the wicking height of the fabric.

According to GB/T 21655.2-2009 (“Assessment of moisture absorption and rapid drying of textiles Part 2: dynamic water transfer method”), a DR290M textile liquid water transfer performance tester was used to determine the dripping diffusion area and dripping diffusion time of fabrics.

According to the national standard GB/T 12704-1991 (“Fabric moisture permeability measurement method – Moisture cup method”) a YG(B), 216X fabric moisture permeability meter was used to determine the moisture permeability of the fabrics.

According to GB/T 5453-1997 (“Determination of textile fabric breathability”), a YG(B)461D digital fabric breathability meter was used to determine of air permeability of fabrics.

GB/T 12703-91 (“Textile electrostatic test method”) is used to determine the antistatic properties of fibers and fabrics. An LFY-405 digital display fiber-specific resistance tester was used to determine the surface-specific resistivity of the fiber. The half-life index of the fabric was determined by a YG403A fabric friction-charged quantity tester. The charge surface density of the fabric was measured using an MGZH8843 friction charge density tester.

According to GB/T 2378-2003 (“Acid dye dyeing color and intensity test”), an HC2000 computer jet dyeing machine was used with the fiber samples for a bath ratio of 1:20 and an dye initial concentration of 0.1%. A Datacolor800 spectrophotometer was used to determine the K/S value of the fiber samples that were dyed at different temperatures.

A 204 F1 DSC was used to characterize the bio-based PA56, PET chips, and PA56/PET blend samples in various proportions. About 5–10 mg of samples was weighed into an aluminum crucible, and the temperature was raised from room temperature to 350°C at a rate of 20°C·min−1 in a nitrogen atmosphere.

An FTIR Nicoler 8700 Fourier transform infrared spectrometer was used to test the bio-based PA56/PET blend samples at room temperature using the potassium bromide (KBr) compression method. The infrared spectrum test parameters were as follows: the scanning range was 4,000-400 cm−1, the scanning number was 45, and the resolution was 1 cm−1.

The glass transition temperature (T g) of bio-based PA56 and PET chips and their blends were measured by a Q800 DMA equipment in a nitrogen atmosphere. Scanning was performed at a fixed frequency of 1 Hz and a heating rate of 3°C·min−1. An ARL TM EQUINOX6000 X-ray diffractometer was used to test the crystallization of bio-based PA56, PET, and bio-based PA56/PET blend samples with 30% and 40% of bio-based PA56, respectively. The test conditions are as follows: Ka radiation of Cu target, n = 0.89, λ = 0.17315 nm, scanning range of 6–60°, step size of 0.02°, tube current of 200 Ma, and tube voltage of 40 kV. The interplanar spacing was calculated according to Bragg’s formula, which was as follows:

(1) 2 d sin θ = n λ

where D is the interplanar spacing, θ is the X-ray grazing angle, n is the diffraction cardinality, and λ is the X-ray wavelength.

The samples were quenched and treated with sprayed gold to observe the morphology of the sections using a Hitachi SU8010 scanning electron microscope. Then, the cross-section of the sample was etched with 99.2% formic acid for 11 h, and the change in cross-section morphology was observed using SEM.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Drying process of bio-based PA56 chips

The moisture content of the chips has a considerable influence on the spinnability and mechanical properties of the fiber. If the bio-based PA56 chips are dried directly at high temperatures, it is easy to cause local adhesion and agglomeration on the chip surface and abnormal phenomena such as the formation of rings that obstruct the screw motion, interference with feed, and uneven melting occur. That will affect the melt spinnability (9,13,14).

Therefore, when the drying temperature is close to the cold crystallization temperature of chips and the chips are kept boiling by blowing nitrogen, pre-crystallization occurs, which can improve the crystallinity and uniformity of chips, thus improving their heat resistance and ensure to meet the needs of production (14,15). Subsequently, the temperature is raised to dry the bio-based PA56. The cold crystallization temperature of bio-based PA56 measured by DSC was approximately 87°C. So, the precrystallization experiment was carried out at 85°C, 90°C, 95°C, and 100°C for 1 h respectively. It was found that there was a small amount of chips adhesion into bigger pieces at 95°C and it was more serious at 100°C. Therefore, 90°C was used for precrystallization.

3.2 Properties of bio-based PA56/PET fibers and fabrics

Preparation of textile fiber is an important use of bio-based polyamide 56 and PET (15,16). However, The hygroscopic properties, antistatic properties, dyeing properties, and softness of polymer materials are important indicators of their application potential in the field of textile fibers, defining the application value and application space to a large extent (4,5,17). Table 1 shows the test results of the hygroscopic and antistatic properties of several common textile fibers and their fabrics, such as bio-based PA56 and PET. The bio-based PA56 fiber and fabric have the best hygroscopic and antistatic properties, the smallest initial modulus, good softness, and low rigidity. On the other hand, PET has the most advantages in terms of moisture permeability, breathability, and conformal properties. They have good complementary performance effects between bio-based PA56 and PET (6,13,16).

Table 1

Analysis of performance indexes of fiber samples and fabrics (44 dtex/36 f FDY)

Test index PA56 PA6 PA66 PET
Saturated water absorption of fiber (%) 15.3 10.7 7.2 1.1
Fiber moisture regain (%) 8.8 4.5 0.8 0.4
Wicking height of fabric (mm) 125.7 94.3 62.7 53.2
Fabric drip diffusion time (mm2·30 s−1) 3.7 6.9 9.7 12.1
Fabric dripping diffusion area (mm2·30 s−1) 1,235 927 984 878
Fabric moisture permeability (g·m−2·day−1) 5,125 5,538 5,778 6,755
Fabric permeability (mm·s−1) 147 237 199 338
Fabric half-life period (s) 105 125 145 170
Specific resistance of fabric surface (1010 Ω·m) 988 1,235 1,425 1,530
Charge area density of fabric (μC·m−2) 26 47 65 87
Fiber initial modulus (cN·dtex−1) 30.5 32.9 35.4 47.5

Several common textile fibers of the same specification were dyed with disperse dyes, acid dyes, and metal complex dyes, respectively, under the same conditions. The K/S value of each fiber was compared to analyze its dyeing performance.

Figures 1–3 show the K/S values of several fibers at different temperatures in acidic dyes, dispersed blue dyes, and metal complex dyes. The photo was taken at 100°C after the fiber coloring reached saturation and after cleaning and drying. The K/S value of bio-based PA56 fiber in various dye solutions at the same temperature is higher, and the fiber is darker, which indicates better dyeing performance (18,19,20). Compared with polyamide fiber, PET fiber dyeing performance is poor. They can be only dyed with dispersive and metal complex gray dye. The K/S test value is relatively low under the same temperature conditions, and the color is light. In addition, under the condition of the same temperature, the K/S value of the fiber is relatively high in the metal complexing dye. It may be that the dispersed dyes and metal complex dyes contain amino and polar groups and materials such as metal ions. They can work with C═O, N–H, etc., which are unsaturated polar groups of the fiber that improves the binding ability between macromolecular and dye combinations. Thus, the dyeing property is improved (21,22,23).

Figure 1 Dyeing property of acid dyes for several kinds of fibers (44 dtex/36 f FDY).
Figure 1

Dyeing property of acid dyes for several kinds of fibers (44 dtex/36 f FDY).

Figure 2 Dyeing property of dispersed dyes for several kinds of fibers (44 dtex/36 f FDY).
Figure 2

Dyeing property of dispersed dyes for several kinds of fibers (44 dtex/36 f FDY).

Figure 3 Dyeing property of metal complex dyes for several kinds of fibers (44 dtex/36 f FDY).
Figure 3

Dyeing property of metal complex dyes for several kinds of fibers (44 dtex/36 f FDY).

3.3 Structural analysis of bio-based PA56/PET compatibility

According to the structural characteristics of bio-based PA56 and PET, the compatibility of bio-based PA56/PET was preliminarily calculated and analyzed by estimation based on the chemical structure. The molar attraction constant of chemical groups is obtained from the “Industrial Polymer Manual” (24), as shown in Table 2. The density was measured based on the sample and the relevant parameters, which are shown in Table 3. The calculation formula is as follows (25):

(2) δ = d ∑ G i M

where D is the polymer density (kg·m−3), Gi is the molar attraction constant of the chemical groups composing the molecule, M is the link molecular weight, and the molar attraction constants G of the related chemical groups of Chadish polyamide chain segments are shown in Table 2.

Table 2

Polyamide-link chemical groups’ molar attraction constant G (2.04 × 10−3 J1/2·m2/3) at 25°C (17)

Group G Group G
—CH2— 133 —CN— 410
—C═O （Carbonyl） 275 Phenyl 735
310 410
Table 3

Related parameters and solubility value of bio-based PA56/PET

Macromolecular polymers Structural or chemical formulas Macromolecular chain unit molecular weight Sample density (kg·m−3) Solubility parameter calculated value (cal0.5·cm1.5·mol−1)
Bio-based PA56 [–NH(CH2)5–NHCO(CH2)4CO–]n 212 1.09 26.92
PET (COC6H4COOCH2CH2O)n 192 1.38 22.74

According to the theory of polymer solubility parameters, the smaller the difference ∆δ between two polymers, the better their compatibility will be. Generally, ∆δ ≤ 0.5 is required for two polymers to mix evenly in any proportion (25). According to the calculation results of solubility parameters in Table 3, the ∆δ value of bio-based PA56/PET is above 4.0 and the compatibility is very poor.

The melting thermodynamic properties of bio-based PA56/PET blends were analyzed, and the formula of mixing enthalpy ∆H m of bio-based PA56/PET blends was calculated by using the solubility parameter and relative molecular mass of the repeating unit. The specific formula was as follows (26):

Δ H m = { W a · M a · ρ a ( δ a − δ b ) 2 · [ W b / ( ( 1 − W b ) · M b · ρ b ) + ( 1 − W a ) · M a · ρ a ) ] 2 } 1 / 2

where δ i is the solubility parameter of each component, W i is the mass fraction of each component, M i is the relative molecular mass of each component repeat unit, ρ i is the density of each component, and a and b are different components.

Table 4 shows the parameters related to bio-based PA56 and PET. According to the above parameters and calculation formula, the ∆H m of bio-based PA56/PET blends with different proportions was calculated and analyzed, and the results are shown in Figure 4.

Table 4

Related parameters of bio-based PA56 and PET

Parameter Bio-based PA56 PET
Inherent viscosity, η (dL·g−1) 2.32 0.643
Number average molecular weight, M 212 192
The solubility parameter, δ ((J·cm−3)0.5) 26.92 22.74
Density, ρ (g·cm−3) 1.09 1.38
Figure 4 The calculated value ΔH m (10−3 J·mol−1) of thermodynamic compatibility parameter of bio-based PA56/PET blend.
Figure 4

The calculated value ΔH m (10−3 J·mol−1) of thermodynamic compatibility parameter of bio-based PA56/PET blend.

Generally, the ∆H m range of compatible systems is 4.18 × 10−3 to 41.81 × 10−3 J·mol−1 (2,26). According to the calculation results, when the proportion of bio-based PA56 in PET was less than 15%, the ∆H m value of the blends was within the compatibility range. When the proportion of bio-based PA56 was up to 18%, the ∆H m value was far beyond the compatibility range. Therefore, it is inferred that the compatibility of bio-based PA56 and PET was poor.

3.4 DMA and DSC analyses of bio-based PA56/PET blends

It is difficult to accurately judge the temperature point corresponding to the tangent of inflection point when the glass transition temperature T g of bio-based PA56 is measured via DSC. Therefore, the DMA method was used to determine the glass transition temperature T g of bio-based PA56/PET blends, and the DSC method was used to test the melting point of the blends to analyze the compatibility between the amorphous region and the crystalline region of bio-based PA56/PET blends.

Figures 5 and 6 show the test results of glass transition temperature T g of bio-based PA56, PET, and their blends tested by the DMA method, respectively. It can be seen that when the amount of bio-based PA56 is less than 20%, the blend sample has only one glass transition temperature. It is between the two glass transition temperatures of bio-based PA56 and PET. This indicates that bio-based PA56 and PET have certain compatibility in the amorphous region (1,25). When the quantity of added PA56 reaches 30% and 40%, two glass transition temperatures appear on the DMA curve and the added quantity is larger as the two glass transition temperatures are closer to the homopolymer value. This indicates that bio-based PA56 and PET are not compatible.

Figure 5 Glass transition temperature (T g) test for PET and bio-based PA56 using DMA method for (a) PET and (b) bio-based PA56.
Figure 5

Glass transition temperature (T g) test for PET and bio-based PA56 using DMA method for (a) PET and (b) bio-based PA56.

Figure 6 Glass transition temperature (T g) of bio-based PA56/PET blends measured using DMA method: (a) 10% PA56, (b) 20% PA56, (c) 30% PA56, and (d) 40% PA56.
Figure 6

Glass transition temperature (T g) of bio-based PA56/PET blends measured using DMA method: (a) 10% PA56, (b) 20% PA56, (c) 30% PA56, and (d) 40% PA56.

The melting point T m and its melting peak are direct indications of the melting behavior of the ordered structure of polymer macromolecules. The melting point T m is determined by the properties of the polymer itself while the melting enthalpy ∆H m is the energy required for the complete destruction of the ordered polymer structure (2). Figure 7 shows the melting point of bio-based PA56 and PET measured using DSC. The difference in melting point between bio-based PA56 (melting point 259.7°C) and PET (melting point 272.0°C) is more than 10°C. DSC can be used to test the melting point of the bio-based PA56/PET blend samples to analyze their compatibility based on their crystallization regions (2,25).

Figure 7 DSC heating curves of (a) melting point of bio-based PA56, (b) melting point of PET, and (c) bio-based PA56/PET blends.
Figure 7

DSC heating curves of (a) melting point of bio-based PA56, (b) melting point of PET, and (c) bio-based PA56/PET blends.

As shown in Figure 7, when the content of bio-based PA56 in PET is 10% and 20%, the blended substance has one melting point, which is between the melting point of the two components. This indicates that the two substances have certain compatibility in the crystallization zone. However, when the content of bio-based PA56 in PET is 30% or 40%, the blends appear as two melting points which are intermediate to the melting points of the two components. The two components are not compatible (2,26).

3.5 XRD analysis of bio-based PA56/PET blends

The compatibility of polymer blends can be analyzed through the change in their crystalline state (27,28). Figure 8 shows the XRD test curves and schematic diagram of peak splitting of pure bio-based PA56 and pure PET. The diffraction peaks corresponding to the crystal planes [010], [110], and [100] of pure bio-based PA56 appear at 23.2°, 22.3°, and 20.6°, respectively. However, the diffraction peaks of pure PET appear at 17.4°, 21.3°, and 23.2° corresponding to the crystal planes [010], [110], and [100], respectively (1,2). To analyze the crystallization changes of bio-based PA56/PET blends, the XRD curves and peak data corresponding to the main diffraction peaks of different components of the blends are listed in Figure 9 and Table 5, respectively.

Figure 8 XRD patterns of (a) pure bio-based PA56 and (b) PET.
Figure 8

XRD patterns of (a) pure bio-based PA56 and (b) PET.

Figure 9 XRD test results of bio-based PA56/PET blends: (a) XRD test curves and (b) schematic diagram of XRD-peak-differentation.
Figure 9

XRD test results of bio-based PA56/PET blends: (a) XRD test curves and (b) schematic diagram of XRD-peak-differentation.

Table 5

XRD analysis data of bio-based PA56/PET blends

PA56 content (wt%) 2θ (°) Interplanar spacing, D (A°)
[010] [110] [100] [010] [110] [100]
0 17.4 20.3 23.2 5.09 4.37 3.83
10 17.2 20.1 23.0 5.15 4.42 3.86
20 17.0 20.1 23.1 5.21 4.42 3.85
30 17.1 20.1 22.6 5.18 4.42 3.93
40 17.0 20.0 22.5 5.21 4.44 3.95
100 23.2 22.3 20.6 3.83 3.98 4.31

Figure 9 and Table 5 are the XRD patterns and data tables of bio-based PA56/PET blend samples, respectively. The diffraction peaks corresponding to crystal planes [010], [110], and [100] of pure bio-based PA56 appear at 23.2°, 22.3°, and 20.6°, respectively. However, the diffraction peaks of pure PET appear at 17.4°, 21.3°, and 23.2° corresponding to the crystal planes [010], [110], and [100], respectively (2,16). When the content of bio-based PA56 is low (10% and 20%), the 2θ position of the diffraction peak on the XRD curve of the blend is basically the same as that of PET. It indicates that the crystallization is associated with the PET phase. When the content of PA56 increased to 30% and 40%, the [100] diffraction peak of the blend moved to 22.6° and 22.5°, respectively. This diffraction peak may be the result of the superposition of the [100] diffraction peak of PET and the [100] diffraction peak of PA56, but no new diffraction peak appeared. Therefore, it is inferred that bio-based PA56 and PET have no eutectic formation and the compatibility of bio-based PA56 and PET is poor.

3.6 Phase morphology of bio-based PA56/PET blends

SEM was used to observe the morphology of the samples of bio-based PA56/PET blend system before and after etching to judge and analyze its compatibility (2,26).

Figure 10 shows the morphology of the cross-section of each blend sample observed using SEM. The cross-section morphology of the dispersed phase PA56 was observed after etching with formic acid and its SEM photo is shown in Figure 11. Figure 10 shows that PA56 is in the form of micron-sized spherical particles dispersed in the PET matrix, and the interface between the two phases is clear, forming a “sea-island” dispersion structure. It indicates poor compatibility between them (25,26). When the added quantity of PA56 is 40%, neither of them can form a continuous phase. As shown in Figure 11, after etching the blended sample, the spherical PA56 particles dissolve and fall off from the blended sample, leaving uneven holes. As the quantity of PA56 increases, the size of the dispersed phase increases significantly along with the size difference. This indicates that the dispersed phase had obvious agglomeration (25,26). When the content of bio-based PA56 in PET is 40%, the two components are difficult to form a continuous phase and the polymer blend has been embrittled, with no toughness. When the content of bio-based PA56 in PET is 40%, it is difficult to form a continuous phase using the two components, and the polymer blend becomes embrittled with no appreciable toughness. Its plasticity and fiber-forming properties are not good (7,29).

Figure 10 SEM images of bio-based PA56/PET blends before etching treatment: (a) PET, (b) 10% PA56, (c) 20% PA56, (d) 30% PA56, and (e) 40% PA56.
Figure 10

SEM images of bio-based PA56/PET blends before etching treatment: (a) PET, (b) 10% PA56, (c) 20% PA56, (d) 30% PA56, and (e) 40% PA56.

Figure 11 The SEM images of bio-based PA56/PET blends after etching treatment: (a) 100% PET, (b) 10% bio-based PA56, (c) 20% bio-based PA56, (d) 30% bio-based PA56, and (e) 40% bio-based PA56.
Figure 11

The SEM images of bio-based PA56/PET blends after etching treatment: (a) 100% PET, (b) 10% bio-based PA56, (c) 20% bio-based PA56, (d) 30% bio-based PA56, and (e) 40% bio-based PA56.

4 Conclusions

  1. Bio-based PA56 polymer has good moisture absorption, antistatic properties, dyeing performance, and softness. Its fibers and fabrics have good wearing comfort. In the case of the PET polymer, although the dyeing moisture absorption, antistatic properties, and dyeing performance are poor, the moisture permeability, permeability, and shape retention are good. Hence, bio-based PA56 and PET have a very good complementary effect.

  2. The results of solubility parameter estimation and thermodynamic analysis, as well as DMA, DSC, XRD, and SEM tests all showed that when a small amount of bio-based PA56 was added to PET, the compatibility of PA56 and PA56 was ensured. When the amount of PA56 exceeded 30%, the compatibility of PA56 and PET was very poor. This may be because, with the increase in the content of bio-based PA56, the number and strength of hydrogen bond formation between the C═O and N‒H unsaturated polar groups between the large chain segments of the bio-based PA56 increase while the hydrogen bond between bio-based PA56 and PET macromolecules weakens and its compatibility deteriorates.

  3. Based on the aforementioned research results, it is shown that the compatibility of bio-based PA56/PET is relatively poor and the modification effect of PET by adding a small quantity of bio-based PA56 is not obvious while the finished product has many defects and poor performance by adding a large proportion of bio-based PA56. Hence, the use of a parallel two-component composite spinning method to prepare the fiber can improve the applications in this case.

  1. Funding information: The authors state no funding involved.

  2. Author contributions: Zhang Shouyun completed the project and wrote the thesis independently.

  3. Conflict of interest: The author states no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2022-09-20
Revised: 2022-11-02
Accepted: 2022-11-29
Published Online: 2023-02-06

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  5. Loading conditions impact on the compression fatigue behavior of filled styrene butadiene rubber
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  7. Study on the aging of three typical rubber materials under high- and low-temperature cyclic environment
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  9. Experimental investigation of properties and aging behavior of pineapple and sisal leaf hybrid fiber-reinforced polymer composites
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  71. Variation in tungsten(vi) oxide particle size for enhancing the radiation shielding ability of silicone rubber composites
  72. Damage accumulation and failure mechanism of glass/epoxy composite laminates subjected to repeated low velocity impacts
  73. Gamma-ray shielding analysis using the experimental measurements for copper(ii) sulfate-doped polyepoxide resins
  74. Numerical simulation into influence of airflow channel quantities on melt-blowing airflow field in processing of polymer fiber
  75. Cellulose acetate oleate-reinforced poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) composite materials
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  77. Recyclable polytriazole resins with high performance based on Diels-Alder dynamic covalent crosslinking
  78. Adsorption and recovery of Cr(vi) from wastewater by Chitosan–Urushiol composite nanofiber membrane
  79. Comprehensive performance evaluation based on electromagnetic shielding properties of the weft-knitted fabrics made by stainless steel/cotton blended yarn
  80. Review Articles
  81. Preparation and application of natural protein polymer-based Pickering emulsions
  82. Wood-derived high-performance cellulose structural materials
  83. Flammability properties of polymers and polymer composites combined with ionic liquids
  84. Polymer-based nanocarriers for biomedical and environmental applications
  85. A review on semi-crystalline polymer bead foams from stirring autoclave: Processing and properties
  86. Rapid Communication
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  89. Synthesis and characterization of proton-conducting membranes based on bacterial cellulose and human nail keratin
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https://doi.org/10.1515/epoly-2022-8082
Keywords for this article
bio-based; compatibility; composite application; characteristic
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Chitosan nanocomposite film incorporating Nigella sativa oil, Azadirachta indica leaves’ extract, and silver nanoparticles
  3. Effect of Zr-doped CaCu3Ti3.95Zr0.05O12 ceramic on the microstructure, dielectric properties, and electric field distribution of the LDPE composites
  4. Effects of dry heating, acetylation, and acid pre-treatments on modification of potato starch with octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA)
  5. Loading conditions impact on the compression fatigue behavior of filled styrene butadiene rubber
  6. Characterization and compatibility of bio-based PA56/PET
  7. Study on the aging of three typical rubber materials under high- and low-temperature cyclic environment
  8. Numerical simulation and experimental research of electrospun polyacrylonitrile Taylor cone based on multiphysics coupling
  9. Experimental investigation of properties and aging behavior of pineapple and sisal leaf hybrid fiber-reinforced polymer composites
  10. Influence of temperature distribution on the foaming quality of foamed polypropylene composites
  11. Enzyme-catalyzed synthesis of 4-methylcatechol oligomer and preliminary evaluations as stabilizing agent in polypropylene
  12. Molecular dynamics simulation of the effect of the thermal and mechanical properties of addition liquid silicone rubber modified by carbon nanotubes with different radii
  13. Incorporation of poly(3-acrylamidopropyl trimethylammonium chloride-co-acrylic acid) branches for good sizing properties and easy desizing from sized cotton warps
  14. Effect of matrix composition on properties of polyamide 66/polyamide 6I-6T composites with high content of continuous glass fiber for optimizing surface performance
  15. Preparation and properties of epoxy-modified thermosetting phenolic fiber
  16. Thermal decomposition reaction kinetics and storage life prediction of polyacrylate pressure-sensitive adhesive
  17. Effect of different proportions of CNTs/Fe3O4 hybrid filler on the morphological, electrical and electromagnetic interference shielding properties of poly(lactic acid) nanocomposites
  18. Doping silver nanoparticles into reverse osmosis membranes for antibacterial properties
  19. Melt-blended PLA/curcumin-cross-linked polyurethane film for enhanced UV-shielding ability
  20. The affinity of bentonite and WO3 nanoparticles toward epoxy resin polymer for radiation shielding
  21. Prolonged action fertilizer encapsulated by CMC/humic acid
  22. Preparation and experimental estimation of radiation shielding properties of novel epoxy reinforced with Sb2O3 and PbO
  23. Fabrication of polylactic acid nanofibrous yarns for piezoelectric fabrics
  24. Copper phenyl phosphonate for epoxy resin and cyanate ester copolymer with improved flame retardancy and thermal properties
  25. Synergistic effect of thermal oxygen and UV aging on natural rubber
  26. Effect of zinc oxide suspension on the overall filler content of the PLA/ZnO composites and cPLA/ZnO composites
  27. The role of natural hybrid nanobentonite/nanocellulose in enhancing the water resistance properties of the biodegradable thermoplastic starch
  28. Performance optimization of geopolymer mortar blending in nano-SiO2 and PVA fiber based on set pair analysis
  29. Preparation of (La + Nb)-co-doped TiO2 and its polyvinylidene difluoride composites with high dielectric constants
  30. Effect of matrix composition on the performance of calcium carbonate filled poly(lactic acid)/poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) composites
  31. Low-temperature self-healing polyurethane adhesives via dual synergetic crosslinking strategy
  32. Leucaena leucocephala oil-based poly malate-amide nanocomposite coating material for anticorrosive applications
  33. Preparation and properties of modified ammonium polyphosphate synergistic with tris(2-hydroxyethyl) isocynurate for flame-retardant LDPE
  34. Thermal response of double network hydrogels with varied composition
  35. The effect of coated calcium carbonate using stearic acid on the recovered carbon black masterbatch in low-density polyethylene composites
  36. Investigation of MXene-modified agar/polyurethane hydrogel elastomeric repair materials with tunable water absorption
  37. Damping performance analysis of carbon black/lead magnesium niobite/epoxy resin composites
  38. Molecular dynamics simulations of dihydroxylammonium 5,5′-bistetrazole-1,1′-diolate (TKX-50) and TKX-50-based PBXs with four energetic binders
  39. Preparation and characterization of sisal fibre reinforced sodium alginate gum composites for non-structural engineering applications
  40. Study on by-products synthesis of powder coating polyester resin catalyzed by organotin
  41. Ab initio molecular dynamics of insulating paper: Mechanism of insulating paper cellobiose cracking at transient high temperature
  42. Effect of different tin neodecanoate and calcium–zinc heat stabilizers on the thermal stability of PVC
  43. High-strength polyvinyl alcohol-based hydrogel by vermiculite and lignocellulosic nanofibrils for electronic sensing
  44. Impacts of micro-size PbO on the gamma-ray shielding performance of polyepoxide resin
  45. Influence of the molecular structure of phenylamine antioxidants on anti-migration and anti-aging behavior of high-performance nitrile rubber composites
  46. Fiber-reinforced polyvinyl alcohol hydrogel via in situ fiber formation
  47. Preparation and performance of homogenous braids-reinforced poly (p-phenylene terephthamide) hollow fiber membranes
  48. Synthesis of cadmium(ii) ion-imprinted composite membrane with a pyridine functional monomer and characterization of its adsorption performance
  49. Impact of WO3 and BaO nanoparticles on the radiation shielding characteristics of polydimethylsiloxane composites
  50. Comprehensive study of the radiation shielding feature of polyester polymers impregnated with iron filings
  51. Preparation and characterization of polymeric cross-linked hydrogel patch for topical delivery of gentamicin
  52. Mechanical properties of rCB-pigment masterbatch in rLDPE: The effect of processing aids and water absorption test
  53. Pineapple fruit residue-based nanofibre composites: Preparation and characterizations
  54. Effect of natural Indocalamus leaf addition on the mechanical properties of epoxy and epoxy-carbon fiber composites
  55. Utilization of biosilica for energy-saving tire compounds: Enhancing performance and efficiency
  56. Effect of capillary arrays on the profile of multi-layer micro-capillary films
  57. A numerical study on thermal bonding with preheating technique for polypropylene microfluidic device
  58. Development of modified h-BN/UPE resin for insulation varnish applications
  59. High strength, anti-static, thermal conductive glass fiber/epoxy composites for medical devices: A strategy of modifying fibers with functionalized carbon nanotubes
  60. Effects of mechanical recycling on the properties of glass fiber–reinforced polyamide 66 composites in automotive components
  61. Bentonite/hydroxyethylcellulose as eco-dielectrics with potential utilization in energy storage
  62. Study on wall-slipping mechanism of nano-injection polymer under the constant temperature fields
  63. Synthesis of low-VOC unsaturated polyester coatings for electrical insulation
  64. Enhanced apoptotic activity of Pluronic F127 polymer-encapsulated chlorogenic acid nanoparticles through the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway in liver cancer cells and in vivo toxicity studies in zebrafish
  65. Preparation and performance of silicone-modified 3D printing photosensitive materials
  66. A novel fabrication method of slippery lubricant-infused porous surface by thiol-ene click chemistry reaction for anti-fouling and anti-corrosion applications
  67. Development of polymeric IPN hydrogels by free radical polymerization technique for extended release of letrozole: Characterization and toxicity evaluation
  68. Tribological characterization of sponge gourd outer skin fiber-reinforced epoxy composite with Tamarindus indica seed filler addition using the Box–Behnken method
  69. Stereocomplex PLLA–PBAT copolymer and its composites with multi-walled carbon nanotubes for electrostatic dissipative application
  70. Enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of Krestin–chitosan nanocomplex for cancer medication via activation of the mitochondrial intrinsic pathway
  71. Variation in tungsten(vi) oxide particle size for enhancing the radiation shielding ability of silicone rubber composites
  72. Damage accumulation and failure mechanism of glass/epoxy composite laminates subjected to repeated low velocity impacts
  73. Gamma-ray shielding analysis using the experimental measurements for copper(ii) sulfate-doped polyepoxide resins
  74. Numerical simulation into influence of airflow channel quantities on melt-blowing airflow field in processing of polymer fiber
  75. Cellulose acetate oleate-reinforced poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) composite materials
  76. Radiation shielding capability and exposure buildup factor of cerium(iv) oxide-reinforced polyester resins
  77. Recyclable polytriazole resins with high performance based on Diels-Alder dynamic covalent crosslinking
  78. Adsorption and recovery of Cr(vi) from wastewater by Chitosan–Urushiol composite nanofiber membrane
  79. Comprehensive performance evaluation based on electromagnetic shielding properties of the weft-knitted fabrics made by stainless steel/cotton blended yarn
  80. Review Articles
  81. Preparation and application of natural protein polymer-based Pickering emulsions
  82. Wood-derived high-performance cellulose structural materials
  83. Flammability properties of polymers and polymer composites combined with ionic liquids
  84. Polymer-based nanocarriers for biomedical and environmental applications
  85. A review on semi-crystalline polymer bead foams from stirring autoclave: Processing and properties
  86. Rapid Communication
  87. Preparation and characterization of magnetic microgels with linear thermosensitivity over a wide temperature range
  88. Special Issue: Biodegradable and bio-based polymers: Green approaches (Guest Editors: Kumaran Subramanian, A. Wilson Santhosh Kumar, and Venkatajothi Ramarao)
  89. Synthesis and characterization of proton-conducting membranes based on bacterial cellulose and human nail keratin
  90. Fatigue behaviour of Kevlar/carbon/basalt fibre-reinforced SiC nanofiller particulate hybrid epoxy composite
  91. Effect of citric acid on thermal, phase morphological, and mechanical properties of poly(l-lactide)-b-poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(l-lactide)/thermoplastic starch blends
  92. Dose-dependent cytotoxicity against lung cancer cells via green synthesized ZnFe2O4/cellulose nanocomposites
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