Home Cellulose acetate oleate-reinforced poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) composite materials
Article Open Access

Cellulose acetate oleate-reinforced poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) composite materials

  • Yi Chen , Ting Feng , Yifei Long , Cheng Pan , Guozhi Fan EMAIL logo , Bai Juan and Guangsen Song
Published/Copyright: December 26, 2023
Download Article (PDF)
Become an author with De Gruyter Brill
Submit Manuscript Author Information
e-Polymers
From the journal e-Polymers Volume 23 Issue 1

Abstract

Cellulose acetate oleate (CAO)-reinforced poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) composites were prepared by the solvent casting method. The influence of the addition of CAO on the mechanical property, thermal property, disintegration property, compatibility, and hydrophobicity of PBAT/CAO composites was investigated. Compared with PBAT, the tensile strength and Young’s modulus of PBAT/CAO with 4 wt% CAO were increased by 9.5% and 25.7%, and the disintegration rate was also increased by 2.8 times. The results of morphological property, contact angle, and water vapor transmission indicated that the PBAT/CAO composites had good interfacial interaction and compatibility, and the hydrophobicity was improved. PBAT/CAO was applied to strawberry preservation, and it showed excellent freshness retention performance. Moreover, a possible degradation pathway for PBAT/CAO composite was proposed. This work provided a way for the preparation and performance improvement of biodegradable materials, which is expected to be applied in the packaging field.

Keywords: poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate); cellulose acetate oleate; reinforce; property; biodegradable composites

1 Introduction

Commercial plastics are usually petroleum-based polymers, which are extremely difficult to degrade in the natural environment. The accumulation of non-biodegradable plastics leads to serious environmental risk. Therefore, it is necessary to develop green and renewable biodegradable materials (1). Since biodegradable materials have similar performances to traditional plastics, it has been considered to be an important way to deal with white pollution and microplastic pollution. The biodegradable material is becoming an effective alternative to traditional plastics (2).

Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) is one of the most widely concerned biodegradable plastics because of its high flexibility and elongation at break (ε b) (3). However, high cost, low tensile strength (σ b), and Young’s modulus (E) limit its application (4). The natural biomaterial reinforcement to PBAT is considered to be an effective way to improve its performance. For example, coffee husk was silane-treated and further used to prepare PBAT-based composites via melt extrusion with PBAT. The σ b and E of the composites increased by 18.6% and 126.2%, and the cost decreased by 32% (5). Vinyltrimethoxysilane-grafted lignin (VL) was used to prepare PBAT/VL composites. σ b , E, and biodegradation rate of the composites with 30 wt% VL were increased by 200%, 151%, and 96%, respectively (6). These studies suggested that the natural biomaterial-reinforced PBAT not only improves the mechanical properties but also reduces the cost. Cellulose is the most abundant natural renewable resource on the earth. Both cellulose and its derivatives are widely applied in food packaging (7), biomedicine (8), and 3D printing (9) due to excellent biocompatibility and environmental sustainability (10). However, cellulose derivatives are generally incompatible with PBAT because of their large amounts of hydroxyl groups. Therefore, the hydrophobic modification is required. Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and cellulose acetate (CA) are common cellulose derivatives that have been modified to apply in biodegradable materials. For example, acetylated CNC (ACNC) was obtained by the modification of CNC with acetic anhydride and further used to prepare PBAT/ACNC via melt blending with PBAT. E of the composites with 0.5% ACNC was increased from 38.9 to 120 MPa (11). Francisco et al. (12) also prepared PBAT-based composites by incorporating ACNC into PBAT. The yield strength and E were increased by 30% and 90%, respectively. It is believed that the mechanical property of CA can compensate for low σ b and E of PBAT (13). However, the direct addition of CA often reduces the comprehensive mechanical properties of the composites due to poor compatibility. To avoid the decrease in properties of the composites, modification is usually used. PBAT was grafted by maleic anhydride and blended with CA to prepare composites, in which the compatibility between PBAT and CA, σ b, and biodegradation rate of the materials was improved (14).

Oleic acid (OLA), an unsaturated fatty acid, is present in various animal and plant fats as well as oils (15,16). Due to its long-chain structure, OLA can not only give materials’ flexibility and stretchability, but also reduce the water vapor permeability (17). Tedeschi et al. (18) prepared CA oleate (CAO) by modifying CA with OLA. Compared with CA, CAO has better toughness and hydrophobicity, lower melting temperature (T m) and glass transition temperature (T g), suggesting that the oleoyl group can be used as an internal plasticizer. Therefore, it is speculated that CAO-reinforced PBAT can improve the comprehensive properties of the composites.

Herein, CAO was obtained by modifying CA with OLA, and it was further blended with PBAT by the solvent casting method to prepare PBAT/CAO composites. Both CAO and PBAT/CAO were characterized in detail. The compatibility, mechanical property, thermal property, hydrophobicity, biodegradability, and application in freshness retention of the composites were investigated. The degradation pathway for the composites was also proposed.

2 Experimental

2.1 Materials

PBAT (M w of 8 × 104 g·mol−1), trifluoroacetic acid (TFA), trifluoroacetic anhydride (TFAA), CA, OLA, ethanol, and chloroform were purchased from Macklin Biochemical Co. Ltd (Shanghai, China). Commercial polyethylene (PE) was obtained from a local supermarket.

2.2 Preparation of CAO

Typically, 15 mL mixture of TFA and TFAA (2:1, v:v) and 0.225 g of CA were added to a 100 mL flask, followed by stirring at 80°C for 30 min. Then, 0.865 g of OLA (OLA:CA unit = 3:1, n:n) contained in 15 mL of chloroform was added and continually stirred at 80°C for 6 h. After the reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature, 30 mL of distilled water was slowly added and stirred for 10 min. The lower liquid was collected and air-dried in a fume hood for 12 h to obtain a solid. The solid was washed by 10 mL of distilled water and 10 mL of ethanol three times and freeze-dried for 12 h to obtain CAO (18). The formation of CAO was confirmed by Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR), and 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (13C NMR).

2.3 Preparation of PBAT/CAO composites

Typically, 0.98 g of PBAT was dissolved in 10 mL of chloroform and stirred at room temperature until it was completely dissolved. Then, 0.02 g of CAO contained in 15 mL of chloroform solution was added and continually stirred for 30 min. The mixture was poured into a petri dish, covered with a perforated preservative film, and dried in a fume hood for 24 h, supplying the composite material with 0.15 mm thickness. The acquired material was denoted as PBAT/CAO-2. By changing the amount of CAO, composites with various CAO contents of 4, 6, 8, and 10 wt% were also prepared and denoted as PBAT/CAO-4, PBAT/CAO-6, PBAT/CAO-8, and PBAT/CAO-10, respectively.

2.4 Measurement of the property of PBAT/CAO composites

2.4.1 Mechanical property

The composites were cut into long strip samples with 10 cm × 10 mm. The mechanical properties (σ b, ε b, E, and stress–strain curve) of PBAT/CAO were then determined on a TY-8000L tabletop tensile tester with 50 mm·min−1 drawing speed and 50 mm fixture spacing. The E was calculated according to a reported literature (19), and the equation is shown in Supplementary Material (Section 1.2.1), and the tensile stress–strain curves were the averages of three measurements.

2.4.2 Thermal property

The thermal properties of the composites were determined by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). TGA was measured on a Perkin-Elmer TGA 8000 spectrometer in a nitrogen atmosphere at a heating rate of 20°C·min−1 in the range of 30–800°C. DSC was measured on a TA DSC2500 differential scanning calorimeter in a nitrogen atmosphere at a heating/cooling rate of 10°C·min−1 in the range of −50–200°C.

2.4.3 Hydrophobic property

The contact angle was conducted on a Dataphysics OCA 25 contact angle tester under static conditions. 5 μL of distilled water was dropped on the surface of PBAT/CAO. After 30 s, the contact angle was measured and repeated five times.

2.4.4 Water vapor transmission (WVT)

WVT was measured according to a reported procedure (20). The composite was cut into circle with a diameter of 6.0 cm, followed by sealing in a petri dish with 25 g of distilled water. The petri dish was then placed at 23°C with 50% relative humidity, and its weight was measured every 30 min. The WVT was calculated according to the equation shown in Supplementary Material (Section 1.2.2).

2.4.5 Biodisintegration test

The composite was cut into a square with the size of 6 cm × 6 cm and dried at 50°C for 6 h. The sample was weighed and placed in a petri dish before covering it with 10 cm of soil. The biodisintegrated sample was taken out every 30 days, washed with distilled water, and dried at 50°C for 24 h, followed by weighing again (21). The biodisintegration rate was calculated according to a reported procedure (Supplementary Material, Section 1.2.3) (22).

2.4.6 Application performance

The application performance of PBAT/CAO composites was carried out according to a reported procedure (23). Fresh strawberries with relatively uniform maturity were selected, washed with distilled water, air-dried, and packaged with composites. The samples were stored at 25°C and weighed every day. The weight loss rate of strawberry was calculated (Supplementary Material, Section 1.2.4).

2.5 Characterization

FTIR was recorded using a Thermo NEXUS670 Fourier transform infrared spectrometer in the range of 4,000–500 cm−1. XRD was conducted on a D/max 2550VB/PC X-ray diffractometer with Cu Kα radiation and λ of 0.15406 nm at a scanning rate of 1°·min−1 in the 2θ range of 10–40°. The morphology of the composites was observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) using a JSM-6700F instrument with an acceleration voltage of 5 kV. 1H NMR and 13C NMR were performed on a Bruker Avance Neo 600 MHz nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometer. Deuterated chloroform was used as a solvent for the samples.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Characterization of CAO

3.1.1 FTIR

The FTIR spectra of CA, OLA, and CAO are presented in Figure 1. In the FTIR spectrum of CA (curve a), the bands at 3,426 and 1,631 cm−1 are attributed to the stretching vibration and bending vibration of –OH. The bands at 1,750 and 1,230 cm−1 are caused by the stretching vibration of C═O and C–O bonds, respectively (24). The band at 1,374 cm−1 corresponds to the bending vibration of –CH3 (25), and the band at 897 cm−1 is ascribed to the characteristic absorption of β-1,4-glucosidic bond (19). In the FTIR spectrum of OLA (curve b), the band at 3,009 cm−1 is assigned to the stretching vibration of the unsaturated C–H (26). The bands at 2,929, 2,858, and 1,459 cm−1 are caused by the asymmetric stretching vibration, symmetric stretching vibration, and bending vibration of –CH2–, respectively. The band at 1,705 cm−1 corresponds to the stretching vibration of C═O in –COOH (27). Since both the characteristic absorptions of CA and OLA appeared in the FTIR spectrum of CAO (curve c), it is reasonable to conclude that CA was successfully modified by OLA via esterification. However, only part of acetyl groups were replaced by oleoyl since the characteristic bands of CA at 1,750 and 1,230 cm−1 still presented in the IR spectrum of CAO.

Figure 1 FTIR spectra of (a) CA, (b) OLA, and (c) CAO.
Figure 1

FTIR spectra of (a) CA, (b) OLA, and (c) CAO.

3.1.2 NMR

The NMR spectra of OLA and CAO are shown in Figure 2. In the 1H NMR spectrum of OLA (Figure 2a), the signals at 5.37 ppm and 0.87–0.95 ppm are ascribed to the H protons in H–C═C and –CH3, respectively (18,28). In the 1H NMR spectrum of CAO, the proton signals in the ranges of 3.51–5.19 and 1.90–2.23 ppm are assigned to dehydrated glucose units (AGU) and CH3CO–, respectively (18,29). The signal at 0.87–0.95 and 5.37 ppm corresponds to H protons in –CH3 and H–C═C, respectively. The presence of H proton signals belonged to CH3CO–, –CH3, and H–C═C in the 1H NMR spectrum of CAO, which indicates that OLA was grafted to CA, which, in turn, is in consistent with the FTIR results shown in Figure 1.

Figure 2 (a) 1H NMR and (b) 13C NMR spectra of OLA and CAO.
Figure 2

(a) 1H NMR and (b) 13C NMR spectra of OLA and CAO.

The 13C NMR spectra of OLA and CAO are shown in Figure 2b. In the 13C NMR spectrum of OLA, –COOH, C═C, and –CH3 produced the signals at 174.37, 126.39–130.49, and 13.89 ppm, respectively (18). In the 13C NMR spectrum of CAO, AGU produced signals at 103.29 and 99.95 ppm (C1), 80.24 ppm (C4), the range of 70.28–73.47 ppm (C2, C3, and C5), and 62.48 and 60.48 ppm (C6) (29). In addition, the signal assigned to –COO– appeared at 170.13 ppm, and C═C in OLA was also detected by the observation of the signals in the range of 126.39–130.49 ppm. These results also indicated that OLA was grafted onto CA, which is in consistent with the results of FTIR and 1H NMR, as shown in Figures 1 and 2.

3.2 Characterization of PBAT/CAO composites

3.2.1 FTIR

Figure 3a shows the FTIR spectra of PBAT and its composites. In the FTIR spectrum of PBAT, the bands at 2,957 and 2,873 cm−1 are attributed to the asymmetric and symmetric stretching vibrations of –CH2– (30). The bands at 1,720 and 1,267 cm−1 are caused by the stretching vibration of C═O and C–O (31), and the band at 1,503 cm−1 belongs to the characteristic absorption of benzene ring. In the FTIR spectrum of PBAT/CAO, the characteristic absorption bands of CAO could be observed at 2,929, 2,858 and 897 cm−1, which are assigned to the characteristic absorption of –CH2– in oleoyl group (26) and β-1,4-glucosidic bond stretching in CA (Figure 1) (19), respectively. However, all these bands were relatively weak, which can be ascribed to the low content of CAO in PBAT/CAO. Additionally, no new bands were observed, indicating that CAO and PBAT were only physically blended in the composites.

Figure 3 FTIR spectra of (a) PBAT and PBAT/CAO and (b) PBAT/CAO-10 and its biodisintegrated sample.
Figure 3

FTIR spectra of (a) PBAT and PBAT/CAO and (b) PBAT/CAO-10 and its biodisintegrated sample.

The FTIR spectra of PBAT/CAO-10 and its biodisintegrated samples are shown in Figure 3b. As prolonging the disintegration time, the characteristic absorption assigned to oleoyl group and acetyl group at 2,929 and 2,858, and 1,374 cm−1 (Figure 1) became weaker (32), indicating that the detachment of both acetyl group and oleoyl group in CAO. Contrarily, the characteristic absorption of hydroxyl group at 3,426 and 1,631 cm−1 was obviously enhanced. It may be due to the removal of acetyl and oleoyl groups, thus leading to the exposure of more hydroxyl groups and enhancement in the characterization absorption. These results also confirmed the detachment of acetyl and oleoyl groups. Moreover, the weak band at 897 cm−1 almost disappeared, which can be ascribed to the breakage of β-1,4-glycosidic bond. The vibration of PBAT at 1,720 and 1,503 cm−1 also became weaker. These results suggested that both PBAT and CAO were degraded during the biodisintegration test.

3.2.2 XRD

Figure 4a shows the XRD patterns of PBAT and its composites. In the XRD pattern of PBAT, the distinct characteristic diffraction peaks at 16.0°, 17.4°, 20.4°, and 23.0° correspond to α-form triclinic crystals (33). The XRD pattern of PBAT/CAO-2 indicated that the peaks at 17.4° and 20.4° were enhanced, which may be due to the fact that CAO affects the crystallization behavior of PBAT phase (34) as a crystalline polymer (18). However, these diffraction peaks slightly decreased with further increasing CAO content in the composites. It has been reported that the large amount of CAO can hinder the ordered arrangement of PBAT molecular chains, thus restricting the diffusion growth of PBAT macromolecules and leading to a decrease in crystallinity (35). Additionally, the characteristic diffraction peak at 19.9° attributed to CAO disappeared (Figure S1), which might be resulted from the low content of CAO in the composites.

Figure 4 XRD patterns of (a) PBAT and PBAT/CAO and (b) PBAT/CAO-10 and its biodisintegrated sample.
Figure 4

XRD patterns of (a) PBAT and PBAT/CAO and (b) PBAT/CAO-10 and its biodisintegrated sample.

The XRD patterns of PBAT/CAO-10 and its biodisintegrated samples are shown in Figure 4b. In the XRD pattern of PBAT/CAO-10, the characteristic diffraction peaks that belonged to PBAT were observed at 16.0°, 17.4°, 20.4°, and 23.0°. However, these peaks were obviously weakened in the XRD patterns of the biodisintegrated samples. The interaction between the components in the composites was reduced due to the degradation of CAO and PBAT during the biodisintegration process, which affected the crystallization behavior of the PBAT phase, thus resulting in weaker characteristic diffraction peaks.

3.2.3 Morphological analysis

Figure 5 shows the SEM images of PBAT and its composites. Figure 5a indicates that the surface of PBAT was smooth, and almost no obvious changes were observed in the surface of PBAT/CAO with low content of CAO. The surface of the composites still remained relatively smooth when CAO content was less than 6 wt% (Figure 5b–d). However, the morphologies of the composites became rough and wrinkled with further increasing CAO content (Figure 5e and f), indicating that the compatibility between the components became worse in the presence of a large amount of CAO, which may adversely affect the comprehensive performance of the composites.

Figure 5 SEM images of (a) PBAT, (b) PBAT/CAO-2, (c) PBAT/CAO-4, (d) PBAT/CAO-6, (e) PBAT/CAO-8, (f) PBAT/CAO-10, (g) disintegrated PBAT/CAO-10 for 30 days, (h) disintegrated PBAT/CAO-10 for 90 days, and (i) disintegrated PBAT/CAO-10 for 120 days.
Figure 5

SEM images of (a) PBAT, (b) PBAT/CAO-2, (c) PBAT/CAO-4, (d) PBAT/CAO-6, (e) PBAT/CAO-8, (f) PBAT/CAO-10, (g) disintegrated PBAT/CAO-10 for 30 days, (h) disintegrated PBAT/CAO-10 for 90 days, and (i) disintegrated PBAT/CAO-10 for 120 days.

The SEM images of the biodisintegrated samples of PBAT/CAO-10 are shown in Figure 5g–i. The morphology of the composites became rough (Figure 5g) after biodisintegrating for 30 days, resulting in a large number of holes. As extending the degradation time, the holes on the surface increased (Figure 5h and i). It was due to the degradation of macromolecules into small molecules, which then detached under the action of microorganisms, thus leading to a porous structure of the biodisintegrated sample.

3.3 Property of PBAT/CAO composites

3.3.1 Mechanical property

Figure 6 shows the mechanical properties of PBAT and its composites. σ b, ε b, and E of PBAT were 15.87 MPa, 838.44%, and 30.99 MPa, respectively. The mechanical properties of the PBAT/CAO composites first increased and then decreased with increasing CAO content. PBAT/CAO-4 had optimal σ b, ε b, and E, which were 17.38 MPa, 786.73%, and 38.96 MPa, respectively. Compared with PBAT, σ b and E were increased by 9.5% and 25.7%, while ε b was still relatively high. Then, σ b, ε b, and E of the composites dropped with further increasing CAO content. Although ε b significantly decreased while σ b changed in a small range, E of the composites was always higher than that of PBAT. PBAT/CA composite with 4 wt% CA content was also prepared by blending CA with PBAT, giving 11.25 MPa, 752.42%, and 26.48 MPa of σ b, ε b, and E, respectively. They were even obviously lower than those of PBAT, which can be attributed to the poor compatibility between CA and PBAT. These results indicated that the mechanical properties of PBAT/CAO-4 were significantly higher than those of PBAT/CA, which might be associated with two factors. On the one hand, the introduction of OLA weakened the hydrogen bonding in CA. On the other hand, the long-chain structure of OLA made CAO more hydrophobic. Both of them are beneficial to improve the compatibility between the reinforcing agent and PBAT, thereby enhancing the mechanical properties of PBAT/CAO.

Figure 6 Mechanical properties of PBAT and PBAT/CAO (a) σ b/E, (b) ε b, and (c) stress–strain curves.
Figure 6

Mechanical properties of PBAT and PBAT/CAO (a) σ b/E, (b) ε b, and (c) stress–strain curves.

The stress–strain curves of PBAT and its composites are shown in Figure 6c. The yield stress was enhanced by the addition of CAO. PBAT displayed 4.3 MPa of yield stress, while PBAT/CAO-4 had the maximum yield stress of 6.3 MPa. PBAT/CAO-4 also exhibited relatively high strength, ductility, and stiffness. Therefore, PBAT/CAO-4 displayed optimal σ b, ε b, and E, as shown in Figure 6a–c, which also indicates that the composites had a similar uniform plastic deformation ability to PBAT when the content of CAO was less than 6 wt%. However, the yield stress of the composites decreased significantly once the content of CAO exceeded 6 wt%. It can be explained by the fact that the compatibility between CAO and PBAT became worse in the presence of a large amount of CAO, as shown in Figure 5.

The rheological properties of PBAT and its composites were also performed. PBAT/CAO had similar Han curves to that of PBAT with a close theoretical slope of 2 when CAO content was less than 6 wt% (36), as shown in Figure S2. These results confirmed good compatibility between components in the presence of lower CAO content, promoting the formation of homopolymers. Contrarily, poor compatibility of the composites with higher CAO content led to the formation of a multi-component and/or multi-phase polymer system, thus significantly reducing the mechanical properties of PBAT/CAO. It is consistent with the results shown in Figure 6.

3.3.2 Thermal property

TGA and DSC were used to determine the thermal properties of PBAT and its composites, as shown in Figure 7. According to Figure 7a, the thermal decomposition of PBAT began at about 300°C, and the main weight loss was observed in the range of 350–450°C with a weight loss of 95.8 wt%. The weight loss of PBAT/CAO was consisted of two stages. In the first stage of 200–350°C, the slight weight loss of 1.8–6.2 wt% was assigned to the decomposition of CAO (37). The second stage of 350–450°C was mainly caused by the decomposition of PBAT with a weight loss of 86.4–93.0 wt%. The combustion residue of PBAT was only 1.6 wt%, while these composites were increased with increasing the content of CAO, which varied in the range of 2.6–4.7 wt%, suggesting that the residue may be composed of fixed carbon produced by CAO combustion (19). The DTG curves in Figure 7b showed that both PBAT and PBAT/CAO had the maximum thermal decomposition temperature of 418°C. Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that the thermal stability of the composites was hardly affected by the addition of CAO.

Figure 7 (a) TGA, (b) DTG, (c) first cooling, and (d) second heating curves of PBAT and PBAT/CAO.
Figure 7

(a) TGA, (b) DTG, (c) first cooling, and (d) second heating curves of PBAT and PBAT/CAO.

Figure 7c and d shows the crystallization-melting behavior and glass transition of PBAT and its composites were determined by DSC. The crystallization temperature (T c) of PBAT was 66.9°C, and the T c of PBAT/CAO was raised with increasing CAO content. The T c of the composites was raised from 70.1°C to 77.2°C when the content of CAO was increased from 2 to 10 wt%. It can be ascribed to the fact that CAO can act as a nucleating agent, creating nucleation sites for PBAT and accelerating its crystallization. Accordingly, the increase in T c was observed in the cooling curve (Figure 7c) (35). Compared with PBAT, both the T m and T g of PBAT/CAO decreased (Figure 7d), indicating that CAO can play the role of a plasticizer (18). It improved the comprehensive performance of the composites.

Based on the results shown in Figure 7c and d, the crystallinity of PBAT and its composites were calculated according to a reported procedure (Supplementary Material, Section 1.2.5), and the results are shown in Table S1. The addition of a small amount of CAO promoted PBAT to form crystals, while a larger amount of CAO led to a decrease in crystallinity. Therefore, higher CAO content of the composites had a negative impact on the mechanical properties, leading to lower σ b , ε b , and E, which is in consistent with the results shown in Figures 4 and 6.

3.3.3 Hydrophobic property

Figure 8 shows the contact angle of CAO, PBAT, and its composites. CAO and PBAT had contact angles of 91.6° and 90.2°, respectively. Obviously, both of them are hydrophobic. The results in Figure 8 indicated that the contact angle of PBAT/CAO was enhanced with increasing CAO content. The contact angles were increased from 93.7° to 96.4° with increasing the content of CAO of CAO from 2 to 6 wt%. The improvement in the hydrophobicity of PBAT/CAO can be ascribed to the nonpolar aliphatic chains in CAO. However, the contact angle of PBAT/CAO slightly decreased instead with a further increase in the content of CAO. It may be caused by the decrease in the compatibility, as shown in Figure S2.

Figure 8 Contact angle of CAO, PBAT, and PBAT/CAO.
Figure 8

Contact angle of CAO, PBAT, and PBAT/CAO.

3.3.4 WVT

Figure 9 shows the WVT of PBAT and its composites. The addition of CAO reduced the WVT of PBAT/CAO. As the content of CAO was increased from 2 to 6 wt%, the WVT of the composites decreased significantly, ranging from 25.491 to 23.425 g·(m2 × 24 h)−1, which was much lower than 31.003 g·(m2 × 24 h)−1 of PBAT. However, the WVT of PBAT/CAO was enhanced with a further increase in the content of CAO. When the content of CAO reached 10 wt%, the WVT was increased to 30.002 g·(m2 × 24 h)−1. This can be explained by the fact that a large amount of CAO reduced the compatibility between the components in PBAT/CAO, as shown in Figures 3 and S4. It can be seen from Figure 9 that PBAT/CAO-6 had the lowest WVT, which was consistent with the hydrophobic property shown in Figure 8.

Figure 9 WVT of PBAT and PBAT/CAO.
Figure 9

WVT of PBAT and PBAT/CAO.

3.3.5 Biodisintegration property

Figure 10 shows the disintegration rate of PBAT and its composites. According to Figure 10, PBAT had a relatively slow disintegration rate, only giving 2.7% weight loss after disintegrating for 120 days. The addition of CAO promoted the disintegration of the composites, which increased with increasing CAO content. The disintegration rate of PBAT/CAO varied in the range of 4.8–7.5% after disintegrating for 120 days. Among them, PBAT/CAO-10 had 7.5% disintegration rate, which was increased by 2.8 times compared to that of PBAT. However, the disintegration rates of the composites were still relatively low because PBAT/CAO was mainly composed of PBAT and the microorganisms required to degrade PBAT are less in soil (38), resulting in slow disintegration of PBAT and its composites. This was similar to the results reported by Pinheiro et al. (21). Figure S3 shows the appearance of PBAT and its composites, and the surface of the disintegrated samples became wrinkled with extending the disintegration time. It can also be attributed to the degradation of PBAT and CAO, which must lead to a decrease in the compatibility between the components in the composites.

Figure 10 Disintegration rate of PBAT and PBAT/CAO.
Figure 10

Disintegration rate of PBAT and PBAT/CAO.

3.3.6 Application of PBAT/CAO in the freshness retention of strawberry

Figure 11 shows the freshness retention performance of PBAT and its composites. As prolonging the storage time, the weight loss of all strawberry samples increased. It was mainly caused by the respiration and transpiration (39). However, the weight loss can be significantly reduced by packing with PBAT and its composites. After storing for 7 days, the unpacked strawberry had the largest weight loss of 83.5%, while the PBAT-packaged sample only presented a weight loss of 29.8%. Compared with PBAT, the weight loss of the samples packaged with the composites with low CAO content slightly changed. For example, the weight losses of PBAT/CAO-2 and PBAT/CAO-4 packaged samples were 32.7% and 33.3%, respectively. These weight losses were close to the weight loss of 32.4% of the sample packed by commercial PE materials, suggesting that the PBAT/CAO composites with moderate CAO content had excellent preservative properties.

Figure 11 Freshness retention of strawberry packaged by various materials.
Figure 11

Freshness retention of strawberry packaged by various materials.

Figure 12 shows the appearance of the strawberry samples. The samples unpackaged and packaged by commercial PE materials, PBAT/CAO-6, PBAT/CAO-8, and PBAT/CAO-10 were mildewed. Among them, the mildew of the unpackaged sample first occurred, mold spots and shrinkage appeared on the surface after storing for 5 days, while other samples were mildewed after storing for 6 and/or 7 days. The results in Figure 12 also showed that there was almost no mildew of the samples packed with PBAT, PBAT/CAO-2, and PBAT/CAO-4 during the 7 days of storage, further indicating that the PBAT/CAO composites had good freshness retention performance and potential applications in the packaging field.

Figure 12 Appearances of strawberry packaged by various materials.
Figure 12

Appearances of strawberry packaged by various materials.

3.4 Degradation process of PBAT/CAO

Based on the results obtained in this work and the reported works by other researchers (38,40,41,42,43), a plausible pathway for the degradation of PBAT/CAO composites was proposed, as shown in Figure 13. Under the action of the microorganisms in the soil, the removal of acetyl groups is caused by enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis with acetyl esterases (42), resulting in the exposure of more hydroxyl sites in CAO and an increase in the water-absorbing capacity, as shown in Figure 3b, which, in turn, facilitated the removal of oleoyl groups. Since the long chain of oleoyl groups in CAO can prevent cellulases to degrade the main chain in the backbone of cellulose (41), the side-chain groups of CAO fell off first. Then, the backbone of cellulose was further degraded to glucose under the synergistic action of endoglucanases cellobiohydrolases and cellobiases produced by microorganisms (41). The degradation of PBAT mainly depended on ester bond breakage, and the monomers, dimers, and oligomers produced during the degradation process were decomposed into small molecules, including adipic acid, butylene glycol, and terephthalic acid (40,43), which were finally converted to carbon dioxide and water under the action of microorganisms. However, the degradation of PBAT in the natural soil environment is relatively difficult, which can be attributed to the fact that the microorganisms needed for PBAT degradation are limited (38), as shown in Figure 10.

Figure 13 Possible degradation pathway for PBAT/CAO.
Figure 13

Possible degradation pathway for PBAT/CAO.

4 Conclusion

PBAT/CAO composites were prepared by blending CAO with PBAT by the solvent casting method without the addition of other additives. It was found that CAO can play the role of plasticizer, which improved the comprehensive properties of the composites. The mechanical and degradable properties of PBAT/CAO composites were improved. Compared with PBAT, σ b and E of PBAT/CAO-4 were increased by 9.5% and 25.7%, and they were 54.5% and 25.7% higher than those of PBAT/CA with 4 wt% CA. The hydrophobicity of the composites was also enhanced, and the contact angle was increased from 90.2° to 96.4°. The results of TGA, morphology, and rheological property indicated that the composites also possessed good thermal property and compatibility. In addition, PBAT/CAO with appropriate CAO content exhibited good freshness retention performance for strawberry preservation, and no mildew was observed after storing for 7 days. During the degradation process of PBAT/CAO, the side chains including acetyl group and oleoyl group in CAO first fell off. The cellulose skeleton was then depolymerized, while PBAT was relatively difficult to degrade. In summary, CAO-reinforced PBAT composites had good comprehensive properties, and it is expected to be widely applied in the field of biodegradable materials.

  1. Funding information: The authors would like to extend their sincere appreciation to the financial support from the key project of Hubei province (2022BCA081).

  2. Author contributions: Yi Chen: investigation, data curation, formal analysis, visualization, writing – original draft; Ting Feng: investigation, data curation, validation; Yifei Long: project administration, writing – review and editing. Cheng Pan: conceptualization, formal analysis; Guozhi Fan: methodology, conceptualization, funding acquisition, resource, writing – original draft, writing – review and editing; Juan Bai: methodology, conceptualization; Guangsen Song: supervision, conceptualization.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Supplementary material: Supplementary data to this article can be found online.

References

(1) Wu F, Misra M, Mohanty AK. Sustainable green composites from biodegradable plastics blend and natural fibre with balanced performance: synergy of nano-structured blend and reactive extrusion. Compos Sci Technol. 2020;200:108369.10.1016/j.compscitech.2020.108369Search in Google Scholar

(2) Arteaga-Ballesteros BE, Guevara-Morale A, Martín-Martínez ES, Figueroa-López U, Vieyra H. Composite of polylactic acid and microcellulose from kombucha membranes. e-Polymers. 2020;21(1):15–26.10.1515/epoly-2021-0001Search in Google Scholar

(3) Xiong SJ, Bo P, Zhou SJ, Li MK, Yang S, Wang YY, et al. Economically competitive biodegradable PBAT/lignin composites: effect of lignin methylation and compatibilizer. ACS Sustain Chem Eng. 2020;8(13):5338–46.10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c00789Search in Google Scholar

(4) Lai L, Li JX, Liu PW, Wu LB, Severtson SJ, Wang WJ. Mechanically reinforced biodegradable poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) with interactive nanoinclusions. Polymer. 2020;197:122518.10.1016/j.polymer.2020.122518Search in Google Scholar

(5) Lule ZC, Kim J. Properties of economical and eco-friendly polybutylene adipate terephthalate composites loaded with surface treated coffee husk. Compos Part A-Appl S. 2021;140:106154.10.1016/j.compositesa.2020.106154Search in Google Scholar

(6) Liu YF, Liu S, Liu ZT, Lei Y, Jiang SY, Zhang K, et al. Enhanced mechanical and biodegradable properties of PBAT/lignin composites via silane grafting and reactive extrusion. Compos Part B-Eng. 2021;220:108980.10.1016/j.compositesb.2021.108980Search in Google Scholar

(7) Jiang ZL, Ngai T. Recent advances in chemically modified cellulose and its derivatives for food packaging applications: a review. Polymers. 2022;14(8):1533.10.3390/polym14081533Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

(8) Oprea M, Voicu SI. Recent advances in composites based on cellulose derivatives for biomedical applications. Carbohydr Polym. 2020;247:116683.10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.116683Search in Google Scholar PubMed

(9) Cheng YL, Shi XL, Jiang XP, Wang XH, Qin HT. Printability of a cellulose derivative for extrusion-based 3D printing: the application on a biodegradable support material. Front Mater. 2020;7:86.10.3389/fmats.2020.00086Search in Google Scholar

(10) Liu YW, Ahmed S, Sameen DE, Wang Y, Lu R, Dai JW, et al. A review of cellulose and its derivatives in biopolymer-based for food packaging application. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2021;112:532–46.10.1016/j.tifs.2021.04.016Search in Google Scholar

(11) Zhang XZ, Ma PM, Zhang Y. Structure and properties of surface-acetylated cellulose nanocrystal/poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) composites. Polym Bull. 2016;73:2073–85.10.1007/s00289-015-1594-ySearch in Google Scholar

(12) Francisco ABFD, Lorevice MV, Claro PIC, Gouveia RF. Comprehensive study of cellulose nanocrystals acetylation effects on poly (butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) nanocomposite films obtained by solvent casting and heat pressing. Ind Crop Prod. 2022;177:114459.10.1016/j.indcrop.2021.114459Search in Google Scholar

(13) Mustapha S, Andou Y. Enhancing mechanical properties of polyurethane with cellulose acetate as chain extender. Fiber Polym. 2021;21(8):2112–8.10.1007/s12221-021-0789-0Search in Google Scholar

(14) Wu CS. Characterization of cellulose acetate-reinforced aliphatic–aromatic copolyester composites. Carbohydr Polym. 2012;87(2):1249–56.10.1016/j.carbpol.2011.09.009Search in Google Scholar

(15) Bialek A, Bialek M, Jelinska M, Tokarz A. Fatty acid profile of new promising unconventional plant oils for cosmetic use. Int J Cosmet Sci. 2016;38(4):382–8.10.1111/ics.12301Search in Google Scholar PubMed

(16) Loden M. Role of topical emollients and moisturizers in the treatment of dry skin barrier disorders. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2003;4(11):771–88.10.2165/00128071-200304110-00005Search in Google Scholar PubMed

(17) Fabra MJ, Talens P, Chiralt A. Tensile properties and water vapor permeability of sodium caseinate films containing oleic acid-beeswax mixtures. J Food Eng. 2008;85(3):393–400.10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2007.07.022Search in Google Scholar

(18) Tedeschi G, Guzman-Puyol S, Paul UC, Barthel MJ, Goldoni L, Caputo G, et al. Thermoplastic cellulose acetate oleate films with high barrier properties and ductile behaviour. Chem Eng J. 2018;348:840–9.10.1016/j.cej.2018.05.031Search in Google Scholar

(19) Fan GZ, Peng Q, Chen Y, Long YF, Bai J, Song GS. Preparation of biodegradable composite films based on carboxymethylated holocellulose from wheat straw. Int J Biol Macromol. 2023;242:124868.10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.124868Search in Google Scholar PubMed

(20) Zhang CW, Nair SS, Chen HY, Yan N, Farnood R, Li FY. Thermally stable, enhanced water barrier, high strength starch biocomposite reinforced with lignin containing cellulose nanofibrils. Carbohydr Polym. 2020;230:115626.10.1016/j.carbpol.2019.115626Search in Google Scholar PubMed

(21) Pinheiro IF, Ferreira FV, Souza DHS, Gouveia RF, Lona LMF, Morales AR, et al. Mechanical, rheological and degradation properties of PBAT nanocomposites reinforced by functionalized cellulose nanocrystals. Eur Polym J. 2017;97:356–65.10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2017.10.026Search in Google Scholar

(22) Guo YQ, An XH, Qian XR. Biodegradable and reprocessable cellulose-based polyurethane films for bonding and heat dissipation in transparent electronic devices. Ind Crop Prod. 2023;193:116247.10.1016/j.indcrop.2023.116247Search in Google Scholar

(23) Zhao YL, Zhou SY, Xia XD, Tan MQ, Lyu YN, Cheng Y, et al. High-performance carboxymethyl cellulose-based hydrogel film for food packaging and preservation system. Int J Biol Macromol. 2022;223:1126–37.10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.11.102Search in Google Scholar PubMed

(24) Xu F, Jiang JX, Sun RC, She D, Peng B, Sun JX, et al. Rapid esterification of wheat straw hemicelluloses induced by microwave irradiation. Carbohydr Polym. 2008;73(4):612–20.10.1016/j.carbpol.2008.01.002Search in Google Scholar PubMed

(25) Cai J, Fei P, Xiong ZY, Shi YJ, Yan K, Xiong HG. Surface acetylation of bamboo cellulose: Preparation and rheological properties. Carbohydr Polym. 2013;92(1):11–8.10.1016/j.carbpol.2012.09.059Search in Google Scholar PubMed

(26) Hou DF, Li ML, Yan C, Zhou L, Liu ZY, Yang W, et al. Mechanochemical preparation of thermoplastic cellulose oleate by ball milling. Green Chem. 2021;23(5):2069–78.10.1039/D0GC03853ASearch in Google Scholar

(27) Jebrane M, Terziev N, Heinmaa I. Biobased and sustainable alternative route to long-chain cellulose esters. Biomacromolecules. 2017;18(2):498–504.10.1021/acs.biomac.6b01584Search in Google Scholar PubMed

(28) Danjo T, Iwata T. Syntheses of cellulose branched ester derivatives and their properties and structure analyses. Polymer. 2018;137:358–63.10.1016/j.polymer.2018.01.009Search in Google Scholar

(29) Zannagui C, Amhamdi H, Barkany SE, Jilal I, Sundman O, Salhi A, et al. Homogeneous succinylation of cellulose acetate: design, characterization and adsorption study of Pb(II), Cu(II), Cd(II) and Zn(II) ions. E3S Web Conf. 2021;240:02003.10.1051/e3sconf/202124002003Search in Google Scholar

(30) Giri J, Lach R, Grellmann W, Susan MA, Saiter JM, Henning S, et al. Compostable composites of wheat stalk micro- and nanocrystalline cellulose and poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate): surface properties and degradation behavior. J Appl Polym Sci. 2019;136(43):48149.10.1002/app.48149Search in Google Scholar

(31) Giri J, Lach R, Le HH, Grellmann W, Saiter JM, Henning S, et al. Structural, thermal and mechanical properties of composites of poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) with wheat straw microcrystalline cellulose. Polym Bull. 2021;78(9):4779–95.10.1007/s00289-020-03339-5Search in Google Scholar

(32) David ME, Ion RM, Grigorescu RM, Iancu L, Holban AM, Iordache F, et al. Biocompatible and antimicrobial cellulose acetate-collagen films containing MWCNTs decorated with TiO2 nanoparticles for potential biomedical applications. Nanomaterials. 2022;12(2):239.10.3390/nano12020239Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

(33) Wongphan P, Panrong T, Harnkarnsujarit N. Effect of different modified starches on physical, morphological, thermomechanical, barrier and biodegradation properties of cassava starch and polybutylene adipate terephthalate blend film. Food Packag Shelf. Life. 2022;32:100844.10.1016/j.fpsl.2022.100844Search in Google Scholar

(34) Sellami F, Kebiche-Senhadji O, Marais S, Couvrat N, Fatyeyeva K. Polymer inclusion membranes based on CTA/PBAT blend containing Aliquat 336 as extractant for removal of Cr(VI): efficiency, stability and selectivity. React Funct Polym. 2019;139:120–32.10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2019.03.014Search in Google Scholar

(35) Carolina L, Belgacem N, Bretas RES, Bras J. Melt extruded nanocomposites of polybutylene adipate-co-terephthalate (PBAT) with phenylbutyl isocyanate modified cellulose nanocrystals. J Appl Polym Sci. 2016;133(34):43678.10.1002/app.43678Search in Google Scholar

(36) Dae H, Kim JK. On the use of time-temperature superposition in multicomponent/multiphase polymer systems. Polymer. 1993;34:2533–9.10.1016/0032-3861(93)90585-XSearch in Google Scholar

(37) Heredia-Guerrero JA, Goldoni L, Benitez JJ, Davis A, Ceseracciu L, Cingolani R, et al. Cellulose-polyhydroxylated fatty acid ester-based bioplastics with tuning properties: acylation via a mixed anhydride system. Carbohydr Polym. 2017;173:312–20.10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.05.068Search in Google Scholar PubMed

(38) Jia H, Zhang M, Weng YX, Zhao Y, Li CT, Kanwal A. Degradation of poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) by Stenotrophomonas sp. YCJ1 isolated from farmland soil. J Environ Sci. 2021;103:50–8.10.1016/j.jes.2020.10.001Search in Google Scholar PubMed

(39) He YQ, Li H, Fei X, Peng LC. Carboxymethyl cellulose/cellulose nanocrystals immobilized silver nanoparticles as an effective coating to improve barrier and antibacterial properties of paper for food packaging applications. Carbohydr Polym. 2021;252:1171156.10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.117156Search in Google Scholar PubMed

(40) Ferreira FV, Cividanes LS, Gouveia RF, Lona LMF. An overview on properties and applications of poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate)–PBAT based composites. Polym Eng Sci. 2019;59:E7–15.10.1002/pen.24770Search in Google Scholar

(41) Leppänen I, Vikman M, Harlin A, Orelma H. Enzymatic degradation and pilot‑scale composting of cellulose‑based films with different chemical structures. J Polym Environ. 2020;28(2):458–70.10.1007/s10924-019-01621-wSearch in Google Scholar
Received: 2023-09-15
Revised: 2023-10-23
Accepted: 2023-11-07
Published Online: 2023-12-26

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Chitosan nanocomposite film incorporating Nigella sativa oil, Azadirachta indica leaves’ extract, and silver nanoparticles
  3. Effect of Zr-doped CaCu3Ti3.95Zr0.05O12 ceramic on the microstructure, dielectric properties, and electric field distribution of the LDPE composites
  4. Effects of dry heating, acetylation, and acid pre-treatments on modification of potato starch with octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA)
  5. Loading conditions impact on the compression fatigue behavior of filled styrene butadiene rubber
  6. Characterization and compatibility of bio-based PA56/PET
  7. Study on the aging of three typical rubber materials under high- and low-temperature cyclic environment
  8. Numerical simulation and experimental research of electrospun polyacrylonitrile Taylor cone based on multiphysics coupling
  9. Experimental investigation of properties and aging behavior of pineapple and sisal leaf hybrid fiber-reinforced polymer composites
  10. Influence of temperature distribution on the foaming quality of foamed polypropylene composites
  11. Enzyme-catalyzed synthesis of 4-methylcatechol oligomer and preliminary evaluations as stabilizing agent in polypropylene
  12. Molecular dynamics simulation of the effect of the thermal and mechanical properties of addition liquid silicone rubber modified by carbon nanotubes with different radii
  13. Incorporation of poly(3-acrylamidopropyl trimethylammonium chloride-co-acrylic acid) branches for good sizing properties and easy desizing from sized cotton warps
  14. Effect of matrix composition on properties of polyamide 66/polyamide 6I-6T composites with high content of continuous glass fiber for optimizing surface performance
  15. Preparation and properties of epoxy-modified thermosetting phenolic fiber
  16. Thermal decomposition reaction kinetics and storage life prediction of polyacrylate pressure-sensitive adhesive
  17. Effect of different proportions of CNTs/Fe3O4 hybrid filler on the morphological, electrical and electromagnetic interference shielding properties of poly(lactic acid) nanocomposites
  18. Doping silver nanoparticles into reverse osmosis membranes for antibacterial properties
  19. Melt-blended PLA/curcumin-cross-linked polyurethane film for enhanced UV-shielding ability
  20. The affinity of bentonite and WO3 nanoparticles toward epoxy resin polymer for radiation shielding
  21. Prolonged action fertilizer encapsulated by CMC/humic acid
  22. Preparation and experimental estimation of radiation shielding properties of novel epoxy reinforced with Sb2O3 and PbO
  23. Fabrication of polylactic acid nanofibrous yarns for piezoelectric fabrics
  24. Copper phenyl phosphonate for epoxy resin and cyanate ester copolymer with improved flame retardancy and thermal properties
  25. Synergistic effect of thermal oxygen and UV aging on natural rubber
  26. Effect of zinc oxide suspension on the overall filler content of the PLA/ZnO composites and cPLA/ZnO composites
  27. The role of natural hybrid nanobentonite/nanocellulose in enhancing the water resistance properties of the biodegradable thermoplastic starch
  28. Performance optimization of geopolymer mortar blending in nano-SiO2 and PVA fiber based on set pair analysis
  29. Preparation of (La + Nb)-co-doped TiO2 and its polyvinylidene difluoride composites with high dielectric constants
  30. Effect of matrix composition on the performance of calcium carbonate filled poly(lactic acid)/poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) composites
  31. Low-temperature self-healing polyurethane adhesives via dual synergetic crosslinking strategy
  32. Leucaena leucocephala oil-based poly malate-amide nanocomposite coating material for anticorrosive applications
  33. Preparation and properties of modified ammonium polyphosphate synergistic with tris(2-hydroxyethyl) isocynurate for flame-retardant LDPE
  34. Thermal response of double network hydrogels with varied composition
  35. The effect of coated calcium carbonate using stearic acid on the recovered carbon black masterbatch in low-density polyethylene composites
  36. Investigation of MXene-modified agar/polyurethane hydrogel elastomeric repair materials with tunable water absorption
  37. Damping performance analysis of carbon black/lead magnesium niobite/epoxy resin composites
  38. Molecular dynamics simulations of dihydroxylammonium 5,5′-bistetrazole-1,1′-diolate (TKX-50) and TKX-50-based PBXs with four energetic binders
  39. Preparation and characterization of sisal fibre reinforced sodium alginate gum composites for non-structural engineering applications
  40. Study on by-products synthesis of powder coating polyester resin catalyzed by organotin
  41. Ab initio molecular dynamics of insulating paper: Mechanism of insulating paper cellobiose cracking at transient high temperature
  42. Effect of different tin neodecanoate and calcium–zinc heat stabilizers on the thermal stability of PVC
  43. High-strength polyvinyl alcohol-based hydrogel by vermiculite and lignocellulosic nanofibrils for electronic sensing
  44. Impacts of micro-size PbO on the gamma-ray shielding performance of polyepoxide resin
  45. Influence of the molecular structure of phenylamine antioxidants on anti-migration and anti-aging behavior of high-performance nitrile rubber composites
  46. Fiber-reinforced polyvinyl alcohol hydrogel via in situ fiber formation
  47. Preparation and performance of homogenous braids-reinforced poly (p-phenylene terephthamide) hollow fiber membranes
  48. Synthesis of cadmium(ii) ion-imprinted composite membrane with a pyridine functional monomer and characterization of its adsorption performance
  49. Impact of WO3 and BaO nanoparticles on the radiation shielding characteristics of polydimethylsiloxane composites
  50. Comprehensive study of the radiation shielding feature of polyester polymers impregnated with iron filings
  51. Preparation and characterization of polymeric cross-linked hydrogel patch for topical delivery of gentamicin
  52. Mechanical properties of rCB-pigment masterbatch in rLDPE: The effect of processing aids and water absorption test
  53. Pineapple fruit residue-based nanofibre composites: Preparation and characterizations
  54. Effect of natural Indocalamus leaf addition on the mechanical properties of epoxy and epoxy-carbon fiber composites
  55. Utilization of biosilica for energy-saving tire compounds: Enhancing performance and efficiency
  56. Effect of capillary arrays on the profile of multi-layer micro-capillary films
  57. A numerical study on thermal bonding with preheating technique for polypropylene microfluidic device
  58. Development of modified h-BN/UPE resin for insulation varnish applications
  59. High strength, anti-static, thermal conductive glass fiber/epoxy composites for medical devices: A strategy of modifying fibers with functionalized carbon nanotubes
  60. Effects of mechanical recycling on the properties of glass fiber–reinforced polyamide 66 composites in automotive components
  61. Bentonite/hydroxyethylcellulose as eco-dielectrics with potential utilization in energy storage
  62. Study on wall-slipping mechanism of nano-injection polymer under the constant temperature fields
  63. Synthesis of low-VOC unsaturated polyester coatings for electrical insulation
  64. Enhanced apoptotic activity of Pluronic F127 polymer-encapsulated chlorogenic acid nanoparticles through the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway in liver cancer cells and in vivo toxicity studies in zebrafish
  65. Preparation and performance of silicone-modified 3D printing photosensitive materials
  66. A novel fabrication method of slippery lubricant-infused porous surface by thiol-ene click chemistry reaction for anti-fouling and anti-corrosion applications
  67. Development of polymeric IPN hydrogels by free radical polymerization technique for extended release of letrozole: Characterization and toxicity evaluation
  68. Tribological characterization of sponge gourd outer skin fiber-reinforced epoxy composite with Tamarindus indica seed filler addition using the Box–Behnken method
  69. Stereocomplex PLLA–PBAT copolymer and its composites with multi-walled carbon nanotubes for electrostatic dissipative application
  70. Enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of Krestin–chitosan nanocomplex for cancer medication via activation of the mitochondrial intrinsic pathway
  71. Variation in tungsten(vi) oxide particle size for enhancing the radiation shielding ability of silicone rubber composites
  72. Damage accumulation and failure mechanism of glass/epoxy composite laminates subjected to repeated low velocity impacts
  73. Gamma-ray shielding analysis using the experimental measurements for copper(ii) sulfate-doped polyepoxide resins
  74. Numerical simulation into influence of airflow channel quantities on melt-blowing airflow field in processing of polymer fiber
  75. Cellulose acetate oleate-reinforced poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) composite materials
  76. Radiation shielding capability and exposure buildup factor of cerium(iv) oxide-reinforced polyester resins
  77. Recyclable polytriazole resins with high performance based on Diels-Alder dynamic covalent crosslinking
  78. Adsorption and recovery of Cr(vi) from wastewater by Chitosan–Urushiol composite nanofiber membrane
  79. Comprehensive performance evaluation based on electromagnetic shielding properties of the weft-knitted fabrics made by stainless steel/cotton blended yarn
  80. Review Articles
  81. Preparation and application of natural protein polymer-based Pickering emulsions
  82. Wood-derived high-performance cellulose structural materials
  83. Flammability properties of polymers and polymer composites combined with ionic liquids
  84. Polymer-based nanocarriers for biomedical and environmental applications
  85. A review on semi-crystalline polymer bead foams from stirring autoclave: Processing and properties
  86. Rapid Communication
  87. Preparation and characterization of magnetic microgels with linear thermosensitivity over a wide temperature range
  88. Special Issue: Biodegradable and bio-based polymers: Green approaches (Guest Editors: Kumaran Subramanian, A. Wilson Santhosh Kumar, and Venkatajothi Ramarao)
  89. Synthesis and characterization of proton-conducting membranes based on bacterial cellulose and human nail keratin
  90. Fatigue behaviour of Kevlar/carbon/basalt fibre-reinforced SiC nanofiller particulate hybrid epoxy composite
  91. Effect of citric acid on thermal, phase morphological, and mechanical properties of poly(l-lactide)-b-poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(l-lactide)/thermoplastic starch blends
  92. Dose-dependent cytotoxicity against lung cancer cells via green synthesized ZnFe2O4/cellulose nanocomposites
https://doi.org/10.1515/epoly-2023-0145
Keywords for this article
poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate); cellulose acetate oleate; reinforce; property; biodegradable composites
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Chitosan nanocomposite film incorporating Nigella sativa oil, Azadirachta indica leaves’ extract, and silver nanoparticles
  3. Effect of Zr-doped CaCu3Ti3.95Zr0.05O12 ceramic on the microstructure, dielectric properties, and electric field distribution of the LDPE composites
  4. Effects of dry heating, acetylation, and acid pre-treatments on modification of potato starch with octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA)
  5. Loading conditions impact on the compression fatigue behavior of filled styrene butadiene rubber
  6. Characterization and compatibility of bio-based PA56/PET
  7. Study on the aging of three typical rubber materials under high- and low-temperature cyclic environment
  8. Numerical simulation and experimental research of electrospun polyacrylonitrile Taylor cone based on multiphysics coupling
  9. Experimental investigation of properties and aging behavior of pineapple and sisal leaf hybrid fiber-reinforced polymer composites
  10. Influence of temperature distribution on the foaming quality of foamed polypropylene composites
  11. Enzyme-catalyzed synthesis of 4-methylcatechol oligomer and preliminary evaluations as stabilizing agent in polypropylene
  12. Molecular dynamics simulation of the effect of the thermal and mechanical properties of addition liquid silicone rubber modified by carbon nanotubes with different radii
  13. Incorporation of poly(3-acrylamidopropyl trimethylammonium chloride-co-acrylic acid) branches for good sizing properties and easy desizing from sized cotton warps
  14. Effect of matrix composition on properties of polyamide 66/polyamide 6I-6T composites with high content of continuous glass fiber for optimizing surface performance
  15. Preparation and properties of epoxy-modified thermosetting phenolic fiber
  16. Thermal decomposition reaction kinetics and storage life prediction of polyacrylate pressure-sensitive adhesive
  17. Effect of different proportions of CNTs/Fe3O4 hybrid filler on the morphological, electrical and electromagnetic interference shielding properties of poly(lactic acid) nanocomposites
  18. Doping silver nanoparticles into reverse osmosis membranes for antibacterial properties
  19. Melt-blended PLA/curcumin-cross-linked polyurethane film for enhanced UV-shielding ability
  20. The affinity of bentonite and WO3 nanoparticles toward epoxy resin polymer for radiation shielding
  21. Prolonged action fertilizer encapsulated by CMC/humic acid
  22. Preparation and experimental estimation of radiation shielding properties of novel epoxy reinforced with Sb2O3 and PbO
  23. Fabrication of polylactic acid nanofibrous yarns for piezoelectric fabrics
  24. Copper phenyl phosphonate for epoxy resin and cyanate ester copolymer with improved flame retardancy and thermal properties
  25. Synergistic effect of thermal oxygen and UV aging on natural rubber
  26. Effect of zinc oxide suspension on the overall filler content of the PLA/ZnO composites and cPLA/ZnO composites
  27. The role of natural hybrid nanobentonite/nanocellulose in enhancing the water resistance properties of the biodegradable thermoplastic starch
  28. Performance optimization of geopolymer mortar blending in nano-SiO2 and PVA fiber based on set pair analysis
  29. Preparation of (La + Nb)-co-doped TiO2 and its polyvinylidene difluoride composites with high dielectric constants
  30. Effect of matrix composition on the performance of calcium carbonate filled poly(lactic acid)/poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) composites
  31. Low-temperature self-healing polyurethane adhesives via dual synergetic crosslinking strategy
  32. Leucaena leucocephala oil-based poly malate-amide nanocomposite coating material for anticorrosive applications
  33. Preparation and properties of modified ammonium polyphosphate synergistic with tris(2-hydroxyethyl) isocynurate for flame-retardant LDPE
  34. Thermal response of double network hydrogels with varied composition
  35. The effect of coated calcium carbonate using stearic acid on the recovered carbon black masterbatch in low-density polyethylene composites
  36. Investigation of MXene-modified agar/polyurethane hydrogel elastomeric repair materials with tunable water absorption
  37. Damping performance analysis of carbon black/lead magnesium niobite/epoxy resin composites
  38. Molecular dynamics simulations of dihydroxylammonium 5,5′-bistetrazole-1,1′-diolate (TKX-50) and TKX-50-based PBXs with four energetic binders
  39. Preparation and characterization of sisal fibre reinforced sodium alginate gum composites for non-structural engineering applications
  40. Study on by-products synthesis of powder coating polyester resin catalyzed by organotin
  41. Ab initio molecular dynamics of insulating paper: Mechanism of insulating paper cellobiose cracking at transient high temperature
  42. Effect of different tin neodecanoate and calcium–zinc heat stabilizers on the thermal stability of PVC
  43. High-strength polyvinyl alcohol-based hydrogel by vermiculite and lignocellulosic nanofibrils for electronic sensing
  44. Impacts of micro-size PbO on the gamma-ray shielding performance of polyepoxide resin
  45. Influence of the molecular structure of phenylamine antioxidants on anti-migration and anti-aging behavior of high-performance nitrile rubber composites
  46. Fiber-reinforced polyvinyl alcohol hydrogel via in situ fiber formation
  47. Preparation and performance of homogenous braids-reinforced poly (p-phenylene terephthamide) hollow fiber membranes
  48. Synthesis of cadmium(ii) ion-imprinted composite membrane with a pyridine functional monomer and characterization of its adsorption performance
  49. Impact of WO3 and BaO nanoparticles on the radiation shielding characteristics of polydimethylsiloxane composites
  50. Comprehensive study of the radiation shielding feature of polyester polymers impregnated with iron filings
  51. Preparation and characterization of polymeric cross-linked hydrogel patch for topical delivery of gentamicin
  52. Mechanical properties of rCB-pigment masterbatch in rLDPE: The effect of processing aids and water absorption test
  53. Pineapple fruit residue-based nanofibre composites: Preparation and characterizations
  54. Effect of natural Indocalamus leaf addition on the mechanical properties of epoxy and epoxy-carbon fiber composites
  55. Utilization of biosilica for energy-saving tire compounds: Enhancing performance and efficiency
  56. Effect of capillary arrays on the profile of multi-layer micro-capillary films
  57. A numerical study on thermal bonding with preheating technique for polypropylene microfluidic device
  58. Development of modified h-BN/UPE resin for insulation varnish applications
  59. High strength, anti-static, thermal conductive glass fiber/epoxy composites for medical devices: A strategy of modifying fibers with functionalized carbon nanotubes
  60. Effects of mechanical recycling on the properties of glass fiber–reinforced polyamide 66 composites in automotive components
  61. Bentonite/hydroxyethylcellulose as eco-dielectrics with potential utilization in energy storage
  62. Study on wall-slipping mechanism of nano-injection polymer under the constant temperature fields
  63. Synthesis of low-VOC unsaturated polyester coatings for electrical insulation
  64. Enhanced apoptotic activity of Pluronic F127 polymer-encapsulated chlorogenic acid nanoparticles through the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway in liver cancer cells and in vivo toxicity studies in zebrafish
  65. Preparation and performance of silicone-modified 3D printing photosensitive materials
  66. A novel fabrication method of slippery lubricant-infused porous surface by thiol-ene click chemistry reaction for anti-fouling and anti-corrosion applications
  67. Development of polymeric IPN hydrogels by free radical polymerization technique for extended release of letrozole: Characterization and toxicity evaluation
  68. Tribological characterization of sponge gourd outer skin fiber-reinforced epoxy composite with Tamarindus indica seed filler addition using the Box–Behnken method
  69. Stereocomplex PLLA–PBAT copolymer and its composites with multi-walled carbon nanotubes for electrostatic dissipative application
  70. Enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of Krestin–chitosan nanocomplex for cancer medication via activation of the mitochondrial intrinsic pathway
  71. Variation in tungsten(vi) oxide particle size for enhancing the radiation shielding ability of silicone rubber composites
  72. Damage accumulation and failure mechanism of glass/epoxy composite laminates subjected to repeated low velocity impacts
  73. Gamma-ray shielding analysis using the experimental measurements for copper(ii) sulfate-doped polyepoxide resins
  74. Numerical simulation into influence of airflow channel quantities on melt-blowing airflow field in processing of polymer fiber
  75. Cellulose acetate oleate-reinforced poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) composite materials
  76. Radiation shielding capability and exposure buildup factor of cerium(iv) oxide-reinforced polyester resins
  77. Recyclable polytriazole resins with high performance based on Diels-Alder dynamic covalent crosslinking
  78. Adsorption and recovery of Cr(vi) from wastewater by Chitosan–Urushiol composite nanofiber membrane
  79. Comprehensive performance evaluation based on electromagnetic shielding properties of the weft-knitted fabrics made by stainless steel/cotton blended yarn
  80. Review Articles
  81. Preparation and application of natural protein polymer-based Pickering emulsions
  82. Wood-derived high-performance cellulose structural materials
  83. Flammability properties of polymers and polymer composites combined with ionic liquids
  84. Polymer-based nanocarriers for biomedical and environmental applications
  85. A review on semi-crystalline polymer bead foams from stirring autoclave: Processing and properties
  86. Rapid Communication
  87. Preparation and characterization of magnetic microgels with linear thermosensitivity over a wide temperature range
  88. Special Issue: Biodegradable and bio-based polymers: Green approaches (Guest Editors: Kumaran Subramanian, A. Wilson Santhosh Kumar, and Venkatajothi Ramarao)
  89. Synthesis and characterization of proton-conducting membranes based on bacterial cellulose and human nail keratin
  90. Fatigue behaviour of Kevlar/carbon/basalt fibre-reinforced SiC nanofiller particulate hybrid epoxy composite
  91. Effect of citric acid on thermal, phase morphological, and mechanical properties of poly(l-lactide)-b-poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(l-lactide)/thermoplastic starch blends
  92. Dose-dependent cytotoxicity against lung cancer cells via green synthesized ZnFe2O4/cellulose nanocomposites
Sign up now to receive a 20% welcome discount
Institutional Access
How does access work?
Have an idea on how to improve our website?
Please write us.
© 2025 De Gruyter Brill
Downloaded on 11.9.2025 from https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/epoly-2023-0145/html
Scroll to top button