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Thermal-strength analysis of a cross-flow heat exchanger and its design improvement

  • Mariusz Konieczny EMAIL logo and Łukasz Felkowski
Published/Copyright: November 9, 2021
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Open Engineering
From the journal Open Engineering Volume 11 Issue 1

Abstract

After a year of the heat exchanger operation in overload conditions, a number of cracks on the tube connections to the tubesheet have been observed. To explain the stress concentration and crack initiation, a finite element analysis is performed. A three-dimensional model is constructed and analyzed. To calculate more precisely the state of stress in the most loaded regions, a submodel is created. The maximum stress exceeds the allowable stress, and according to the standards, it can lead to ratcheting. To reduce stress concentration, all tubes should be shortened and corrugated tubes are installed in the high-temperature region from the side of the burner. A finite element model of the modified heat exchanger and a submodel are created. In the modified heat exchanger, ratcheting should not occur according to the applied standards. During the operation of the modified heat exchanger, there are no further problems with cracking.

Keywords: heat exchangers; thermal stress; thermal fatigue; numerical modeling

1 Introduction

Thermal-strength analysis plays an important role in the design of many machines and equipment. The thermal behaviors of ventilated brake discs using three different configurations were investigated at continuous brake conditions in terms of heat generation and thermal stresses with finite element analysis [1]. A high-temperature design and fatigue damage evaluation for a helical type sodium-to-air heat has been conducted in ref. [2]. The life prediction of the brazed plate heat exchanger is presented in ref. [3]. FEM analysis can also show the performance [4,5] and cause of failure of the appliance [6]. The sources, consequences, and the probability of steam turbine components failure have been calculated in ref. [7]. Analysis of a shell-tubeheat exchanger showed that the failure of the tube-to-tubesheet welded joint was induced by fatigue [8].

In this study, fracture failure of a cross-flow heat exchanger is investigated, when it has been operated in overload conditions. The submodeling technique [9] is adopted to simulate the stress distribution in the most loaded areas. The heat exchanger is designed to heat the air, which flows along the tubesheet and inside tubes, by gas burning. The burner is installed by a circular opening. The exhaust gas flows between successive baffles and exits through the round flange. A schematic of the analyzed heat exchanger is presented in Figure 1, and its main characteristics are shown in Table 1.

Figure 1 Schematic of a heat exchanger.
Figure 1

Schematic of a heat exchanger.

Table 1

Main characteristics of the heat exchanger

Tube diameters (mm) DN 40, DN 50
Working medium Natural gas/air
Ambient temperature (°C) −20 ÷ 20
Design pressure (kPa) 3
Fuel Natural gas
Burner type Natural draft burner

Materials used for the construction of this heat exchanger are indicated in Table 2. Thermal and mechanical properties of the used steels are presented in Figure 2. A description of physical phenomena, which led to the fracture formulations, will be used during the heat exchanger design improvement.

Table 2

Materials used in the fabrication of the heat exchanger [1]

Tubesheet 1.4016 acc. to EN 10088-2 [10]
Flanges 1.4301 acc. to EN 10028-7 [11]
Baffles 1.4016 acc. to EN 10088-2 [10]
Thermal insulation No
Figure 2 Thermal and mechanical properties of used materials: (a) 1.4016 steel and (b) 1.4301 steel.
Figure 2

Thermal and mechanical properties of used materials: (a) 1.4016 steel and (b) 1.4301 steel.

2 Visual inspection

The exchanger worked in the fifth climate zone. Less than 100 cycles started with an outside temperature lower than −20°C, whereas over 200 cycles started with an outside temperature between −10 and −20°C. After a year of the heat exchanger operation in overload conditions, a number of cracks on the tube connections to the tubesheet have been observed. The cracks are initiated at the root of the welds and propagated in the tube and weld tubesheet. Damaged areas have been repaired by tubes welding to the tubesheet. A fragment of damaged and then repaired heat exchanger is presented in Figure 3. Despite the repair, during a further operation, subsequent fractures occur.

Figure 3 A fragment of damaged and then repaired heat exchanger.
Figure 3

A fragment of damaged and then repaired heat exchanger.

3 Failure analysis

Visual inspection showed that all the fractures of the heat exchanger occurred near the tube-to-tubesheet welded joints. To explain the stress concentration and crack initiation, a finite element analysis is performed. A three-dimensional model containing tubes, baffles, and tubesheet is constructed and analyzed. The created model is shown in Figure 4. It consists of 179,017 nodes and 173,371 shell elements. The model built in this way acts as a global model, which is used for a more precise analysis using the submodeling technique [9]. The Ansys Workbench software was used for the analyses [12].

Figure 4 Finite element model of the heat exchanger: (a) view from outside and (b) interior.
Figure 4

Finite element model of the heat exchanger: (a) view from outside and (b) interior.

The heat exchanger is located in the perpendicular channel, which allows to supply cold air and receive heated air. The air flows inside the tubes and partly between the tubesheet and the rectangular channel. The inlet and outlet air temperature equals −20 and 20°C, respectively.

The temperature distribution in the air flowing inside and outside of the heat exchanger is presented in Figure 5. The temperature distribution in exhaust gasses is shown in Figure 6. Due to the natural flow of the air and flue gasses, the value of the heat transfer coefficient is estimated as 17 W/m2 K [13]. The calculated temperature distribution in the heat exchanger can be seen in Figure 7. A linear elastic strength analysis has been conducted using the isotropic Hooke’s law. The calculated equivalent (Huber–von Mises–Hencky) stress distribution in the heat exchanger is presented in Figure 8.

Figure 5 Temperature distribution in the flowing air: (a) inside the tubes and (b) between the tubesheet and the rectangular channel.
Figure 5

Temperature distribution in the flowing air: (a) inside the tubes and (b) between the tubesheet and the rectangular channel.

Figure 6 Temperature distribution in the exhaust gasses.
Figure 6

Temperature distribution in the exhaust gasses.

Figure 7 Calculated temperature distribution in the heat exchanger: (a) view from outside and (b) tubes.
Figure 7

Calculated temperature distribution in the heat exchanger: (a) view from outside and (b) tubes.

Figure 8 Calculated equivalent stress distribution in MPa: (a) isometric view and (b) front view.
Figure 8

Calculated equivalent stress distribution in MPa: (a) isometric view and (b) front view.

The highest stresses occur in the first row of tubes from the top. They are located in the upper parts of welds between the tube ends and the tubesheet. This is consistent with crack initiation places, which are presented in Figure 3. The working temperature of the heat exchanger in this area is about 600°C.

The stresses exceed the yield strength significantly, which equals 170 MPa at this temperature. According to the standards for the calculation of pressure equipment [14,15], stresses caused by thermal loads are included in the secondary group and they cannot exceed double yield strength (340 MPa). Exceeding this value may lead to ratcheting.

To calculate better the state of stress in the vicinity of the selected pipe a submodel is prepared [9]. The use of a submodel allows for more accurate analyses by refining the finite element mesh in the region of our interest, in terms of computation, with the optimal analysis time. The boundary of the local model (submodel) represents a cut through the global model. Displacements calculated on the cut boundary of the global model are specified as boundary conditions for the local model. It is shown in Figure 9. The submodel consists of 206,938 nodes and 75,587 solid elements (Table 3). It will be used for a detailed fatigue analysis.

Figure 9 Submodel of the original heat exchanger.
Figure 9

Submodel of the original heat exchanger.

Table 3

Number of nodes for a global model and submodel

Model type Number of nodes
Global (shell elements) 179,017
Submodel (solid elements) 206,938

The submodel reflects the global geometrical configuration of the structure but excludes the local structural discontinuities by weld toe. It includes the effects of large structural discontinuities such as branch connections, junctions, and thickness change. However, it excludes the notch effects of local structural discontinuities, which give rise to nonlinear stress distributions across the plate thickness. The submodel is used for a linear elastic strength analysis, and all the calculated stresses are elastic.

To estimate the highest stress in this area, the stress classification lines SCL1 and SCL2, which are presented in Figure 9, are defined. The membrane and bending stresses, normal to the supposed crack plane, are calculated for both classification lines.

The procedure of stress linearization through the plate thickness is applied. The membrane stress is equal to

(1) σ m e = σ in e + σ out e 2 ,

where for the line SCL1 in = 1, out = 3 and for the line SCL2 in = 2, out = 4. The bending stress for both classification lines can be calculated from

(2) σ b e = σ in e − σ out e 2 .

All stresses in equations (1) and (2) are normal components of stress tensor to the supposed crack plane.

The structural hot spot bending and membrane stress in the analyzed region can be obtained from the following linear extrapolation [16,17].

(3) σ e = 1.67 σ SCL 1 e − 0.67 σ SCL 2 e

The bending and membrane stress ranges between time points m t and n t, and the maximum, minimum, and mean stress can be calculated from the following equations:

(4) Δ σ m e = σ m e m − σ m e n Δ σ b e = σ b e m − σ b e n σ max = max [ ( σ m e m + σ b e m ) , ( σ m e n + σ b e n ) ] σ min = min [ ( σ m e m + σ b e m ) , ( σ m e n + σ b e n ) ] σ mean = σ max + σ min 2 .

Elastically calculated structural stress and strain ranges have the following forms:

(5) Δ σ e = Δ σ m e + Δ σ b e Δ ε e = Δ σ e E a

where E a is the Young modulus for average temperature.

Elastically calculated equivalent (Huber–von Mises–Hencky) stress distribution in the submodel is presented in Figure 10. The stress and strain range is obtained from equations (1–5) and equals Δ σ e = 546 MPa and Δ ε e = 0.00363 , respectively.

Figure 10 Calculated equivalent stress distribution in the submodel (MPa).
Figure 10

Calculated equivalent stress distribution in the submodel (MPa).

Assuming a local plastic deformation, the nonlinear structural stress and strain ranges are introduced.

They can be determined from Neuber’s rule and the material hysteresis loop stress–strain curve model given by the following equations [16,17]:

(6) Δ σ ⋅ Δ ε = Δ σ e ⋅ Δ ε e Δ ε = Δ σ E a + 2 Δ σ 2 K CSS 1 n CSS

where n css and K css are cyclic stress–strain curve data. These material data for 1.4016 and 1.4301 steel equal 0.09 and 450 MPa, respectively [14]. Nonlinear structural stress range Δ σ and strain range Δ ε can be calculated from a set of equation (6) in an iterative way. The following values are obtained: Δ σ = 465 MPa , Δ ε = 0.00439 .

For low cycle fatigue, the calculated stress range is modified by following equation [14]:

(7) Δ σ = E a 1 − v 2 ⋅ Δ ε

and equals Δ σ = 726.7 MPa . The equivalent structural stress range Δ S ess is obtained based on the cycle type and the plate thickness. It equals Δ S ess = 1026.6 MPa .

The number of allowable design cycles N for the welded joint can be calculated from the following equation [14]:

(8) N = f I f E f MT ⋅ C Δ S ess 1 / h

where f I = 1.076 is the fatigue improvement factor, f E = 4 is the environmental modification factor, f MT = 0.7638 is the temperature adjustment factor, C = 11577.9 MPa, and h = 0.3195 are coefficients for the welded joint fatigue curves, which depend on a material type and a confidence factor. The calculated number of allowable design cycles equals N = 227. If the heat exchanger is heated and cooled only once a day, it can be damaged within 1 year of its operation.

4 Heat exchanger design improvement

To reduce stress concentration in tube-to-tubesheet welded joints, tube expansion compensation is needed. The use of commercially available expansion joints would significantly increase the cost of heat exchanger production. Corrugated steel tubes are applied. Manufacturer and service consequences when this design is put into practice are taken into account and solved. To successfully compensate for the heat exchanger expansion, all tubes should be shortened and corrugated tubes should be installed in the high-temperature region from the side of the burner. Details are shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11 Proposed changes in the design of the heat exchanger.
Figure 11

Proposed changes in the design of the heat exchanger.

Corrugated tubes are made of 1.4301 steel. A three-dimensional finite element model containing tubes, baffles, tubesheet, and corrugated tubes is constructed and analyzed. It consists of 1,042,914 nodes and 1,077,546 shell elements. The calculated temperature distribution in the modified heat exchanger is very similar to the temperature field in the original design. Next, a linear elastic strength analysis is conducted. The calculated equivalent stress (Huber–von Mises–Hencky) distribution in the modified heat exchanger is presented in Figure 12. The highest stresses are limited to the value of 333 MPa, which is lower than the allowable value of 340 MPa.

Figure 12 Calculated equivalent stress distribution in MPa: (a) original heat exchanger and (b) modified heat exchanger.
Figure 12

Calculated equivalent stress distribution in MPa: (a) original heat exchanger and (b) modified heat exchanger.

To calculate more precisely, the state of stress in the vicinity of the selected pipe a submodel is created. It is shown in Figure 13. The submodel consists of 555,033 nodes and 246,380 solid elements (Table 4). Elastically calculated equivalent (Huber–von Mises–Hencky) stress distribution in the submodel is presented in Figure 14. Next, a detailed fatigue analysis is conducted by using equations (1–8). The stress and strain range is lower than in the original heat exchanger and equals Δ σ e = 338.7 MPa and Δ ε e = 0.0022463 , respectively.

Figure 13 Submodel of the modified heat exchanger.
Figure 13

Submodel of the modified heat exchanger.

Table 4

Number of nodes for a global model and submodel with improvement

Model type Number of nodes
Global (shell elements) 1,042,914
Submodel (solid elements) 555,033
Figure 14 Calculated equivalent stress distribution in the modified heat exchanger submodel (MPa).
Figure 14

Calculated equivalent stress distribution in the modified heat exchanger submodel (MPa).

The calculated value of allowable design cycles equals N = 4,253. After conducting the presented design modifications, the heat exchanger works without problems.

5 Conclusion

The visual inspection and the numerical modeling are presented in this article to explain the cause of fracture formulations in the cross-flow heat exchanger, which has been operated in overload conditions. With the help of finite element modeling, the stress concentration places, which are located in the upper parts of welds between the tube ends and the tubesheet, are identified. The maximum stress exceeds the allowable stress, and according to the standards, it can lead to ratcheting. To calculate more precisely the state of stress in the most loaded regions, a submodel is created. It is used for a detailed fatigue analysis. The calculated value of allowable design cycles equals N = 227. If the heat exchanger is heated and cooled only once a day, it can be damaged within 1 year of its operation. High thermal stresses in the upper parts of tube-to-tubesheet welded joints are the reasons for fracture formulations. To reduce stress concentration between tube ends and the tubesheet, tube expansion compensation is necessary. To successfully compensate for the heat exchanger expansion, all tubes should be shortened and corrugated tubes should be installed in the high-temperature region from the side of the burner. A finite element model of the modified heat exchanger and a submodel are created. The presented results show that the maximum stresses in the exchanger with provided compensation do not exceed the allowable value. According to the standards for the calculation of pressure equipment in the modified heat exchanger, ratcheting should not occur. Additionally, the number of allowable design cycles is calculated, and it is 18 times larger than in the original heat exchanger. During the operation of the modified heat exchanger, there are no further problems with cracking.

  1. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2021-06-15
Revised: 2021-08-28
Accepted: 2021-10-05
Published Online: 2021-11-09

© 2021 Mariusz Konieczny and Łukasz Felkowski, published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/eng-2021-0105
Keywords for this article
heat exchangers; thermal stress; thermal fatigue; numerical modeling
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  8. Development of Smartphone-Controlled Hand and Arm Exoskeleton for Persons with Disability
  9. Investigation of saturation flow rate using video camera at signalized intersections in Jordan
  10. The features of Ni2MnIn polycrystalline Heusler alloy thin films formation by pulsed laser deposition
  11. Selection of a workpiece clamping system for computer-aided subtractive manufacturing of geometrically complex medical models
  12. Development of Solar-Powered Water Pump with 3D Printed Impeller
  13. Identifying Innovative Reliable Criteria Governing the Selection of Infrastructures Construction Project Delivery Systems
  14. Kinetics of Carbothermal Reduction Process of Different Size Phosphate Rocks
  15. Plastic forming processes of transverse non-homogeneous composite metallic sheets
  16. Accelerated aging of WPCs Based on Polypropylene and Birch plywood Sanding Dust
  17. Effect of water flow and depth on fatigue crack growth rate of underwater wet welded low carbon steel SS400
  18. Non-invasive attempts to extinguish flames with the use of high-power acoustic extinguisher
  19. Filament wound composite fatigue mechanisms investigated with full field DIC strain monitoring
  20. Structural Timber In Compartment Fires – The Timber Charring and Heat Storage Model
  21. Technical and economic aspects of starting a selected power unit at low ambient temperatures
  22. Car braking effectiveness after adaptation for drivers with motor dysfunctions
  23. Adaptation to driver-assistance systems depending on experience
  24. A SIMULINK implementation of a vector shift relay with distributed synchronous generator for engineering classes
  25. Evaluation of measurement uncertainty in a static tensile test
  26. Errors in documenting the subsoil and their impact on the investment implementation: Case study
  27. Comparison between two calculation methods for designing a stand-alone PV system according to Mosul city basemap
  28. Reduction of transport-related air pollution. A case study based on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the level of NOx emissions in the city of Krakow
  29. Driver intervention performance assessment as a key aspect of L3–L4 automated vehicles deployment
  30. A new method for solving quadratic fractional programming problem in neutrosophic environment
  31. Effect of fish scales on fabrication of polyester composite material reinforcements
  32. Impact of the operation of LNG trucks on the environment
  33. The effectiveness of the AEB system in the context of the safety of vulnerable road users
  34. Errors in controlling cars cause tragic accidents involving motorcyclists
  35. Deformation of designed steel plates: An optimisation of the side hull structure using the finite element approach
  36. Thermal-strength analysis of a cross-flow heat exchanger and its design improvement
  37. Effect of thermal collector configuration on the photovoltaic heat transfer performance with 3D CFD modeling
  38. Experimental identification of the subjective reception of external stimuli during wheelchair driving
  39. Failure analysis of motorcycle shock breakers
  40. Experimental analysis of nonlinear characteristics of absorbers with wire rope isolators
  41. Experimental tests of the antiresonance vibratory mill of a sectional movement trajectory
  42. Experimental and theoretical investigation of CVT rubber belt vibrations
  43. Is the cubic parabola really the best railway transition curve?
  44. Transport properties of the new vibratory conveyor at operations in the resonance zone
  45. Assessment of resistance to permanent deformations of asphalt mixes of low air void content
  46. COVID-19 lockdown impact on CERN seismic station ambient noise levels
  47. Review Articles
  48. FMEA method in operational reliability of forest harvesters
  49. Examination of preferences in the field of mobility of the city of Pila in terms of services provided by the Municipal Transport Company in Pila
  50. Enhancement stability and color fastness of natural dye: A review
  51. Special Issue: ICE-SEAM 2019 - Part II
  52. Lane Departure Warning Estimation Using Yaw Acceleration
  53. Analysis of EMG Signals during Stance and Swing Phases for Controlling Magnetorheological Brake applications
  54. Sensor Number Optimization Using Neural Network for Ankle Foot Orthosis Equipped with Magnetorheological Brake
  55. Special Issue: Recent Advances in Civil Engineering - Part II
  56. Comparison of STM’s reliability system on the example of selected element
  57. Technical analysis of the renovation works of the wooden palace floors
  58. Special Issue: TRANSPORT 2020
  59. Simulation assessment of the half-power bandwidth method in testing shock absorbers
  60. Predictive analysis of the impact of the time of day on road accidents in Poland
  61. User’s determination of a proper method for quantifying fuel consumption of a passenger car with compression ignition engine in specific operation conditions
  62. Analysis and assessment of defectiveness of regulations for the yellow signal at the intersection
  63. Streamlining possibility of transport-supply logistics when using chosen Operations Research techniques
  64. Permissible distance – safety system of vehicles in use
  65. Study of the population in terms of knowledge about the distance between vehicles in motion
  66. UAVs in rail damage image diagnostics supported by deep-learning networks
  67. Exhaust emissions of buses LNG and Diesel in RDE tests
  68. Measurements of urban traffic parameters before and after road reconstruction
  69. The use of deep recurrent neural networks to predict performance of photovoltaic system for charging electric vehicles
  70. Analysis of dangers in the operation of city buses at the intersections
  71. Psychological factors of the transfer of control in an automated vehicle
  72. Testing and evaluation of cold-start emissions from a gasoline engine in RDE test at two different ambient temperatures
  73. Age and experience in driving a vehicle and psychomotor skills in the context of automation
  74. Consumption of gasoline in vehicles equipped with an LPG retrofit system in real driving conditions
  75. Laboratory studies of the influence of the working position of the passenger vehicle air suspension on the vibration comfort of children transported in the child restraint system
  76. Route optimization for city cleaning vehicle
  77. Efficiency of electric vehicle interior heating systems at low ambient temperatures
  78. Model-based imputation of sound level data at thoroughfare using computational intelligence
  79. Research on the combustion process in the Fiat 1.3 Multijet engine fueled with rapeseed methyl esters
  80. Overview of the method and state of hydrogenization of road transport in the world and the resulting development prospects in Poland
  81. Tribological characteristics of polymer materials used for slide bearings
  82. Car reliability analysis based on periodic technical tests
  83. Special Issue: Terotechnology 2019 - Part II
  84. DOE Application for Analysis of Tribological Properties of the Al2O3/IF-WS2 Surface Layers
  85. The effect of the impurities spaces on the quality of structural steel working at variable loads
  86. Prediction of the parameters and the hot open die elongation forging process on an 80 MN hydraulic press
  87. Special Issue: AEVEC 2020
  88. Vocational Student's Attitude and Response Towards Experiential Learning in Mechanical Engineering
  89. Virtual Laboratory to Support a Practical Learning of Micro Power Generation in Indonesian Vocational High Schools
  90. The impacts of mediating the work environment on the mode choice in work trips
  91. Utilization of K-nearest neighbor algorithm for classification of white blood cells in AML M4, M5, and M7
  92. Car braking effectiveness after adaptation for drivers with motor dysfunctions
  93. Case study: Vocational student’s knowledge and awareness level toward renewable energy in Indonesia
  94. Contribution of collaborative skill toward construction drawing skill for developing vocational course
  95. Special Issue: Annual Engineering and Vocational Education Conference - Part II
  96. Vocational teachers’ perspective toward Technological Pedagogical Vocational Knowledge
  97. Special Issue: ICIMECE 2020 - Part I
  98. Profile of system and product certification as quality infrastructure in Indonesia
  99. Prediction Model of Magnetorheological (MR) Fluid Damper Hysteresis Loop using Extreme Learning Machine Algorithm
  100. A review on the fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D printing: Filament processing, materials, and printing parameters
  101. Facile rheological route method for LiFePO4/C cathode material production
  102. Mosque design strategy for energy and water saving
  103. Epoxy resins thermosetting for mechanical engineering
  104. Estimating the potential of wind energy resources using Weibull parameters: A case study of the coastline region of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
  105. Special Issue: CIRMARE 2020
  106. New trends in visual inspection of buildings and structures: Study for the use of drones
  107. Special Issue: ISERT 2021
  108. Alleviate the contending issues in network operating system courses: Psychomotor and troubleshooting skill development with Raspberry Pi
  109. Special Issue: Actual Trends in Logistics and Industrial Engineering - Part II
  110. The Physical Internet: A means towards achieving global logistics sustainability
  111. Special Issue: Modern Scientific Problems in Civil Engineering - Part I
  112. Construction work cost and duration analysis with the use of agent-based modelling and simulation
  113. Corrosion rate measurement for steel sheets of a fuel tank shell being in service
  114. The influence of external environment on workers on scaffolding illustrated by UTCI
  115. Allocation of risk factors for geodetic tasks in construction schedules
  116. Pedestrian fatality risk as a function of tram impact speed
  117. Technological and organizational problems in the construction of the radiation shielding concrete and suggestions to solve: A case study
  118. Finite element analysis of train speed effect on dynamic response of steel bridge
  119. New approach to analysis of railway track dynamics – Rail head vibrations
  120. Special Issue: Trends in Logistics and Production for the 21st Century - Part I
  121. Design of production lines and logistic flows in production
  122. The planning process of transport tasks for autonomous vans
  123. Modeling of the two shuttle box system within the internal logistics system using simulation software
  124. Implementation of the logistics train in the intralogistics system: A case study
  125. Assessment of investment in electric buses: A case study of a public transport company
  126. Assessment of a robot base production using CAM programming for the FANUC control system
  127. Proposal for the flow of material and adjustments to the storage system of an external service provider
  128. The use of numerical analysis of the injection process to select the material for the injection molding
  129. Economic aspect of combined transport
  130. Solution of a production process with the application of simulation: A case study
  131. Speedometer reliability in regard to road traffic sustainability
  132. Design and construction of a scanning stand for the PU mini-acoustic sensor
  133. Utilization of intelligent vehicle units for train set dispatching
  134. Special Issue: ICRTEEC - 2021 - Part I
  135. LVRT enhancement of DFIG-driven wind system using feed-forward neuro-sliding mode control
  136. Special Issue: Automation in Finland 2021 - Part I
  137. Prediction of future paths of mobile objects using path library
  138. Model predictive control for a multiple injection combustion model
  139. Model-based on-board post-injection control development for marine diesel engine
  140. Intelligent temporal analysis of coronavirus statistical data
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