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Tribological characterization of sponge gourd outer skin fiber-reinforced epoxy composite with Tamarindus indica seed filler addition using the Box–Behnken method

  • Felix Sahayaraj Arockiasamy EMAIL logo , Mayakrishnan Muthukrishnan , Jenish Iyyadurai , Seeniappan Kaliappan , Natrayan Lakshmaiya , Sinouvassane Djearamane , Lai-Hock Tey , Ling Shing Wong , Saminathan Kayarohanam , Sami Al Obaid , Saleh Alfarraj and Subpiramaniyam Sivakumar EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: November 14, 2023
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e-Polymers
From the journal e-Polymers Volume 23 Issue 1

Abstract

The tribological properties of the sponge gourd outer skin fiber (SGOSF)-reinforced epoxy composites filled with tamarind seed powder were investigated using a pin-on-disc dry sliding wear testing machine. The fiber and filler contents were kept constant (30 and 7.5 wt%). The fibers were treated with sodium hydroxide (NaOH), which increases the bonding strength that has been identified by scanning electron microscope (SEM). A filler content of 7.5 wt% has better hardness due to the embedment of filler with treated fiber and epoxy. Therefore, the SGOSFs/epoxy with 7.5 wt% tamarind filler was chosen for the study of tribological characterization. The lowest specific wear rate of 2.565 × 10−4 mm3·N m−1 was obtained using the design of expert optimization technique for the control factors such as a load of 44.99 N, a sliding distance of 1,701.39 m, and a sliding velocity of 3.36 m·s−1 using a ramp plot at the desirable level of 1. For the gripping material application, the highest coefficient of friction value of 0.51 was obtained by maintaining the specified input parameters, such as a load of 42.15 N, a sliding distance of 1,874.86 m, and a sliding velocity of 4.99 m·s−1 using a ramp plot at the desirable level of 0.927. SEM images were used to investigate the failure mechanism of the worn surfaces, which substantiates the failure of the pure matrix layer on the surface even at low load, followed by the formation of a rarely breakable adhesive layer.

Keywords: pin-on-disc wear test; tribology; polymer composite; response surface methodology; SEM

1 Introduction

In the material industry, the wear performance of a material is crucial for determining its compactness and sustainability in specific applications. Composite materials composed of fiber-reinforced polymers satisfy most of these requirements. The friction and wear study in polymer composite materials is more significant for understanding the reliability of the material when the material is subjected to different working conditions in an erosive environment. This tribological study measured the material’s resistance to mass loss during rubbing. According to Jenish et al. (1), the ideal input parameter can be selected to obtain the lowest possible specific wear rate (SWR). They computed the ideal composition of natural fiber-reinforced polymer composite materials with an optimum amount of fillers. The optimal use of natural resources to create superior wear-resistant materials has been the focus of recent reviews, according to Paul and Bhowmik (2). This work reviews various chemical treatments for developing polymer-based composite materials with natural fibers and fillers.

García et al. (3) investigated the construction of HDPE composites with various amounts of peanut shell fillers (2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 wt%) and the influence of variations in filler amounts on the mechanical and tribological properties. Significant dry sliding wear conditions were optimized with a sliding speed of 50 mm·s−1 and a normal force of 10 kN, comparable to a contact pressure of 4 MPa. This process was performed to obtain optimal results for polymer composites used in heavy-duty applications (4). The influence of operational factors on wear loss was examined. The test results showed that the carbon fiber epoxy composite with seaweed filler exhibited good wear resistance (5). Alkali treatment modified the surface of the coir filler, and a different type of coir filler reinforcement was used to fabricate the composite. A pin-on-disc tribometer was used in the wear test under dry, wet, and hot conditions (2). The ideal combination for reducing the coefficient of friction (COF) consists of 1% fly ash, 30% fiber, a sliding distance, a load of 500 m and 5 N, respectively, and a high SN ratio. The results of the scanning electron microscope (SEM) studies revealed that increasing the amount of reinforcement increased surface deformations (6). Jenish et al. (7) examined the wear loss under the dry sliding wear condition of Cissus quadrangularis stem/epoxy resin supplemented with a red mud composite. All significant and insignificant parameters for SWR and COF response variables were confirmed by the response surface method-central composite design technique. Individual and interaction effects on responses were investigated using regression equations and contour plots.

According to Sumesh and Kavimani (8), a combination of 2% peanut filler and 20% plant fiber with a standard distance of 500 m had a lower COF, as revealed by the Taguchi optimization method. According to the SEM results, the worn surfaces of the composites are deformed. When the amount of cashew nutshell in the composite was 30%, the SWR and COF decreased. Compared with untreated cashew nut shell filler, composites treated with NaOH were better at resisting wear and friction (9). Peanut shell husk and sesame oil with 10% reinforced epoxy hybrid composites have been suggested for tribological applications, such as self-lubricating materials (10).

The Taguchi method was used for wear analysis in a research by Omri et al. (11). The insertion of filler particles from tungsten carbide led to a considerable modification in the mechanical properties of the material, as well as an enhancement in the wear resistance. The pin-on-disc method was used by Mysiukiewicz et al. (12) to determine the COF of polylactic acid composites filled with linseed cakes, with the Co–Cr–Mo alloy serving as the counter surface. However, the hardness of the composite samples was comparable to that of the unfilled polymers, and the COF was lower than that of the unfilled polymer.

Parikh et al. (13) reported that engineering components' wear and friction behavior indicated the possibility of using composites as tribo-materials. According to research findings, the amount of mass lost by a composite is influenced by the characteristics of the fiber. In addition, several operating characteristics, including the applied load, speed of the counter-part disc, working temperature, and contact time under sliding, have impact on wear behavior. The SWR and COF decreased as the polyoxymethylene fiber content increased. Transfer film developed on the countersurface of rolling steels, and the PTFE fiber orientation helped lower the friction coefficient and SWR (14).

In the earlier study by the authors (15,16), sponge gourd outer skin fibers (SGOSF) collected from agricultural waste were reinforced with epoxy resin. The study revealed the mechanical, thermal, and water absorption behavior of the developed composites with Tamarindus indica seed filler addition for use in a wide variety of applications. But the suitability of the use of the composites in an erosive environment is not explored. Since the current investigations aimed to optimize various test parameters (load [N], sliding distance [m], and sliding velocity [m·s−1]) at multiple levels. SWR and COF were determined based on the wear or mass loss of the material. Dry conditions were used for the wear tests. The wear performance of SGOSF-reinforced epoxy composite filled with tamarind seed powder was investigated to determine the appropriate use of composites in erosive environments. Filler materials have more significant properties to sustain in industries. Graphene incorporated with resole/carbon fiber hybrid composite provides a decent improvement in modulus (19.5%) and flexural strength (8.7%) (17). A novel CF/N−RGO/PW ternary skeleton is developed to enhance MCPA6’s tribological performance, featuring N−RGO sheets decorating carbon fibers for lubrication. This structure, acting as both ponds and ditches for PW storage and transport, reduces the friction coefficient and wear loss by 83% and 65%, respectively, compared to neat MCPA6 (18).

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Composite fabrication

A compressive stainless-steel mold was used to fabricate the composite samples with a compression molding machine. The dimensions of the mold plate were 300 × 300 × 5 mm3 (19). The prepared composite board is illustrated in Figure 1. The mold was dried and kept open to apply wax over the mold area for easy sample withdrawal. The chopped SGOSFs were spread over the mold area to an even thickness. An epoxy resin and hardener (10:1) with 7.5 wt% of tamarind seed powder mixture was poured over the fiber in the mold. The bonding materials are epoxy LY 556 (density 1.15–1.20 g·cm−3) and hardener HY 951 (0.97–0.99 g·cm−3). The filler was mixed with a resin and hardener to obtain a proper bonding strength (20). Subsequently, the excess resin and hardener mixture and air bubbles were removed by the rolling process. Then, the mold was closed and subjected to a load of 35 bar until bonding was initiated between the fiber and epoxy. At the beginning of polymerization, the temperature was increased to 130°C for 50 min. Once the sample was adequately dried, it was drawn from the mold. The minimum curing time was 24 h at ambient temperature conditions (21–23).

Figure 1 Process flow chart.
Figure 1

Process flow chart.

2.2 Two-body wear test

A dry sliding pin-on-disc wear testing machine was used to investigate the wear characteristics of SGOSF/epoxy particulate filled with tamarind seed filler composite surface under ASTM G 99 standard (24,25). The counter surface exhibited a hardness of 62 HRC. The machine provided a load of up to 60 N, with the ability to change the sliding velocity, sliding distance, and load applied during the experiments (Table 1).

The sample was prepared in a cuboid shape with dimensions of 8 × 4 × 4 mm3. A square-shaped surface was encountered for the wear analysis, and the long side was for the holding portion while experimenting. Appropriate input parameters were set during the experiment. After each experiment, the counter surface was cleaned with emery paper (Grade 320) and acetone to keep the surface free from debris. The number of experiments was designed using the Box–Behnken model for 16 runs using the Design of Expert software (13). The weight of the sample before and after the experiment was measured to evaluate the wear loss. Three experiments were done for each run, and the average was taken for the study. A digital weighing machine with a decimal place value of 4 was selected for all the experiments to obtain accurate results. The most significant input parameters were load (N), sliding distance (m), and sliding velocity (m·s−1). These were taken to determine their influence levels on the SWR and COF.

The SGOSF/epoxy composite with 7.5% filler addition was used for the wear characterization. Thus, three different compositions were considered in this analysis. The SWR and COF of the SGOSF/TISP/epoxy composite materials were determined using Eqs 1 and 2, respectively,

(1) K S = Δ M ρ × L × d

where K S is the SWR (mm3·N m−1), ΔM is the wear loss (g), ρ is the density (g·mm−3), L is the load (N), and d is the sliding distance (m).

(2) μ = F f A l

where µ is the COF, F f is the frictional force (N), and A l is the applied load (N).

Table 1

Different levels of independent factors

Factor Name Unit Levels
−1 0 1
A Load N 15 30 45
B Sliding velocity m·s−1 3 4 5
C Sliding distance m 750 1,500 2,250
Table 2

Experimental design with SWR and COF results

Run Load (N) Sliding velocity (m·s−1) Sliding distance (m) Wear loss (mg) SWR (mm3·N m−1) COF
1 30 3 2,250 48 0.00059408 0.5
2 45 4 2,250 44 0.00036305 0.48
3 30 4 1,500 32 0.00059408 0.51
4 15 5 1,500 13 0.00048269 0.41
5 45 3 1,500 41 0.00050744 0.51
6 15 3 1,500 30 0.0011139 0.48
7 45 4 750 20 0.00049506 0.29
8 15 4 2,250 26 0.00064358 0.42
9 15 4 750 18 0.00133668 0.4
10 30 5 2,250 28 0.00034655 0.45
11 30 3 750 28 0.00103964 0.48
12 30 4 1,500 32 0.00059408 0.5
13 30 5 750 15 0.00055695 0.29
14 45 5 1,500 21 0.00025991 0.4
15 30 4 1,500 29 0.00053838 0.49
16 30 4 1,500 30 0.00055695 0.5

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Two-body wear test

The two-body wear test can also be called an abrasive or a sliding wear test. The sample and counter surfaces were rolled or slid over one another to create a wear surface for two-body wear tests (26). Particles developed from the sample, creating a layer between the samples and the counter surface. Moreover, as the particles move across the surface in a subsequent motion, they begin to wear away. In most cases, the wear resulting from experimentation is called adhesive wear.

3.2 Wear characterization using Box–Behnken design

3.2.1 Raw data analysis (SWR and COF)

The histogram indicates the group range of the common repeats. Other names include the grouped frequency data. Figure 2(a) displays a frequency of 6 within the range of 0.00025909–0.000529101 and 7 outcomes from the interval of 0.000529101–0.000798292. Only 3 out of the 16 data points were derived from higher values. There are more opportunities to obtain the lowest SWR. In addition, it is positively skewed owing to the concentration of values in the lower value zone.

Figure 2 Histogram of (a) SWR and (b) COF.
Figure 2

Histogram of (a) SWR and (b) COF.

A COF histogram is shown in Figure 2(b). Values fall between 0.4 and 0.51, while the two values range from 0.29 to 0.345. They also exhibit negative skewness because most values are in the higher range. Consequently, the COF increased when the input parameter was changed.

The Box plot describes the accumulation of a large portion of the data, which gives the possibility of the outcome for the specific input parameter. It also represents all the data in a graphical output. Figure 3(a) analyzes the relation between load and SWR. The highest SWR is obtained at 15 N load; also, it has a high interquartile range (IQR) compared to SWR at 30 and 45 N. It happens due to the removal of the matrix layer even at low load after that sustains the wear loss with the support of fiber and filler. Moreover, the treated fiber has more bonding strength that is why low SWR is obtained for the other two loads (30 and 45 N). At 30 N load, it has low IQR and two outliers at the maximum and minimum levels. Because of this, it has a high range for the obtained data. As discussed, a low range is obtained at 45 N load. It happens due to the treated fiber and filler. After removing the matrix layer, filler and treated fiber bind the matrix with a protected layer that has not been broken even by a higher load. SWR is inversely proportional to the load and distance, so for the same wear loss, if the load and sliding distance increase, then the SWR automatically decreased. The same trend happens in Figure 3(b) and (c). The velocity is not increasing the SWR because if speed increases, then contact time automatically decreased. This is the reason for obtaining minimum SWR at a maximum velocity of 4 and 5 m·s−1.

Figure 3 Box plot (a) load vs SWR, (b) velocity vs SWR, (c) sliding distance vs SWR.
Figure 3

Box plot (a) load vs SWR, (b) velocity vs SWR, (c) sliding distance vs SWR.

The Box plot for the COF data with respect to input parameters is given in Figure 4. In Figure 4(a), the maximum COF of around 0.5 is obtained for all the load conditions because the wear loss is almost the same, which occurs at the matrix layer. One outlier is obtained at 30 N load, which increases the range, but IQR is low. High IQR is obtained at 45 N load, which leads to a minimum COF of below 0.5. It happens due to the hard inner layer because of the proper bonding of filler, treated fiber, and matrix. Once the weak matrix escaped, the hardened surface was smoothened by continuously rubbing the counter surface. In Figure 4(b), low IQR is obtained at 3 m·s−1. Then, around the same IQR is obtained at 4 and 5 m·s−1 load. Moreover, both are positively skewed, which means there is more possibility for lower COF value. In Figure 4(c), the highest IQR is obtained at a 750 m sliding distance, also positively skewed, which means the possibility of obtaining low COF at this condition. Then, low IQR is obtained at the maximum roughness position. It happens due to the abrasive wear. The debris started rubbing the sample when the sliding distance increased.

Figure 4 Box plot (a) load vs COF, (b) velocity vs COF, and (c) sliding distance vs COF.
Figure 4

Box plot (a) load vs COF, (b) velocity vs COF, and (c) sliding distance vs COF.

3.2.2 Modal summary analysis

The modal summary analysis for SWR and COF is displayed in Tables 3 and 4. Quadratic equations (second-order polynomial) were selected for both investigations, such as SWR and COF. In addition, the cubic source is aliased, which is even more important as it prevents the analysis from becoming unpredictable and complex. The pure error must also be extremely low in order to yield a better forecast. The adjusted percentage and forecast R 2 values for the suggested model in Table 3 were 96.03% and 78.09%, respectively, with an accuracy level near 100%. The SWR has a solid prediction (27). The adjusted percentage and forecasted R 2 value for the suggested model in Table 4 were 95.24 and 74.68, respectively. The COF also had a good prediction in this instance because its accuracy was close to 100%.

Table 3

Modal summary for SWR

Source Std. dev. R² Adjusted R² Predicted R² Press
Linear 0.0001 0.8450 0.8063 0.6853 3.999 × 10−7
2FI 0.0001 0.9468 0.9114 0.7770 2.834 × 10−7
Quadratic 0.0001 0.9841 0.9603 0.7809 2.784 × 10−7 Suggested
Cubic 0.0000 0.9976 0.9878 * Aliased

*Represents not suitable for prediction.

Table 4

Modal summary for COF

Source Std. dev. R² Adjusted R² Predicted R² Press
Linear 0.0540 0.5405 0.4257 0.1798 0.0625
2FI 0.0500 0.7050 0.5083 0.0933 0.0691
Quadratic 0.0155 0.9810 0.9524 0.7468 0.0193 Suggested
Cubic 0.0096 0.9964 0.9819 * Aliased

*Represents not suitable for prediction.

3.2.3 Analysis of variance

Details of the analysis of the SGOSF-reinforced epoxy with 7.5 wt% of tamarind seed powder composites' SWR, and COF are presented in Tables 5 and 6.

Table 5

ANOVA for SWR

Source Sum of squares df Mean square F-value P-value Percentage contribution
Model 1.251 × 10−6 9 1.389 × 10−7 41.35 0.0001 Significant
A-load 4.760 × 10−7 1 4.760 × 10−7 141.66 <0.0001 38.06
B-velocity 3.236 × 10−7 1 3.236 × 10−7 96.31 <0.0001 25.88
C-sliding distance 2.742 × 10−7 1 2.742 × 10−7 81.60 0.0001 21.93
AB 3.680 × 10−8 1 3.680 × 10−8 10.95 0.0162 2.94
AC 7.870 × 10−8 1 7.870 × 10−8 23.42 0.0029 6.29
BC 1.382 × 10−8 1 1.382 × 10−8 4.11 0.0889 1.10
A² 1.001 × 10−8 1 1.001 × 10−8 2.98 0.1351 0.80
B² 2.554 × 10−9 1 2.554 × 10−8 0.7601 0.4168 0.20
C² 3.485 × 10−8 1 3.485 × 10−8 10.37 0.0181 2.79
Residual 2.016 × 10−8 6 3.360 × 10−9 — — —
Lack of fit 1.706 × 10−8 3 5.686 × 10−9 5.50 0.0976 Not significant
Pure error 3.102 × 10−9 3 1.034 × 10−9 — — —
Cor total 1.271 × 10−6 15 — — — —
Table 6

ANOVA for COF

Source Sum of squares df Mean square F-value P-value Percentage contribution
Model 0.0747 9 0.0083 34.36 0.0002 Significant
A-load 0.0001 1 0.0001 0.4655 0.5205 0.15
B-velocity 0.0220 1 0.0220 91.24 <0.0001 29.51
C-sliding distance 0.0190 1 0.0190 78.67 0.0001 25.44
AB 0.0004 1 0.0004 1.66 0.2457 0.54
AC 0.0072 1 0.0072 29.90 0.0016 9.67
BC 0.0049 1 0.0049 20.28 0.0041 6.56
A² 0.0064 1 0.0064 26.48 0.0021 8.56
B² 0.0002 1 0.0002 0.9310 0.3719 0.30
C² 0.0144 1 0.0144 59.59 0.0002 19.27
Residual 0.0015 6 0.0002 — — —
Lack of fit 0.0012 3 0.0004 4.27 0.1319 Not significant
Pure error 0.0003 3 0.0001 — — —
Cor total 0.0762 15 — — — —

The analysis in Tables 5 and 6 emphasizes the influence of individual and interaction parameters and their significance levels. The probability level was increased by controlling the noise levels of the parameters. This describes the validation of the optimal output parameters. The F-value of 41.35 in the table indicates the significance of the model. An F-value of this large could only occur owing to noise in 0.01% of cases. The lack-of-fit F-value (5.50) indicates the presence of a 9.76% probability of noise being the cause of a large lack-of-fit F-value. This is undesirable because the model is to fit (28). This rate is very low (10%). An F-value of 34.36 (Table 6) indicated the significance of the model.

In Table 6, for COF, the obtained F-value is 34.36, which explains why a noise level exists in 0.02% of cases. The “lack of fit of P-value” is seen as “insignificant” compared with the pure mistake because of the obtained value of 4.27. A large “lack-of-fit F-value” had a 13.19% likelihood of being caused by noise. A non-significant lack of fit was observed due to the model’s desire to fit. The model was considered significant when the P-value was less than 0.05 (28). The individual and interaction noise levels are responsible for the COF. If it is greater than 0.1000, the noise level is significant, and the influence level decreases. We expect a high number of squares and mean squares to achieve a significant level. The low sum of square values of 0.0002 and 0.0004 highlighted that the position has more noise.

3.2.4 Normality testing

The normal plot of the residuals, as shown in Figure 5(a) and (b), was used to determine the accuracy of the responses, including the SWR and COF. The residuals represent the disparity between observed and projected values. Consequently, there was a decrease in residuals close to the accuracy line. This highlights the typical feature of incorrect numbers. The data were evenly dispersed and were highly powerful. 50% of the data were almost certainly on the negative side, considering that data in the positive and negative regions were present in equal amounts. In contrast, the remaining 50% of the samples were positive. These data eventually resulted in a more precise prediction.

Figure 5 (a) SWR-normality plot and (b) COF-normality plot.
Figure 5

(a) SWR-normality plot and (b) COF-normality plot.

3.2.5 Contour plot evaluation

Figure 6 shows a 3D surface plot of the SWR for various input parameters, which can be used to determine the ideal filler content condition for a given wear rate. The precise wear rates for each experiment ranged from 0.000259909 to 0.00133668 mm3·N m−1. The variation in SWR from the outcome of the pin-on-disc apparatus against selected input parameter load and velocity by keeping the sliding distance constant (1,500 m). The load and velocity have negative action with the SWR (Figure 6(a)). The optimized input parameters such as load, sliding velocity, and their interaction increase with a decrease in the SWR. This is relatively uncommon in many circumstances because of the strong connection between the fiber and matrix and favorable wear behavior. A higher SWR was produced in the initial condition owing to matrix wear; however, once the wear was complete, the matrix and fiber had a strong bond and did not break readily within the chosen range.

Figure 6 SWR contour plot, (a) velocity–load, (b) sliding distance–load, and (c) sliding distance–velocity.
Figure 6

SWR contour plot, (a) velocity–load, (b) sliding distance–load, and (c) sliding distance–velocity.

Additionally, the velocity increased with a decrease in the contact time; therefore, wear loss did not occur in progressively increasing order. Figure 6(b) shows the fluctuations in the SWR of the pin-on-disc apparatus with respect to the load and sliding distance. By contrast, the sliding velocity was maintained at 4 m·s−1. The relationship among the load, sliding distance, and SWR was inverse. The load, sliding distance, and interactions increased with decreasing SWR. The wear rate initially increased and remained constant owing to the bonding between the fibers and the matrix. Hence, an increase in the sliding distance did not cause any increase in wear loss. This was likely to continue if this trend did not exceed the limit. Figure 6(c) illustrates the variations in the SWR in the pin-on-disc apparatus with respect to the sliding distance and velocity when the load was maintained constant at 30 N. The SWR, sliding distance, velocity, and their interactions all exhibited a negative relationship. As the sliding velocity and distance increased, SWR decreased.

The COF contour plots were used to display the effects of the input parameters on the COF. All surface maps provided the minimum and highest COF values, which were 0.29 and 0.51, respectively. Figure 7(a) shows the COF fluctuations in the pin-on-disc apparatus with respect to the load and sliding velocity when the sliding distance was maintained at 1,500 m. The SWR was negatively correlated with load and sliding velocity. With an increase in COF, the load and sliding velocity also increased, changing the phenomenon when both increased. The highest COF is achieved at a load of 45 N.

Figure 7 COF contour plot: (a) velocity–load, (b) sliding distance–load, and (c) sliding distance–velocity.
Figure 7

COF contour plot: (a) velocity–load, (b) sliding distance–load, and (c) sliding distance–velocity.

Figure 7(b) depicts the COF fluctuations in the pin-on-disc apparatus when the sliding velocity was held constant at 4 m·s−1. The changes only happened in load and sliding distance. The relationships between the load, sliding distance, and WR were positive. The load, sliding distance, and interactions increased with an increase in COF. Figure 7(c) illustrates the fluctuations in the SWR of the pin-on-disc apparatus. The input parameters such as sliding distance and velocity are the varying factors. Simultaneously, the load was maintained at 30 N. The SWR and the interplay between the sliding distance and velocity were negatively correlated. There was an increase in the SWR following an increase in the sliding length. A sliding distance of 2,250 m was reached before maximum roughness was attained. There was an increase in the sliding speed following a decrease in COF. The regression formulae for the coded and actual SWR data are shown in Eqs. 3 and 4

(3) SWR = + 0.0006 − 0.0002 A − 0.0002 B − 0.0002 C + 0.0001 A B + 0.0001 A C + 0.0001 B C + 0.0001 A ² − 0.0000 B ² + 0.0001 C ²

(4) SWR = + 0.004197 − 0.000074 Load − 0.000308 Velocity − 1.43225 × 10 − 6 Sliding distance + 6.39459 × 10 − 6 Load × Velocity + 1.24683 × 10 − 8 Load × Sliding distance + 7.83853 × 10 − 8 Velocity × Sliding distance + 2.22321 × 10 − 7 Load ² − 0.000025 Velocity² + 1.65938 × 10 − 10 Sliding distance 2

The regression formulae for the coded and actual COF data are shown in Eqs. 5 and 6

(5) COF = + 0.4975 − 0.0037 A − 0.0525 B + 0.0488 C − 0.0100 A B + 0.0425 A C + 0.0350 B C − 0.0400 A ² − 0.0075 B ² − 0.0600 C ²

(6) COF = + 0.467500 + 0.007417 Load − 0.042500 Velocity + 0.000085 Sliding distance − 0.000667 Load × Velocity + 3.77778 × 10 − 6 Load × Sliding distance + 0.000047 Velocity × Sliding distance − 0.000178 Load ² − 0.007500 Velocity ² − 1 .06667 × 10 − 7 Sliding distance ²

For the coded equation, the maximum level was taken as +1, and the minimum level was taken as −1. The middle level is defined as 0. However, in the actual equation, the original values and their units are used for the regression equation. The coefficient value emphasizes the influence level of each individual and interaction parameter. In all the equations, the first value represents the highest value compared to all the other parameters. The positive sign of the coefficient increases the response value, and the negative indication of the coefficient value decreases the response value. Anticipating the reaction for specific levels of each factor was possible using an equation expressed in terms of real factors. In the SWR equation, all the independent relative positions were negative. Therefore, it has a negative correlation with SWR. In the COF equation, A and B are negatively correlated, and C exhibits a positive relative movement when it increases.

3.2.6 Ideal parameter evaluation

Statistical analyses were performed to determine statistical significance. After obtaining the experimental and predicted results, the minimum difference was preferable. The anticipated SWR and COF excluded the unimportant parameters (P > 0.05). The design expert optimization model obtained the lowest wear rate by maintaining the ideal input parameters, such as a load of 44.99 N, a sliding distance of 1,701.39 m, and a sliding velocity of 3.36 m·s−1. A ramp plot was used at the desired level of 1.

The maximum COF was attained by preserving the ideal input parameters, such as a load of 42.15 N, a sliding distance of 1,874.86 m, and a sliding velocity of 4.99 m·s−1. A ramp plot was used at the desired level of 0.927. Jenish et al. (7) reported similar findings in their experimental analysis. The optimal parameters for SWR and COF are shown in Figure 8(a) and (b), respectively. The comparative discussion of experimental and analytical results for the minimum input parameter is shown in Table 7. The calculated error percentage for both the responses is around 5% to 6%, which describes the reliability of the model. The polynomial second order regression equation for the original value was used to find the analytical result.

Figure 8 (a) Requirement for the lowest SWR and (b) requirement for the maximum COF.
Figure 8

(a) Requirement for the lowest SWR and (b) requirement for the maximum COF.

Table 7

Comparative study table

Load (N) Sliding velocity (m·s−1) Sliding distance (m) SWR (mm3·N m−1) COF
Analytical Experimental Analytical Experimental
10 1,500 0.001202 0.00112988 0.462 0.452

3.3 Morphological study

SEM investigation done on the worn surfaces to study the wear mechanism such as wear debris, matrix crack, fiber crack, fiber pullout, and delamination may be used to study the wear mechanism of the produced samples. The essential wear characteristics were examined from the worn surfaces of fabricated samples at various input parameters.

Figure 9(a) and (b) shows the R-4 run conditions. Low wear loss occurred in this scenario due to the load input load (15 N) and the short sliding distance (1,500 m). Their worn surfaces were observed to be smooth. The primary plateaus occur during the sliding of the matric soft layer, and the hard layer starts scrubbing after a few minutes owing to the contact time and load, which affects the primary layers. The broken pieces also wear over the sliding surface, which worsens the situation (29).

Figure 9 SEM image after wear test: (a) and (b) R-4, (c) R-1, (d) R-5, and (e) R-2 (R – run from the design Table 2).
Figure 9

SEM image after wear test: (a) and (b) R-4, (c) R-1, (d) R-5, and (e) R-2 (R – run from the design Table 2).

As shown in Figure 9(c), the experimental condition shows minimal debris with considerable amount of adhesive wear and contact plateaus occurring on the worn surface. In this case, the sliding distance was 2,250 m, but it had little effect. The contact resin surface is first worn away, and the primary trash rolls on the counter surface when the hard surface begins. Therefore, excessive particle removal can be reduced. The fabrication method controls the wear behavior, which subsequently influences the wear mechanism (30). As a result, a large amount of debris developed on the worn surfaces. Meanwhile, layer formation on the worn surface due to the friction force forms adhesive wear. In addition, primary and secondary plateaus developed on the worn surface. However, these plateaus were not effectively bound to the epoxy matrix, limiting the wear resistance of the sample.

Figure 9(d) depicts a worn surface micrograph of the experimental condition R-5, which had a rough surface. Due to separation of particles separated from the friction surface leads to a pit developed on the sample surface. The friction material’s strong load (45 N) and sliding distance (1,500 m) could readily soften the epoxy at high-temperature conditions. Several plateaus developed on the surfaces will ripped off from the worn surface due to the friction and shear stresses, preventing the plateaus from acting as a protective layer for the friction surface. Hard particles managed the overwear of the surfaces.

Figure 9(e) shows a substantial quantity of wear debris and a more significant fiber pitting on the worn surface under wear condition R-2, as well as microcracks over the fiber and loose material matrix, indicating a relatively rough worn surface caused by the maximum load and sliding distance. The primary and secondary plateaus did not protect the surface layer due to the excess load (45 N) and sliding distance (2,250 m). Furthermore, microcracks, wear debris, and pitting were formed sequentially under the influence of an unbearable normal load, shear load, and frictional heat, indicating a considerable decrease in the wear resistance of the sample.

4 Conclusion

The performances of the fabricated samples were evaluated by conducting hardness and wear tests. The SGOSF/epoxy composite materials with 7.5 wt% tamarind seed powder particulate-filled composite materials provided superior mechanical and tribological properties due to their unique characteristics. Statistical analyses were performed by comparing experimental and predicted results. The anticipated SWR and COF excluded insignificant parameters (P > 0.05). The lowest SWR was achieved by maintaining ideal input parameters, such as a load of 44.99 N, a sliding distance of 1,701.39 m, and a sliding velocity of 3.36 m·s−1. A ramp plot was used at the desired level of 1. The maximum COF was attained by preserving the ideal input parameters, such as a load of 42.15 N, a sliding distance of 1,874.86 m, and a sliding velocity of 4.99 m·s−1. A ramp plot was used at the desired level of 0.927. The fractography images substantiate the wear mechanism, such as primary plateaus, secondary plateaus, debris, matrix pitting, fiber pitting, film forming, and fiber–matrix delamination. This applies to high-gripping materials because a low wear loss is obtained at the maximum roughness value. Moreover, fiber treatment and filler incorporation really provided good wear resistance by increasing bonding strength. So, the particle removal rate drastically reduced even at maximum testing parameters.

Acknowledgments

This project was supported by Researchers Supporting Project number (RSP2023R315) King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea Government (MSIT) (No. 2021054783).

  1. Funding information: This project was supported by Researchers Supporting Project number (RSP2023R315) King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea Government (MSIT) (No. 2021054783).

  2. Competing interest: The authors declare no competing interests.

  3. Data availability statement: All the data were included within the article.

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Received: 2023-05-19
Revised: 2023-09-12
Accepted: 2023-09-23
Published Online: 2023-11-14

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/epoly-2023-0052
Keywords for this article
pin-on-disc wear test; tribology; polymer composite; response surface methodology; SEM
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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