Startseite Technik Effect of fish scales on fabrication of polyester composite material reinforcements
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Effect of fish scales on fabrication of polyester composite material reinforcements

  • Balsam H. Abed und Ali A. Battawi EMAIL logo
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 20. September 2021
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Abstract

Renewable resources are used to create useful, biologically sustainable materials. It has the potential to minimize waste while also challenging existing research and developments. Several researchers have concentrated their efforts on natural fiber composites. Natural fibers include plant, mineral, and animal fibers. In this project fish scales, a bio-waste, were used as a reinforcing agent in polyester/polystyrene for the fabrication of composite materials in the different weight fractions of 0, 6, 7, 9, and 11%, at a constant load of 1 N and temperature of 20 and 26°C. The hand layup technique was used to create the fabrication setup for composite materials. The creep behavior, modulus of elasticity, and stress were studied experimentally.

Keywords: composites; fish scale; polyester/polystyrene; reinforcement

1 Introduction

Continued technological development, consumer expectations, the increasing demand for global resources, and the need for environmental sustainability led to the development of these resources. During the past few decades, the compounds of bio-fibers have undergone remarkable development. As new compounds were created, these materials became increasingly sufficient, and their research and development processes have become intensive and their applications wider [1]. There is an increasing global interest in natural fibers as they cost less, are environmentally friendly, and as their structural applications are increasing. Bio-fibers such as bird feathers and animal hair have recently drawn the attention of researchers. Fish are among the most abundant aquatic resources and their scales are considered waste. Available research on fish scales are relatively limited [2]. Recently, attention is being paid to composites based on natural fillers due to their many advantages [3,4,5,6,7]. Satapathy et al. [8] created a composite utilizing small flakes of fish scales and incorporated it into the resin of epoxy. The wear, curing, and corrosion properties of the manufactured composites were investigated, and it was discovered that these composites had lower porosity, improvement in hardness, less tensile strength, and a lesser likelihood of bending than pure polymer. Borah et al. [9] used the hand layup technique for the fabrication of composites and polymer composites reinforced with three weight proportions of fish scales (5, 10, 15 wt%). It was found that composites reinforced with fish scales have engineering applications that improve wear properties. Majhool et al. [10] studied the fortification of epoxy resins with natural hydroxyapatite composites extracted from fish scales, to achieve biocompatibility of the composites as well as to improve their mechanical properties. Flexural and impact tests were investigated and it was found that the optimum filler ratio of natural hydroxyapatite was 10 wt%. This gives the highest ratio of impact and flexural strength when compared to pure epoxy composites. Harahap et al. [11] studied the effect of fish scale powder as a reinforcement of acrylic resin using flexural strength. The results showed that adding 5 and 10% of fish scale powder reduced the acrylic resins’ flexural strength. Kumar et al. [12] studied the mechanical characterization of epoxy-based composites and hybrid bio-composite with epoxy resin (CY-230) reinforced with different weight ratios (wt%) of leftover powder (extracted from fish) and chicken feather fiber to enhance the physical and mechanical properties of epoxy composite. Nirmalraj et al. [13] designed and fabricated animal fibers, such as chicken feather and fish scales, and developed composites reinforced with random-oriented flakes obtained from chicken feather and fish scales, using the hand lay-up mechanism. The mechanical properties of the composites such as compression, strength, tensile strength, hardness, impact, and water absorption were studied.

In this article, the creep behavior of polystyrene (PS) composite materials reinforced with different weight fractions of fish scales is studied.

2 Experimental

The quality of the new composite materials depended mainly on the raw materials used as well as the processing techniques used to make them.

2.1 Fish scale

The fish scales (carp fish were obtained from local fish markets) were washed eight times with tap water to remove sticky dust, slippery coatings, and dissoluble surface impurities, and to remove the odor from the scales. The scales were dried by exposing them to sunlight for a period of 3 days to remove moisture permanently. After that, the dried scales were collected and placed in the oven until they became crispy. Then scissors were used to obtain small flakes (approximately 1 × 6–10 mm) from the fish scales as shown in Figure 1. The flowchart in Figure 2 explains the preparation of fish scale flakes, which were used as a reinforcement to PS in several weight fractions.

Figure 1 Fish scales and fish flakes.
Figure 1

Fish scales and fish flakes.

Figure 2 Preparation of fish scale flakes.
Figure 2

Preparation of fish scale flakes.

2.2 Fabrication of composite

The hand layup technique was used to create the fabrication setup for composite materials, which is a widely used technique to fabricate composites and reinforce products. PS granules were dissolved by adding chloroform and mixed with a magnetic stirrer. Then PS was added to the polyester (UP) (mechanical properties of the clear cured casting for UP are given in Table 1) and mixed for 3 h (the ratio of UP to PS is 92:8) [14]. After that, the corresponding hardener (K-6) was added to the mixture in the ratio (10:1) as recommended and mixed for 15 min. The dry flakes of fish scales that were prepared earlier were placed in the mold in the weight fractions of 0, 6, 7, 9, and 11% in the longitudinal direction of the sample. After that, the PS/UP resin mixture is poured over it and left in the mold for 48 h. The molds were placed inside an oven at 50°C for 1 h to eliminate moisture. Figure 3 shows creep samples inside the mold.

Table 1

Clear cured casting mechanical properties for UP

Properties Test value Method
Barcol hardness 40 ASTM (D2583)
Tensile strength in (MPa) 70 ISO (527-2)
Breaking elongation 4 ISO (527-2)
Temperature of heat distortion (oC) 78–82 ISO (75-2)
Bending strength (MPa) 110 ISO (178)
Figure 3 Creep samples inside the mold.
Figure 3

Creep samples inside the mold.

2.3 Creep test

After removing the samples from the mold, the appendages were removed as per the ASTM test methods of creep test (D2990). The creep test is mostly conducted using the creep testing instrument (WP600; Figure 4) at the different temperature ranges of 20 and 26°C during a static condition of load (1 N). The load is applied on the sample for 1 h, then it is lifted and readings are taken without it for another hour.

Figure 4 Creep testing instrument.
Figure 4

Creep testing instrument.

3 Results and discussion

Creep tests are needed to determine the (long-term) behavior of unidirectional composites; it is essential to provide (long-term) data to estimate the life of composites for design purposes. Five weight fractions of fish scales (0, 6, 7, 9, and 11%) were used as a reinforcement to UP/PS composites in this study at a constant load of 1 N and temperature of 20 and 26°C. The Maxwell approach was utilized to extract the stress and modulus of elasticity from the strain–time curve using curve-fitting techniques, as shown in Figure 5 (spring and dashpot in series) [15].

(3.1) σ ( t ) = σ o e − δ 1 ⋅ t η 1 ,

δ 1 = σ o ε 1 ,

η 1 = σ o tan β ,

ε − = tan β = Δ ε Δ t ( 1 / s ) , where ε = Δ L L

(3.2) E ( t ) = σ ( t ) ε ( t ) = δ 1 ⋅ η 1 η 1 + δ t ,

E ( t ) = σ ( t ) ε ( t ) = δ 1 . η 1 η 1 + δ t ε ( t ) = σ ε 1 + σ η 1 t .

Figure 5 Maxwell approach (spring and dashpot in series).
Figure 5

Maxwell approach (spring and dashpot in series).

Figures 6 and 7 illustrate creep behavior (strain vs time) for PS reinforced with different weight fractions of fish scales at temperature of 20 and 26°C, respectively. These figures showed creep failure time and strain.

With the increasing fish scale percentage, the modulus of elasticity increased significantly (Figures 8 and 9). The scale, shape, and interfacial adhesion between the filler’s surface and the matrix all play a role in the increase in elasticity. After this percentage, up to 7%, forces are weak. This is insufficient to form the necessary bond between the matrix and the filler. This may be attributed to a higher concentration of filler particles agglomerating. Therefore, the stress can easily be transferred between the reinforcement and the matrix polymer due to the weak bonds, as shown in Figures 10 and 11, for 20 and 26°C, respectively. At a temperature of 26oC, it was noticed that all samples reinforced with fish scales failed at different times as shown in Figure 12. Hence UP materials have high ductility, as shown in Figure 7. At a weight fraction of 0%, it has the highest strain, then it decreases at 7% and increases at the rates of 9 and 11% due to the effect of increasing temperature, which led to an increase in the strain in a homogeneous amount. Figure 13 represents a comparison between the strain parameters (where ε 1 is the instantaneous extensions [Maxwell element], and ε 2 is the creep Kelvin element that are shown in Figure 14) and the different weight fractions with temperature of 20 and 26oC. The significant effect of temperature on the strain parameters was observed in this figure, where the mixing rate of 0% recorded the highest strain parameters. Then these parameters decreased while the weight fraction increased until it reached 7%. Then it rose again at 11% when the percentage of fish scales was increased.

Figure 6 Strain versus time for UP/PS reinforced by different fish flakes weight fractions at 20°C.
Figure 6

Strain versus time for UP/PS reinforced by different fish flakes weight fractions at 20°C.

Figure 7 Strain versus time for UP/PS reinforced by different fish flakes weight fractions at 26°C.
Figure 7

Strain versus time for UP/PS reinforced by different fish flakes weight fractions at 26°C.

Figure 8 Modulus of elasticity for UP/PS reinforced with fish flakes for different weight fractions at 20°C.
Figure 8

Modulus of elasticity for UP/PS reinforced with fish flakes for different weight fractions at 20°C.

Figure 9 Modulus of elasticity for UP/PS reinforced with fish flakes for different weight fractions at 26°C.
Figure 9

Modulus of elasticity for UP/PS reinforced with fish flakes for different weight fractions at 26°C.

Figure 10 Stress versus time for UP/PS reinforced with fish flakes for different weight fractions at 20°C.
Figure 10

Stress versus time for UP/PS reinforced with fish flakes for different weight fractions at 20°C.

Figure 11 Stress versus time for UP/PS reinforced with fish with different weight fractions at 26°C.
Figure 11

Stress versus time for UP/PS reinforced with fish with different weight fractions at 26°C.

Figure 12 Samples that failed at 26°C.
Figure 12

Samples that failed at 26°C.

Figure 13 Comparison between 20 and 26°C of UP/PS creep behavior at different weight fractions.
Figure 13

Comparison between 20 and 26°C of UP/PS creep behavior at different weight fractions.

Figure 14 Creep behavior of UP/PS at constant weight 1 N and 20°C.
Figure 14

Creep behavior of UP/PS at constant weight 1 N and 20°C.

4 Conclusion

The aim of this study is to look into the effects of the creep behavior of fish scale reinforcement on PS composites. A summary of this study’s conclusions is as follows.

  1. The creep behavior of PS was enhanced and reinforced by the addition of appropriate percentages of fish scales.

  2. Higher temperatures reduce PS’s tensile strength and speed up creep failure.

  3. PS reinforced with fish scales had a high modulus of elasticity percentage.

  4. The highest strain was obtained with a 7% weight fraction at 26°C and at 800 s.

  5. The weight fraction of 11% fish scales at 26°C had the better ratio due to the homogeneity of strain parameters (ε 1, ε 2, ε max) and it has the highest stress and the lowest strain compared to other weight fractions.

  1. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  2. Data availability statement: The raw/processed data required to reproduce these findings cannot be shared at this time as the data also forms part of an ongoing study.

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Received: 2021-04-13
Revised: 2021-08-02
Accepted: 2021-08-27
Published Online: 2021-09-20

© 2021 Balsam H. Abed and Ali A. Battawi, published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/eng-2021-0092
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
composites; fish scale; polyester/polystyrene; reinforcement
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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  48. FMEA method in operational reliability of forest harvesters
  49. Examination of preferences in the field of mobility of the city of Pila in terms of services provided by the Municipal Transport Company in Pila
  50. Enhancement stability and color fastness of natural dye: A review
  51. Special Issue: ICE-SEAM 2019 - Part II
  52. Lane Departure Warning Estimation Using Yaw Acceleration
  53. Analysis of EMG Signals during Stance and Swing Phases for Controlling Magnetorheological Brake applications
  54. Sensor Number Optimization Using Neural Network for Ankle Foot Orthosis Equipped with Magnetorheological Brake
  55. Special Issue: Recent Advances in Civil Engineering - Part II
  56. Comparison of STM’s reliability system on the example of selected element
  57. Technical analysis of the renovation works of the wooden palace floors
  58. Special Issue: TRANSPORT 2020
  59. Simulation assessment of the half-power bandwidth method in testing shock absorbers
  60. Predictive analysis of the impact of the time of day on road accidents in Poland
  61. User’s determination of a proper method for quantifying fuel consumption of a passenger car with compression ignition engine in specific operation conditions
  62. Analysis and assessment of defectiveness of regulations for the yellow signal at the intersection
  63. Streamlining possibility of transport-supply logistics when using chosen Operations Research techniques
  64. Permissible distance – safety system of vehicles in use
  65. Study of the population in terms of knowledge about the distance between vehicles in motion
  66. UAVs in rail damage image diagnostics supported by deep-learning networks
  67. Exhaust emissions of buses LNG and Diesel in RDE tests
  68. Measurements of urban traffic parameters before and after road reconstruction
  69. The use of deep recurrent neural networks to predict performance of photovoltaic system for charging electric vehicles
  70. Analysis of dangers in the operation of city buses at the intersections
  71. Psychological factors of the transfer of control in an automated vehicle
  72. Testing and evaluation of cold-start emissions from a gasoline engine in RDE test at two different ambient temperatures
  73. Age and experience in driving a vehicle and psychomotor skills in the context of automation
  74. Consumption of gasoline in vehicles equipped with an LPG retrofit system in real driving conditions
  75. Laboratory studies of the influence of the working position of the passenger vehicle air suspension on the vibration comfort of children transported in the child restraint system
  76. Route optimization for city cleaning vehicle
  77. Efficiency of electric vehicle interior heating systems at low ambient temperatures
  78. Model-based imputation of sound level data at thoroughfare using computational intelligence
  79. Research on the combustion process in the Fiat 1.3 Multijet engine fueled with rapeseed methyl esters
  80. Overview of the method and state of hydrogenization of road transport in the world and the resulting development prospects in Poland
  81. Tribological characteristics of polymer materials used for slide bearings
  82. Car reliability analysis based on periodic technical tests
  83. Special Issue: Terotechnology 2019 - Part II
  84. DOE Application for Analysis of Tribological Properties of the Al2O3/IF-WS2 Surface Layers
  85. The effect of the impurities spaces on the quality of structural steel working at variable loads
  86. Prediction of the parameters and the hot open die elongation forging process on an 80 MN hydraulic press
  87. Special Issue: AEVEC 2020
  88. Vocational Student's Attitude and Response Towards Experiential Learning in Mechanical Engineering
  89. Virtual Laboratory to Support a Practical Learning of Micro Power Generation in Indonesian Vocational High Schools
  90. The impacts of mediating the work environment on the mode choice in work trips
  91. Utilization of K-nearest neighbor algorithm for classification of white blood cells in AML M4, M5, and M7
  92. Car braking effectiveness after adaptation for drivers with motor dysfunctions
  93. Case study: Vocational student’s knowledge and awareness level toward renewable energy in Indonesia
  94. Contribution of collaborative skill toward construction drawing skill for developing vocational course
  95. Special Issue: Annual Engineering and Vocational Education Conference - Part II
  96. Vocational teachers’ perspective toward Technological Pedagogical Vocational Knowledge
  97. Special Issue: ICIMECE 2020 - Part I
  98. Profile of system and product certification as quality infrastructure in Indonesia
  99. Prediction Model of Magnetorheological (MR) Fluid Damper Hysteresis Loop using Extreme Learning Machine Algorithm
  100. A review on the fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D printing: Filament processing, materials, and printing parameters
  101. Facile rheological route method for LiFePO4/C cathode material production
  102. Mosque design strategy for energy and water saving
  103. Epoxy resins thermosetting for mechanical engineering
  104. Estimating the potential of wind energy resources using Weibull parameters: A case study of the coastline region of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
  105. Special Issue: CIRMARE 2020
  106. New trends in visual inspection of buildings and structures: Study for the use of drones
  107. Special Issue: ISERT 2021
  108. Alleviate the contending issues in network operating system courses: Psychomotor and troubleshooting skill development with Raspberry Pi
  109. Special Issue: Actual Trends in Logistics and Industrial Engineering - Part II
  110. The Physical Internet: A means towards achieving global logistics sustainability
  111. Special Issue: Modern Scientific Problems in Civil Engineering - Part I
  112. Construction work cost and duration analysis with the use of agent-based modelling and simulation
  113. Corrosion rate measurement for steel sheets of a fuel tank shell being in service
  114. The influence of external environment on workers on scaffolding illustrated by UTCI
  115. Allocation of risk factors for geodetic tasks in construction schedules
  116. Pedestrian fatality risk as a function of tram impact speed
  117. Technological and organizational problems in the construction of the radiation shielding concrete and suggestions to solve: A case study
  118. Finite element analysis of train speed effect on dynamic response of steel bridge
  119. New approach to analysis of railway track dynamics – Rail head vibrations
  120. Special Issue: Trends in Logistics and Production for the 21st Century - Part I
  121. Design of production lines and logistic flows in production
  122. The planning process of transport tasks for autonomous vans
  123. Modeling of the two shuttle box system within the internal logistics system using simulation software
  124. Implementation of the logistics train in the intralogistics system: A case study
  125. Assessment of investment in electric buses: A case study of a public transport company
  126. Assessment of a robot base production using CAM programming for the FANUC control system
  127. Proposal for the flow of material and adjustments to the storage system of an external service provider
  128. The use of numerical analysis of the injection process to select the material for the injection molding
  129. Economic aspect of combined transport
  130. Solution of a production process with the application of simulation: A case study
  131. Speedometer reliability in regard to road traffic sustainability
  132. Design and construction of a scanning stand for the PU mini-acoustic sensor
  133. Utilization of intelligent vehicle units for train set dispatching
  134. Special Issue: ICRTEEC - 2021 - Part I
  135. LVRT enhancement of DFIG-driven wind system using feed-forward neuro-sliding mode control
  136. Special Issue: Automation in Finland 2021 - Part I
  137. Prediction of future paths of mobile objects using path library
  138. Model predictive control for a multiple injection combustion model
  139. Model-based on-board post-injection control development for marine diesel engine
  140. Intelligent temporal analysis of coronavirus statistical data
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Heruntergeladen am 6.1.2026 von https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/eng-2021-0092/html
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