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Tensile Deformation and Work Hardening Behaviour of AISI 431 Martensitic Stainless Steel at Elevated Temperatures

  • E. Isaac Samuel EMAIL logo , Neeta Paulose , M. Nandagopal , S. Panneer Selvi , S. N. Narendra Babu and S. L. Mannan
Published/Copyright: December 19, 2019
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High Temperature Materials and Processes
From the journal High Temperature Materials and Processes Volume 38 Issue 2019

Abstract

Tensile deformation and fracture behaviour of AISI 431 martensitic stainless steel, over the temperature range of 300-823 K, has been examined. Yield and ultimate tensile strength values decreased gradually from room temperature to intermediate temperatures, followed by a rapid decrease at high temperatures. At the intermediate temperatures (523-673 K), the steel exhibited jerky/serrated flow and anomalous variations in terms of a plateau in flow stress/strength and work hardening parameters and minima in ductility. These manifestations were identified to be the signatures of dynamic strain ageing, operating at these temperatures. At high temperatures, a rapid decrease in flow stress/strength values and increase in ductility with increasing temperature indicated the dominance of dynamic recovery. The fracture remained transgranular ductile at all temperatures. Work hardening relations that best described the flow behaviour of AISI 431 steel were identified. Variations of the work hardening parameters with temperature were consistent with the variations exhibited by strength and ductility values.

Keywords: AISI 431; Martensitic steel; Tensile properties; Dynamic Strain Ageing

1 Introduction

AISI 431 steel is a 16Cr-2Ni martensitic stainless steel which exhibits excellent strength, toughness, and resistance to stress corrosion and oxidation up to 863 K [1, 2]. Hence these steels find application in chemical and power industries, and as compressor blades in marine and modern aircraft engines. These grades of martensitic stainless steel are used in quenched and tempered condition. Typically the martensitic stainless steels are hardened by heating to the austenitising temperature range of 1198-1338 K, followed by air cooling or oil quenching. In austenitised condition, the steel exhibits high strength and hardness values, but with low ductility and toughness values. In order to obtain useful engineering properties, it is usual practice to employ a tempering treatment to these steel. On quenching 16Cr-2Ni steel from the austenitising temperature results in the formation of complex microstructure consisting of inherited δ-ferrite, martensite and retained austenite with few undissolved M23C6 carbides [3, 4]. The chemical composition in terms of the balance between Cr- and Ni-equivalents critically influence the resulting volume fraction of the above phases. Lower tempering temperatures of 573 K resulted in the transformation of retained austenite at lath boundaries to Fe3C, whereas at higher tempering temperatures of above 673 K, Fe3C progressively dissolves and M7C3 type carbides were observed to be precipitating. At tempering temperatures above 773 K, M7C3 type carbides were replaced by M23C6. From the tempering studies on 16Cr-2Ni steel, Balan et al. [3] reported that the hardness values decreased on increasing tempering at 573 K from the as quenched values and exhibited a secondary hardening for the tempering temperatures of 673-773 K. Based on the transmission electron microscopy (TEM) observations and selected area diffraction pattern (SADP) analysis, the secondary hardening observed at 673 K was attributed to precipitation of fine austenite particles [3]. In 17Cr-2Ni steel, Liu Ning et al. [4] observed that ultra-high austenitising temperature resulted in presence of many δ-ferrite networks and few twinned martensite and hence did not improve the impact toughness of the steel. Tempering at 823 K resulted in lower impact energies due to temper embrittlement caused by segregation of phosphorus, chromium and nickel to prior austenite grain boundaries [4]. In Type 431 welds, it was reported that presence of nickel lowers Ac1 and hence in order to avoid re-austenitisation during tempering, it was suggested to have employed double tempering treatment at temperatures below Ac1 [5].

While considering material for component or structural applications, the tensile, creep and fatigue properties are of critical importance. Evaluation of high temperature tensile properties is a prerequisite mechanical characterization towards the performance of material at elevated temperatures. Room temperature tensile strength for AISI 431 steel is specified to vary between 800 and 1300 MPa depending upon the tempering temperature, with ductility values greater than 20% [6]. In the present study, the influence of temperature on the tensile deformation and work hardening behaviour of AISI 431 martensitic stainless steel has been examined in the quenched and double tempered condition. The role of dynamic strain ageing manifested at the intermediate temperatures, and the dominance of dynamic recovery at high temperatures affecting tensile properties are discussed.

2 Experimental

AISI 431 steel plates of chemical composition conforming to that specified in ASTM standards [2] were obtained in quenched and double tempered condition. Chemical composition of the steel in weight percentages of the elements is given in Table 1. The material was subjected to quench hardening and double tempering treatment. Austenitising was carried out at 1283±10 K for 30 minutes, followed by quenching in oil. The hardened alloy was given a tempering treatment at 923±10 K followed by quenching in oil and again re-tempered at the same temperature and quenched in oil. Specimen blanks of 12 mm diameter and 60 mm length were cut along the rolling direction of the plate. Button head cylindrical specimens of 26mm gauge length and 4 mm gauge diameter were machined from the specimen blanks. Tensile tests were carried out in air using a floor model Instron 1195 universal testing machine (UTM). The UTM was equipped with a three-zone temperature control furnace for precision temperature control and a stepped-load suppression unit for fine load measurement. Tests were performed in the temperature range of 300-823 K employing a nominal strain rate of 3×10−3 s−1. Few additional tensile tests were also performed at the nominal strain rates of 3×10−4, 3×10−5 and 3×10−6 s−1 at selected temperatures to evaluate the occurrence of dynamic strain ageing. Load-elongation curves for all the test conditions were recorded using a data acquisition system attached to the tensile test system. Since no strain gauge was employed, the crosshead displacement was taken as the specimen extension and slope of the initial linear elastic portion of the load–elongation data is contributed by the specimen, machine frame, and load-train assembly. True stress (σ)– true plastic strain (ϵ) data were evaluated from the load– elongation data using a computer program up to the maximum load values corresponding to the onset of necking. The temperature during the tests was controlled within ± 2 K. A strain resolution of 7.5×10−4 and a stress resolution of 0.80 MPa were obtained on the σ–ϵ data.

Table 1

Chemical composition of AISI 431 martensitic stainless steel.

ElementCrNiCuMoNbCoSnTiVCSiMnPSFe
Wt%16.02.00.300.300.050.050.020.050.20.161.01.00.0150.01Balance

3 Constitutive Description Tensile Flow Curve

Plastic flow behaviour in terms of true stress (σ) - true plastic strain (ϵ) plot for several metals and alloys in the uniform elongation regime had been well described using several empirical relations proposed in the literature. Hollomon relation [7] is the most widely used and is given as,

(1)σ=K1ϵn1,

Where K1 is the strength coefficient and n1 is the strain hardening exponent. However, for materials exhibiting varied yield strength and yet having similar strain hardening behavior or in the case of materials exhibiting similar yield strength with different work hardening behavior, the yield and strain hardening cannot be described by a single relation, as in the case of Hollomon relationship [8]. Hence, introducing an additional term to the above power law relation in order to accommodate the mechanical history was considered. The positive deviation observed at the low strains due to yielding was accounted with an additional stress term (σ0), as in the case of Ludwik relation [9],

(2)σ=σ0+KLϵnL,

or with an additional strain term (ϵ0) to account the pre-strain left in the material, as in the case of Swift relation [10],

(3)σ=KSϵ0+ϵnS,

where, KL and KS are the strength coefficient for Ludwik and Swift equations, respectively. nL and nS are the strain hardening exponents for Ludwik and Swift equations, respectively. Ludwigson [11] measured the positive stress deviations at low strains from the Hollomon relation and observed that the deviation stress values decreased exponentially with increasing strains and hence proposed the following relation,

(4)σ=K1ϵn1+expK2+n2ϵ,

where K1 and n1 are the same as in Hollomon equation and, K2 and n2 are additional constants.

For the materials exhibiting saturation in stress values at strains close to the onset of instability, Voce [12] proposed a flow relation as,

(5)σ=σS−σS−σIexpnVϵ,

where σI and σS are the initial and saturation stresses, respectively, and nV is a constant.

The above described constitutive relations were applied to the experimental true stress-true plastic strain data of AISI 431 steel using Levenberg-Marquardt least square method, with the unknown constants of the relation as free parameters. The goodness of the fit was indicated by the low χ2 value, the sum of the square of deviation of the calculated stress values from the experimental stress values. The lowest χ2 value indicated the high degree of goodness of fit.

4 Results & Discussions

4.1 Tensile Properties

Figure 1 shows the typical tensile curve in terms of variations in engineering stress with engineering strain in the temperature range of 300–823 K at the nominal strain rate of 3×10−3 s−1. Typically, the influence of temperature on the engineering tensile curve is observed as a systematic decrease in stress values with increasing temperature which is pronounced more significantly at engineering strains above the elastic limit. In Figure 1, the elongation to fracture was found to decrease with increasing temperatures up to 723 K and exhibited an increasing trend thereafter. However, the engineering strain to the onset of plastic instability, marked by the peak in engineering stress (Figure 1) was found to decrease systematically with increasing temperature. Figures 2 and 3 show the variation of yield strength and ultimate tensile strength, respectively, with increasing temperatures for the AISI 431 steel. The yield and ultimate tensile strength values decreased from room temperature values up to 523 K with increasing temperature. At the intermediate temperatures of 523 to 673 K, the strength values exhibited a plateau, followed by a rapid decrease in strength values at temperatures above 673 K. As shown in Figure 4, variation in uniform elongation values with temperature also exhibited a trend similar to that observed in strength values. Uniform elongation values decreased from 300 to 523 K, followed by a plateau at intermediate temperatures (523-673 K) and a rapid decrease at high temperatures. However, the ductility values varied between 12.1 and 17.4%, with minima occurring in the temperature region of 523-673 K, as shown in Figure 5. Figure 6 shows the variations in reduction in area with temperature. It may be observed that the values of reduction in area displayed a decreasing trend with increasing temperatures reaching a minimum at the intermediate temperatures and exhibited a rapidly increasing trend at high temperatures.

Figure 1 Variation of engineering stress as a function of engineering strain for the AISI 431 steel in the temperature range of 300-823 K.
Figure 1

Variation of engineering stress as a function of engineering strain for the AISI 431 steel in the temperature range of 300-823 K.

Figure 2 Variation of yield strength with temperature for the AISI 431 steel.
Figure 2

Variation of yield strength with temperature for the AISI 431 steel.

Figure 3 Variation of ultimate tensile strength with temperature for the AISI 431 steel.
Figure 3

Variation of ultimate tensile strength with temperature for the AISI 431 steel.

Figure 4 Variation of uniform elongation with temperature for the AISI 431 steel.
Figure 4

Variation of uniform elongation with temperature for the AISI 431 steel.

Figure 5 Variation of tensile ductility with temperature for the AISI 431 steel.
Figure 5

Variation of tensile ductility with temperature for the AISI 431 steel.

Figure 6 Variation of reduction in area with temperature for the AISI 431 steel.
Figure 6

Variation of reduction in area with temperature for the AISI 431 steel.

4.2 Tensile Fracture Behaviour

At all temperatures examined, the fracture mode was observed to be transgranular ductile. As shown in Figure 7a, the low magnification images of the fractured surfaces exhibited star-like appearance for the specimen tested at room temperature (300 K). Figures 7b and 7c show the fracture surface for specimen tested at intermediate (623 K) and high temperature (823 K), respectively, which reveal typical cup and cone fracture. With increasing temperature pronounced necking was observed (Figures 7a, 7b and 7c). It was also observed that coalescence of microvoids leads to the formation of dimples which governed the mode of fracture at all temperatures. At 300 K along with ductile dimples, large amount of splitting of martensitic lath boundaries which result in chisel tip appearance are seen in Figure 7d. However, with increasing temperature, chisel tip appearances reduce significantly and the fracture was dominated mainly by the presence of equiaxed dimples (Figure 7e). Increase in size of equiaxed dimples with increasing temperature indicates the decreasing number of microvoid nucleation and dominance of growth process at high temperatures as shown for 823 K in Figure 7f.

Figure 7 SEM images of fractured surfaces of AISI 431 steel specimen which were tensile tested at (a and d) 300, (b and e) 623 and (c and f) 823 K.
Figure 7

SEM images of fractured surfaces of AISI 431 steel specimen which were tensile tested at (a and d) 300, (b and e) 623 and (c and f) 823 K.

The transgranular mode of fracture observed in the tensile deformation of AISI 431 steel for wide range of temperatures compares well with those reported for P9 and P91 ferritic-martensitic steels [13, 14]. Presence of secondary precipitates in the steel may also influence the chisel tip appearances caused by split in the martensitic lath boundaries. In thermally aged P9 steel, it had been shown that because of increased formation and growth of brittle Laves phase (Fe2Mo) at longer ageing durations, a large number of chisel tip appearance were observed [13]. Intergranular cracking cannot be the possible reason for the reduced strength values exhibited at elevated temperatures because of the observed transgranular fracture in the AISI 431 steel. Hence the observed rapid decrease in strength values at elevated temperatures is rationalised due to the effect of dynamic recovery. Also, the observed decrease in flow stress/strength values and increase in the ductility values at high temperatures can be attributed to the dominance of dynamic recovery at these temperatures (Figures 2-6).

4.3 Influence of Dynamic Strain Ageing

Anomalous variations were observed at the intermediate temperatures of 523-673 K, in terms of a plateau in yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and uniform elongation values, and minima in ductility values. These anomalous variations could be attributed to the influence of Dynamic Strain Ageing (DSA) operating at these temperatures and strain rate. DSA, also known as Portevin Le-Chatelier effect, is caused by the dynamic interaction between solute atoms diffusing under the thermal activation and the mobile dislocations, driven by the imposed strain rate, during plastic deformation [15, 16]. This phenomenon had been reported in 2.25Cr-1Mo [17], 9Cr-1Mo [18, 19], modified 9Cr-1Mo steels [20] and 316 SS [21]. In order to confirm the occurrence of DSA in the AISI 431 steel, few additional tests in the temperature range of 523-673 Kwere carried out employing strain rates ranging from 3×10−6 to 3×10−3 s−1.

AISI 431 steel exhibited serrated/jerky flow in the engineering tensile stress-strain curve,which is one of the manifestations of DSA. Serrations due to DSA had been classified into various types, identified as type A, B, C, D and E [15, 16]. Type A serrations are locking serrations, characterized by an abrupt rise in stress value above the mean values, followed by a drop to below the general level of the stress-strain curve. Type B serrations are oscillations about the general level of the stress-strain curve that occur in quick succession due to discontinuous band propagation arising due to DSA. Type C serrations are considered to be due to the unlocking of dislocations leading to stress drops below the general level of the stress-strain curve. Type D serrations are plateaus in the flow curve due to band propagation, with no work hardening. Type A serrations change over to type E serrations at high strains as irregularities, with no work hardening during band propagation.

Figure 8 depicts the typical serrations / jerky flow observed at different temperatures and strain rates in the AISI 431 steel. As evident from the figure (Figure 8), the observed serrations could be identified to be Type D or mild irregularities. The occurrence of type D serrations results from negligible or small work hardening following a rapid initial increase in stress (Figure 8). The observed serrations were mild or irregular and the number of load drops or, the number of events of serrations in AISI 431 steel was observed to be significantly low compared to those obtained for P9, P91 and 316 steels [18, 19, 20, 21]. These indicate reduced activity of serrated flow. Table 2 lists the temperature and strain rates under which the appearance of serrated/jerky flow was noticed in the tensile stress-strain curve. As shown in Figure 9, the steel exhibited negative strain rate sensitivity in terms of decreasing ultimate tensile strength values with increasing strain rate, which is one of the important manifestations of DSA. It may be noticed that though serrations were not observed for the applied nominal strain rates of 3×10−4 and 3×10−3 s−1 at 523 K, the influence of DSA is reflected in the decrease in ultimate tensile strength values with increasing strain rate. The average macroscopic strain rate sensitivity was estimated to be −6.97×10−3 at ultimate tensile strength for 523 K.

Figure 8 Typical serrations/jerky flow observed in the tensile engineering stress – engineering strain plot of AISI 431 martensitic stainless steel at 523-623 K.
Figure 8

Typical serrations/jerky flow observed in the tensile engineering stress – engineering strain plot of AISI 431 martensitic stainless steel at 523-623 K.

Figure 9 AISI 431 martensitic stainless steel exhibited negative strain rate sensitivity in terms of decreasing ultimate tensile strength values with increasing nominal strain rate at 523 K.
Figure 9

AISI 431 martensitic stainless steel exhibited negative strain rate sensitivity in terms of decreasing ultimate tensile strength values with increasing nominal strain rate at 523 K.

Table 2

Temperatures and strain rates at which serrations were observed at for AISI 431 martensitic stainless steel.

423 K473 K523 K573 K623 K673 K
3×10−3s−1–XXXOX
3×10−4s−1XXXOX–
3×10−5s−1XXOXXX
3×10−6s−1––O–X–

  1. – : Test not carried out

    X : No serration

    O : Serrated flow / Irregularity

A plot of appearances of serrations/jerky flow in a `log⁡(ϵ˙)vs 1000/T’ space is shown in Figure 10. The slope of the boundaries separating the serrated flow regime from a smooth flow can be used to evaluate the average activation energy, Q for serrated flow. The activation energy is estimated as

Figure 10 Arrhenius plot of Log[strain rate] vs (1000/Temperature) for the appearance of serrations/jerky flow in the tensile curve of AISI 431 martensitic stainless steel.
Figure 10

Arrhenius plot of Log[strain rate] vs (1000/Temperature) for the appearance of serrations/jerky flow in the tensile curve of AISI 431 martensitic stainless steel.

(6)Q=slope×1000×R×2.303,

Where R is the universal gas constant [22, 23]. In the log(ϵ) -1000/T plot (Figure 10), the serrated flow was found to be well encompassed by two mean empirical lines (a) and (b) which well-represent the onset and disappearance of serrated flow respectively. The values of activation energy for the onset of serrated flow as Q = 96 kJ mol−1 and for the dis-appearance of serrated flow as Q = 144 kJ mol−1 have been obtained from the slopes of lines (a) and (b), respectively.

The activation energy of 96 kJ mol−1 observed for the onset of serrated flow process in the present investigation (Figure 10) compares favourably with the reported values of 76-103 kJ mol−1 for the diffusion of interstitial solutes such as carbon in BCC iron and steels [24, 25, 26]. The obtained activation energy of 144 kJ mol−1 for the disappearance of serrated flow in the AISI 431 steel, is in agreement with the reported values in the range of 128-167 kJ mol−1 for the disappearance of serrations towards the end of serrated flow temperature regime in low carbon steels [25, 26]. From their studies on 2.25Cr-1Mo steel, Hayes et al. [27] have also reported the activation energy for the disappearance of serrations to be between 130-155 kJ mol−1. In 2.25Cr-1Mo, P9 and P91 ferritic steels, based on the values of activation energy, locking of mobile dislocations by diffusing carbon atoms were identified to be the source of serrations [14, 18, 19, 20]. From the activation energy values obtained for the onset of serrations in the present study, it is suggested that the occurrence of dynamic strain ageing can be attributed to the diffusion of interstitial carbon in the AISI 431 steel. Whereas, the higher activation energy values obtained for the disappearance of serrations is attributed to the sum for the activation energy for the diffusion of interstitial solute and the binding energy of the solute to dislocation [25]. DSA causes an increased rate of dislocation multiplication and delay in recovery of dislocation structure, and promotes an increased propensity towards a uniform distribution of dislocations rather than cell structures in many metals and alloys [28, 29, 33]. The dislocation density in the DSA regime was also observed to be higher, compared to that observed at room temperature. Keh et al. [25] reported higher dislocation density in 0.35% C steel in the DSA regime. In low carbon martensitic steel, uniform dislocation distribution characterized by linear arrays of screw dislocations were observed in the strain rate range of serrated flow [33]. A significant increase in dislocation density in the DSA temperature regime than those at room and high temperatures was reported for P91 steel [34]. Morris [31] pointed out that the tendency to produce a non-cellular array of dislocations increases with an increase in the intensity of dynamic strain ageing. These investigations indicate reduced dynamic recovery in the DSA regime arising from the diffusion of solutes, which affects the rate of dynamic recovery by pinning of dislocations and thereby preventing screw dislocation to cross slip due to its reduced mobility.

4.4 Tensile Flow Behaviour

Figure 11 shows tensile flow behaviour of AISI 431 martensitic SS, as the variations in true stress with true plastic strain, within the uniform plastic deformation region, for the temperature range of 300-823 K. The double logarithmic plot of σ − ϵ data exhibited a curvilinear behaviour with positive stress deviations at lower strains from the extrapolated linear σ−ϵ data at high strains for the room and intermediate temperatures. The extent of positive stress deviation at low strains decreases with increasing temperature. At the higher temperatures, σ−ϵ plots exhibited a linear for the entire uniform plastic deformation regime with marginal negative stress deviations at the higher stresses, indicating saturation in stress values at strains close to the onset of instability. The flow stress values corresponding to respective true strain values decrease systematically with increasing temperature. The decrement in flow stress values with increasing temperature in the intermediate temperature range of 373 to 623 K was observed to be insignificant, whereas at high temperatures in the range 673-823 K a rapid decrease in flow stress was observed. Besides the flow stress values, the true uniform plastic strain values were observed to systematically decrease with increasing temperature from 300 to 823 K.

Figure 11 Variation of true stress as a function of true plastic strain for the AISI 431 steel in the temperature range of 300-823 K.
Figure 11

Variation of true stress as a function of true plastic strain for the AISI 431 steel in the temperature range of 300-823 K.

Various flow relations proposed in the literature such as Hollomon [7], Ludvik [9], Swift [10], Ludwigson [11] and Voce [12] were employed to describe the tensile flow behaviour of AISI 431 martensitic stainless steel in the temperature range of 300-823 K. Applicability of various flow relationships in describing the observed σ − ϵ data is demonstrated at 300 K in Figure 12. Table 3 gives the χ2 value obtained for various flow relationships in describing the σ − ϵ curve of the AISI 431 steel at different temperatures. Ludwigson relation was found to best describe the flow behaviour in the temperature range of 300-773 K, with the lowest χ2 values which indicated the goodness of the fit. At the high temperatures of 773 and 823 K, Hollomon equation was found to well-describe the flow relation with low χ2 values. It may be noted that Hollomon relation is obtained on the boundary condition that the second term in the Ludwigson relation becomes negligible.

Figure 12 Applicability of various flow relationships namely, Hollomon, Ludwigson, Swift, Ludvik and Voce to describe the flow behaviour of AISI 431 steel at 300 K.
Figure 12

Applicability of various flow relationships namely, Hollomon, Ludwigson, Swift, Ludvik and Voce to describe the flow behaviour of AISI 431 steel at 300 K.

Table 3

Goodness of fit in terms of χ2, for various constitutive relations to the tensile flow behaviour of AISI 431 martensitic stainless steel.

Temperature KGoodness of fit, χ2
HollomonLudwigsonSwiftLudvikVoce
300111.610.988.986.1415.20
47398.771.326.227.327.34
44870.280.906.534.6013.82
52369.841.261.873.181.97
57319.692.423.086.5029.39
62319.612.4416.3711.5858.65
6734.720.281.501.1212.07
7232.820.961.181.745.92
7731.453.993.253.883.56
8230.955.454.955.232.71

Following Ludwigson [11], the transition strain, ϵtr, below which positive deviation in flow stress at low strains from the Hollomon representation of the σ − ϵ data, was evaluated by setting the value of the ratio r defined as

(7)r=expK2+n2ϵK1ϵn1,

to an arbitrary value of 0.001. The transition stress σtr corresponding to ϵtr was then evaluated from Hollomon equation. The applicability of Hollomon equation at high temperatures consistent with those reported for 9Cr-1Mo ferritic steel [19] and description of flow behaviour by Hollomon equation has been attributed to the predominance of cross-slip at high temperatures.

4.5 Variations of Work Hardening Parameters with Temperature

Figures 13-16 show the variations of work hardening parameters K1, n1, K2 and n2 of the Ludwigson equation obtained for fitting stress-strain data with the temperature at the strain rate of 3 × 10−3 s−1. Figures 17 and 18 show the variation of transition strain, ϵtr, and transition stress, σtr, respectively, with temperature for the type 431 steel. The variation of K1 and K2 with temperature exhibited a gradual decrease to a plateau in values from room temperature to intermediate temperatures followed by a rapid decrease in the value at high temperatures (Figure 13 and 15). The variation of n1 with temperature exhibited a gradual increase to a peak value at the intermediate temperature, followed by a rapid decrease at high temperatures (Figures 14). The additional constant in the Ludwigson

Figure 13 Variation of Ludwigson / Hollomon work hardening parameter K1 with temperature for the AISI 431 steel.
Figure 13

Variation of Ludwigson / Hollomon work hardening parameter K1 with temperature for the AISI 431 steel.

Figure 14 Variation of Ludwigson / Hollomon work hardening parameter n1 with temperature for the AISI 431 steel.
Figure 14

Variation of Ludwigson / Hollomon work hardening parameter n1 with temperature for the AISI 431 steel.

Figure 15 Variation of Ludwigson work hardening parameter K2 with temperature for the AISI 431 steel.
Figure 15

Variation of Ludwigson work hardening parameter K2 with temperature for the AISI 431 steel.

Figure 16 Variation of Ludwigson work hardening parameter n2 with temperature for the AISI 431 steel.
Figure 16

Variation of Ludwigson work hardening parameter n2 with temperature for the AISI 431 steel.

Figure 17 Variation of Ludwigson transition strain ϵtr with temperature for the AISI 431 steel.
Figure 17

Variation of Ludwigson transition strain ϵtr with temperature for the AISI 431 steel.

Figure 18 Variation of Ludwigson transition stress σtr with temperature for the AISI 431 steel.
Figure 18

Variation of Ludwigson transition stress σtr with temperature for the AISI 431 steel.

equation n2 exhibited a marginal increase (in the negative scale) in the temperature range 300 to 823 K and a rapid increase at high temperatures (Figure 15). Both ϵtr and σtr exhibited a gradual decrease up to a plateau at intermediate temperatures followed by a rapid decrease at high temperatures (Figures 17 and 18). It is reported [35] in 316L(N) steel that the work hardening strain parameters n1 and ϵT were found to scale with the uniform strain and the work hardening strength parameters K1, K2 and σtr were found to scale with the tensile strength. The observed similarity in the variation of work hardening parameters (Figures 13-15, 17 and 18) and tensile properties (Figures 2-6) with temperature may be attributed to the scaling of work hardening parameters with respective uniform strain or tensile strength. The variation in n2 was found to indicate the magnitude of deviation from the Hollomon relation at low strains and the high negative value of n2 observed at high temperatures indicate the negligible second term of Ludwigson relation at these temperatures.

The observed variations in work hardening parameters with temperature are also consistent with those reported for ferritic and austenitic steels exhibiting dynamic strain ageing at intermediate temperatures [14, 18, 20, 21]. In the temperature range of 300-448 K, marginal variation in flow stress/strength values and work hardening parameters results from the ease of deformation due to easy glide and cross-slip activity with an increase in temperature. At intermediate temperatures, the plateaus in strength values (Figures 2 and 3) and work hardening parameters (Figures 13-15, 17 and 18), negative strain rate sensitivity (Figure 9) and ductility minima (Figures 5 and 6) indicate the influence of DSA. It had also been reported that DSA causes increased hardening and delay in recovery of dislocation structure in many metals and alloys [25, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32]. The rapid decrease in strength values and work hardening parameters, and increase in ductility with an increase in temperature observed at elevated temperatures (Figures 2-5, 13-15, 17 and 18) suggest the dominance of thermally accelerated dynamic recovery processes such as dislocation climb and cross-slip in the AISI 431 steel [36]. The rapidly increasing influence of dynamic recovery compares favorably with the reported observations in ferritic and austenitic steels [13, 14, 30, 32]. Significant decrease in strength values at high temperatures can result from increasing dislocation substructural softening resulting from dynamic recovery effects.

5 Conclusions

Detailed investigation on tensile deformation, fracture and work hardening behaviour of AISI 431 martensitic stainless steel exhibited distinct intermediate and high temperature regimes in the variations of tensile strength values, tensile ductility and work hardening parameters. The fracture mode remained transgranular for the range of temperatures examined. Anomalous variations in terms of peaks in flow stress/strength values, ductility minima and serrated/jerky flow at the intermediate temperatures indicate the manifestation of dynamic strain ageing occurring at these temperatures. Measurement of activation energy suggested that diffusion of interstitial carbon is responsible for DSA in the steel. At high temperatures, rapid decrease in flow stress/strength values and work hardening rate, and an increase in ductility with the increase in temperature indicated the dominance of dynamic recovery.

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Acknowledgement

The authors are thankful to GTRE and IGCAR for providing the facilities to carry out the present investigation and permission to publish it.

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Received: 2018-07-03
Accepted: 2019-01-14
Published Online: 2019-12-19
Published in Print: 2019-12-19

© 2019 E. Isaac Samuel et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Public License.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. Review Article
  3. Research on the Influence of Furnace Structure on Copper Cooling Stave Life
  4. Influence of High Temperature Oxidation on Hydrogen Absorption and Degradation of Zircaloy-2 and Zr 700 Alloys
  5. Correlation between Travel Speed, Microstructure, Mechanical Properties and Wear Characteristics of Ni-Based Hardfaced Deposits over 316LN Austenitic Stainless Steel
  6. Factors Influencing Gas Generation Behaviours of Lump Coal Used in COREX Gasifier
  7. Experiment Research on Pulverized Coal Combustion in the Tuyere of Oxygen Blast Furnace
  8. Phosphate Capacities of CaO–FeO–SiO2–Al2O3/Na2O/TiO2 Slags
  9. Microstructure and Interface Bonding Strength of WC-10Ni/NiCrBSi Composite Coating by Vacuum Brazing
  10. Refill Friction Stir Spot Welding of Dissimilar 6061/7075 Aluminum Alloy
  11. Solvothermal Synthesis and Magnetic Properties of Monodisperse Ni0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4 Hollow Nanospheres
  12. On the Capability of Logarithmic-Power Model for Prediction of Hot Deformation Behavior of Alloy 800H at High Strain Rates
  13. 3D Heat Conductivity Model of Mold Based on Node Temperature Inheritance
  14. 3D Microstructure and Micromechanical Properties of Minerals in Vanadium-Titanium Sinter
  15. Effect of Martensite Structure and Carbide Precipitates on Mechanical Properties of Cr-Mo Alloy Steel with Different Cooling Rate
  16. The Interaction between Erosion Particle and Gas Stream in High Temperature Gas Burner Rig for Thermal Barrier Coatings
  17. Permittivity Study of a CuCl Residue at 13–450 °C and Elucidation of the Microwave Intensification Mechanism for Its Dechlorination
  18. Study on Carbothermal Reduction of Titania in Molten Iron
  19. The Sequence of the Phase Growth during Diffusion in Ti-Based Systems
  20. Growth Kinetics of CoB–Co2B Layers Using the Powder-Pack Boriding Process Assisted by a Direct Current Field
  21. High-Temperature Flow Behaviour and Constitutive Equations for a TC17 Titanium Alloy
  22. Research on Three-Roll Screw Rolling Process for Ti6Al4V Titanium Alloy Bar
  23. Continuous Cooling Transformation of Undeformed and Deformed High Strength Crack-Arrest Steel Plates for Large Container Ships
  24. Formation Mechanism and Influence Factors of the Sticker between Solidified Shell and Mold in Continuous Casting of Steel
  25. Casting Defects in Transition Layer of Cu/Al Composite Castings Prepared Using Pouring Aluminum Method and Their Formation Mechanism
  26. Effect of Current on Segregation and Inclusions Characteristics of Dual Alloy Ingot Processed by Electroslag Remelting
  27. Investigation of Growth Kinetics of Fe2B Layers on AISI 1518 Steel by the Integral Method
  28. Microstructural Evolution and Phase Transformation on the X-Y Surface of Inconel 718 Ni-Based Alloys Fabricated by Selective Laser Melting under Different Heat Treatment
  29. Characterization of Mn-Doped Co3O4 Thin Films Prepared by Sol Gel-Based Dip-Coating Process
  30. Deposition Characteristics of Multitrack Overlayby Plasma Transferred Arc Welding on SS316Lwith Co-Cr Based Alloy – Influence ofProcess Parameters
  31. Elastic Moduli and Elastic Constants of Alloy AuCuSi With FCC Structure Under Pressure
  32. Effect of Cl on Softening and Melting Behaviors of BF Burden
  33. Effect of MgO Injection on Smelting in a Blast Furnace
  34. Structural Characteristics and Hydration Kinetics of Oxidized Steel Slag in a CaO-FeO-SiO2-MgO System
  35. Optimization of Microwave-Assisted Oxidation Roasting of Oxide–Sulphide Zinc Ore with Addition of Manganese Dioxide Using Response Surface Methodology
  36. Hydraulic Study of Bubble Migration in Liquid Titanium Alloy Melt during Vertical Centrifugal Casting Process
  37. Investigation on Double Wire Metal Inert Gas Welding of A7N01-T4 Aluminum Alloy in High-Speed Welding
  38. Oxidation Behaviour of Welded ASTM-SA210 GrA1 Boiler Tube Steels under Cyclic Conditions at 900°C in Air
  39. Study on the Evolution of Damage Degradation at Different Temperatures and Strain Rates for Ti-6Al-4V Alloy
  40. Pack-Boriding of Pure Iron with Powder Mixtures Containing ZrB2
  41. Evolution of Interfacial Features of MnO-SiO2 Type Inclusions/Steel Matrix during Isothermal Heating at Low Temperatures
  42. Effect of MgO/Al2O3 Ratio on Viscosity of Blast Furnace Primary Slag
  43. The Microstructure and Property of the Heat Affected zone in C-Mn Steel Treated by Rare Earth
  44. Microwave-Assisted Molten-Salt Facile Synthesis of Chromium Carbide (Cr3C2) Coatings on the Diamond Particles
  45. Effects of B on the Hot Ductility of Fe-36Ni Invar Alloy
  46. Impurity Distribution after Solidification of Hypereutectic Al-Si Melts and Eutectic Al-Si Melt
  47. Induced Electro-Deposition of High Melting-Point Phases on MgO–C Refractory in CaO–Al2O3–SiO2 – (MgO) Slag at 1773 K
  48. Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of 14Cr-ODS Steels with Zr Addition
  49. A Review of Boron-Rich Silicon Borides Basedon Thermodynamic Stability and Transport Properties of High-Temperature Thermoelectric Materials
  50. Siliceous Manganese Ore from Eastern India:A Potential Resource for Ferrosilicon-Manganese Production
  51. A Strain-Compensated Constitutive Model for Describing the Hot Compressive Deformation Behaviors of an Aged Inconel 718 Superalloy
  52. Surface Alloys of 0.45 C Carbon Steel Produced by High Current Pulsed Electron Beam
  53. Deformation Behavior and Processing Map during Isothermal Hot Compression of 49MnVS3 Non-Quenched and Tempered Steel
  54. A Constitutive Equation for Predicting Elevated Temperature Flow Behavior of BFe10-1-2 Cupronickel Alloy through Double Multiple Nonlinear Regression
  55. Oxidation Behavior of Ferritic Steel T22 Exposed to Supercritical Water
  56. A Multi Scale Strategy for Simulation of Microstructural Evolutions in Friction Stir Welding of Duplex Titanium Alloy
  57. Partition Behavior of Alloying Elements in Nickel-Based Alloys and Their Activity Interaction Parameters and Infinite Dilution Activity Coefficients
  58. Influence of Heating on Tensile Physical-Mechanical Properties of Granite
  59. Comparison of Al-Zn-Mg Alloy P-MIG Welded Joints Filled with Different Wires
  60. Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Thick Plate Friction Stir Welds for 6082-T6 Aluminum Alloy
  61. Research Article
  62. Kinetics of oxide scale growth on a (Ti, Mo)5Si3 based oxidation resistant Mo-Ti-Si alloy at 900-1300∘C
  63. Calorimetric study on Bi-Cu-Sn alloys
  64. Mineralogical Phase of Slag and Its Effect on Dephosphorization during Converter Steelmaking Using Slag-Remaining Technology
  65. Controllability of joint integrity and mechanical properties of friction stir welded 6061-T6 aluminum and AZ31B magnesium alloys based on stationary shoulder
  66. Cellular Automaton Modeling of Phase Transformation of U-Nb Alloys during Solidification and Consequent Cooling Process
  67. The effect of MgTiO3Adding on Inclusion Characteristics
  68. Cutting performance of a functionally graded cemented carbide tool prepared by microwave heating and nitriding sintering
  69. Creep behaviour and life assessment of a cast nickel – base superalloy MAR – M247
  70. Failure mechanism and acoustic emission signal characteristics of coatings under the condition of impact indentation
  71. Reducing Surface Cracks and Improving Cleanliness of H-Beam Blanks in Continuous Casting — Improving continuous casting of H-beam blanks
  72. Rhodium influence on the microstructure and oxidation behaviour of aluminide coatings deposited on pure nickel and nickel based superalloy
  73. The effect of Nb content on precipitates, microstructure and texture of grain oriented silicon steel
  74. Effect of Arc Power on the Wear and High-temperature Oxidation Resistances of Plasma-Sprayed Fe-based Amorphous Coatings
  75. Short Communication
  76. Novel Combined Feeding Approach to Produce Quality Al6061 Composites for Heat Sinks
  77. Research Article
  78. Micromorphology change and microstructure of Cu-P based amorphous filler during heating process
  79. Controlling residual stress and distortion of friction stir welding joint by external stationary shoulder
  80. Research on the ingot shrinkage in the electroslag remelting withdrawal process for 9Cr3Mo roller
  81. Production of Mo2NiB2 Based Hard Alloys by Self-Propagating High-Temperature Synthesis
  82. The Morphology Analysis of Plasma-Sprayed Cast Iron Splats at Different Substrate Temperatures via Fractal Dimension and Circularity Methods
  83. A Comparative Study on Johnson–Cook, Modified Johnson–Cook, Modified Zerilli–Armstrong and Arrhenius-Type Constitutive Models to Predict Hot Deformation Behavior of TA2
  84. Dynamic absorption efficiency of paracetamol powder in microwave drying
  85. Preparation and Properties of Blast Furnace Slag Glass Ceramics Containing Cr2O3
  86. Influence of unburned pulverized coal on gasification reaction of coke in blast furnace
  87. Effect of PWHT Conditions on Toughness and Creep Rupture Strength in Modified 9Cr-1Mo Steel Welds
  88. Role of B2O3 on structure and shear-thinning property in CaO–SiO2–Na2O-based mold fluxes
  89. Effect of Acid Slag Treatment on the Inclusions in GCr15 Bearing Steel
  90. Recovery of Iron and Zinc from Blast Furnace Dust Using Iron-Bath Reduction
  91. Phase Analysis and Microstructural Investigations of Ce2Zr2O7 for High-Temperature Coatings on Ni-Base Superalloy Substrates
  92. Combustion Characteristics and Kinetics Study of Pulverized Coal and Semi-Coke
  93. Mechanical and Electrochemical Characterization of Supersolidus Sintered Austenitic Stainless Steel (316 L)
  94. Synthesis and characterization of Cu doped chromium oxide (Cr2O3) thin films
  95. Ladle Nozzle Clogging during casting of Silicon-Steel
  96. Thermodynamics and Industrial Trial on Increasing the Carbon Content at the BOF Endpoint to Produce Ultra-Low Carbon IF Steel by BOF-RH-CSP Process
  97. Research Article
  98. Effect of Boundary Conditions on Residual Stresses and Distortion in 316 Stainless Steel Butt Welded Plate
  99. Numerical Analysis on Effect of Additional Gas Injection on Characteristics around Raceway in Melter Gasifier
  100. Variation on thermal damage rate of granite specimen with thermal cycle treatment
  101. Effects of Fluoride and Sulphate Mineralizers on the Properties of Reconstructed Steel Slag
  102. Effect of Basicity on Precipitation of Spinel Crystals in a CaO-SiO2-MgO-Cr2O3-FeO System
  103. Review Article
  104. Exploitation of Mold Flux for the Ti-bearing Welding Wire Steel ER80-G
  105. Research Article
  106. Furnace heat prediction and control model and its application to large blast furnace
  107. Effects of Different Solid Solution Temperatures on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of the AA7075 Alloy After T6 Heat Treatment
  108. Study of the Viscosity of a La2O3-SiO2-FeO Slag System
  109. Tensile Deformation and Work Hardening Behaviour of AISI 431 Martensitic Stainless Steel at Elevated Temperatures
  110. The Effectiveness of Reinforcement and Processing on Mechanical Properties, Wear Behavior and Damping Response of Aluminum Matrix Composites
https://doi.org/10.1515/htmp-2019-0028
Keywords for this article
AISI 431; Martensitic steel; Tensile properties; Dynamic Strain Ageing
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. Review Article
  3. Research on the Influence of Furnace Structure on Copper Cooling Stave Life
  4. Influence of High Temperature Oxidation on Hydrogen Absorption and Degradation of Zircaloy-2 and Zr 700 Alloys
  5. Correlation between Travel Speed, Microstructure, Mechanical Properties and Wear Characteristics of Ni-Based Hardfaced Deposits over 316LN Austenitic Stainless Steel
  6. Factors Influencing Gas Generation Behaviours of Lump Coal Used in COREX Gasifier
  7. Experiment Research on Pulverized Coal Combustion in the Tuyere of Oxygen Blast Furnace
  8. Phosphate Capacities of CaO–FeO–SiO2–Al2O3/Na2O/TiO2 Slags
  9. Microstructure and Interface Bonding Strength of WC-10Ni/NiCrBSi Composite Coating by Vacuum Brazing
  10. Refill Friction Stir Spot Welding of Dissimilar 6061/7075 Aluminum Alloy
  11. Solvothermal Synthesis and Magnetic Properties of Monodisperse Ni0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4 Hollow Nanospheres
  12. On the Capability of Logarithmic-Power Model for Prediction of Hot Deformation Behavior of Alloy 800H at High Strain Rates
  13. 3D Heat Conductivity Model of Mold Based on Node Temperature Inheritance
  14. 3D Microstructure and Micromechanical Properties of Minerals in Vanadium-Titanium Sinter
  15. Effect of Martensite Structure and Carbide Precipitates on Mechanical Properties of Cr-Mo Alloy Steel with Different Cooling Rate
  16. The Interaction between Erosion Particle and Gas Stream in High Temperature Gas Burner Rig for Thermal Barrier Coatings
  17. Permittivity Study of a CuCl Residue at 13–450 °C and Elucidation of the Microwave Intensification Mechanism for Its Dechlorination
  18. Study on Carbothermal Reduction of Titania in Molten Iron
  19. The Sequence of the Phase Growth during Diffusion in Ti-Based Systems
  20. Growth Kinetics of CoB–Co2B Layers Using the Powder-Pack Boriding Process Assisted by a Direct Current Field
  21. High-Temperature Flow Behaviour and Constitutive Equations for a TC17 Titanium Alloy
  22. Research on Three-Roll Screw Rolling Process for Ti6Al4V Titanium Alloy Bar
  23. Continuous Cooling Transformation of Undeformed and Deformed High Strength Crack-Arrest Steel Plates for Large Container Ships
  24. Formation Mechanism and Influence Factors of the Sticker between Solidified Shell and Mold in Continuous Casting of Steel
  25. Casting Defects in Transition Layer of Cu/Al Composite Castings Prepared Using Pouring Aluminum Method and Their Formation Mechanism
  26. Effect of Current on Segregation and Inclusions Characteristics of Dual Alloy Ingot Processed by Electroslag Remelting
  27. Investigation of Growth Kinetics of Fe2B Layers on AISI 1518 Steel by the Integral Method
  28. Microstructural Evolution and Phase Transformation on the X-Y Surface of Inconel 718 Ni-Based Alloys Fabricated by Selective Laser Melting under Different Heat Treatment
  29. Characterization of Mn-Doped Co3O4 Thin Films Prepared by Sol Gel-Based Dip-Coating Process
  30. Deposition Characteristics of Multitrack Overlayby Plasma Transferred Arc Welding on SS316Lwith Co-Cr Based Alloy – Influence ofProcess Parameters
  31. Elastic Moduli and Elastic Constants of Alloy AuCuSi With FCC Structure Under Pressure
  32. Effect of Cl on Softening and Melting Behaviors of BF Burden
  33. Effect of MgO Injection on Smelting in a Blast Furnace
  34. Structural Characteristics and Hydration Kinetics of Oxidized Steel Slag in a CaO-FeO-SiO2-MgO System
  35. Optimization of Microwave-Assisted Oxidation Roasting of Oxide–Sulphide Zinc Ore with Addition of Manganese Dioxide Using Response Surface Methodology
  36. Hydraulic Study of Bubble Migration in Liquid Titanium Alloy Melt during Vertical Centrifugal Casting Process
  37. Investigation on Double Wire Metal Inert Gas Welding of A7N01-T4 Aluminum Alloy in High-Speed Welding
  38. Oxidation Behaviour of Welded ASTM-SA210 GrA1 Boiler Tube Steels under Cyclic Conditions at 900°C in Air
  39. Study on the Evolution of Damage Degradation at Different Temperatures and Strain Rates for Ti-6Al-4V Alloy
  40. Pack-Boriding of Pure Iron with Powder Mixtures Containing ZrB2
  41. Evolution of Interfacial Features of MnO-SiO2 Type Inclusions/Steel Matrix during Isothermal Heating at Low Temperatures
  42. Effect of MgO/Al2O3 Ratio on Viscosity of Blast Furnace Primary Slag
  43. The Microstructure and Property of the Heat Affected zone in C-Mn Steel Treated by Rare Earth
  44. Microwave-Assisted Molten-Salt Facile Synthesis of Chromium Carbide (Cr3C2) Coatings on the Diamond Particles
  45. Effects of B on the Hot Ductility of Fe-36Ni Invar Alloy
  46. Impurity Distribution after Solidification of Hypereutectic Al-Si Melts and Eutectic Al-Si Melt
  47. Induced Electro-Deposition of High Melting-Point Phases on MgO–C Refractory in CaO–Al2O3–SiO2 – (MgO) Slag at 1773 K
  48. Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of 14Cr-ODS Steels with Zr Addition
  49. A Review of Boron-Rich Silicon Borides Basedon Thermodynamic Stability and Transport Properties of High-Temperature Thermoelectric Materials
  50. Siliceous Manganese Ore from Eastern India:A Potential Resource for Ferrosilicon-Manganese Production
  51. A Strain-Compensated Constitutive Model for Describing the Hot Compressive Deformation Behaviors of an Aged Inconel 718 Superalloy
  52. Surface Alloys of 0.45 C Carbon Steel Produced by High Current Pulsed Electron Beam
  53. Deformation Behavior and Processing Map during Isothermal Hot Compression of 49MnVS3 Non-Quenched and Tempered Steel
  54. A Constitutive Equation for Predicting Elevated Temperature Flow Behavior of BFe10-1-2 Cupronickel Alloy through Double Multiple Nonlinear Regression
  55. Oxidation Behavior of Ferritic Steel T22 Exposed to Supercritical Water
  56. A Multi Scale Strategy for Simulation of Microstructural Evolutions in Friction Stir Welding of Duplex Titanium Alloy
  57. Partition Behavior of Alloying Elements in Nickel-Based Alloys and Their Activity Interaction Parameters and Infinite Dilution Activity Coefficients
  58. Influence of Heating on Tensile Physical-Mechanical Properties of Granite
  59. Comparison of Al-Zn-Mg Alloy P-MIG Welded Joints Filled with Different Wires
  60. Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Thick Plate Friction Stir Welds for 6082-T6 Aluminum Alloy
  61. Research Article
  62. Kinetics of oxide scale growth on a (Ti, Mo)5Si3 based oxidation resistant Mo-Ti-Si alloy at 900-1300∘C
  63. Calorimetric study on Bi-Cu-Sn alloys
  64. Mineralogical Phase of Slag and Its Effect on Dephosphorization during Converter Steelmaking Using Slag-Remaining Technology
  65. Controllability of joint integrity and mechanical properties of friction stir welded 6061-T6 aluminum and AZ31B magnesium alloys based on stationary shoulder
  66. Cellular Automaton Modeling of Phase Transformation of U-Nb Alloys during Solidification and Consequent Cooling Process
  67. The effect of MgTiO3Adding on Inclusion Characteristics
  68. Cutting performance of a functionally graded cemented carbide tool prepared by microwave heating and nitriding sintering
  69. Creep behaviour and life assessment of a cast nickel – base superalloy MAR – M247
  70. Failure mechanism and acoustic emission signal characteristics of coatings under the condition of impact indentation
  71. Reducing Surface Cracks and Improving Cleanliness of H-Beam Blanks in Continuous Casting — Improving continuous casting of H-beam blanks
  72. Rhodium influence on the microstructure and oxidation behaviour of aluminide coatings deposited on pure nickel and nickel based superalloy
  73. The effect of Nb content on precipitates, microstructure and texture of grain oriented silicon steel
  74. Effect of Arc Power on the Wear and High-temperature Oxidation Resistances of Plasma-Sprayed Fe-based Amorphous Coatings
  75. Short Communication
  76. Novel Combined Feeding Approach to Produce Quality Al6061 Composites for Heat Sinks
  77. Research Article
  78. Micromorphology change and microstructure of Cu-P based amorphous filler during heating process
  79. Controlling residual stress and distortion of friction stir welding joint by external stationary shoulder
  80. Research on the ingot shrinkage in the electroslag remelting withdrawal process for 9Cr3Mo roller
  81. Production of Mo2NiB2 Based Hard Alloys by Self-Propagating High-Temperature Synthesis
  82. The Morphology Analysis of Plasma-Sprayed Cast Iron Splats at Different Substrate Temperatures via Fractal Dimension and Circularity Methods
  83. A Comparative Study on Johnson–Cook, Modified Johnson–Cook, Modified Zerilli–Armstrong and Arrhenius-Type Constitutive Models to Predict Hot Deformation Behavior of TA2
  84. Dynamic absorption efficiency of paracetamol powder in microwave drying
  85. Preparation and Properties of Blast Furnace Slag Glass Ceramics Containing Cr2O3
  86. Influence of unburned pulverized coal on gasification reaction of coke in blast furnace
  87. Effect of PWHT Conditions on Toughness and Creep Rupture Strength in Modified 9Cr-1Mo Steel Welds
  88. Role of B2O3 on structure and shear-thinning property in CaO–SiO2–Na2O-based mold fluxes
  89. Effect of Acid Slag Treatment on the Inclusions in GCr15 Bearing Steel
  90. Recovery of Iron and Zinc from Blast Furnace Dust Using Iron-Bath Reduction
  91. Phase Analysis and Microstructural Investigations of Ce2Zr2O7 for High-Temperature Coatings on Ni-Base Superalloy Substrates
  92. Combustion Characteristics and Kinetics Study of Pulverized Coal and Semi-Coke
  93. Mechanical and Electrochemical Characterization of Supersolidus Sintered Austenitic Stainless Steel (316 L)
  94. Synthesis and characterization of Cu doped chromium oxide (Cr2O3) thin films
  95. Ladle Nozzle Clogging during casting of Silicon-Steel
  96. Thermodynamics and Industrial Trial on Increasing the Carbon Content at the BOF Endpoint to Produce Ultra-Low Carbon IF Steel by BOF-RH-CSP Process
  97. Research Article
  98. Effect of Boundary Conditions on Residual Stresses and Distortion in 316 Stainless Steel Butt Welded Plate
  99. Numerical Analysis on Effect of Additional Gas Injection on Characteristics around Raceway in Melter Gasifier
  100. Variation on thermal damage rate of granite specimen with thermal cycle treatment
  101. Effects of Fluoride and Sulphate Mineralizers on the Properties of Reconstructed Steel Slag
  102. Effect of Basicity on Precipitation of Spinel Crystals in a CaO-SiO2-MgO-Cr2O3-FeO System
  103. Review Article
  104. Exploitation of Mold Flux for the Ti-bearing Welding Wire Steel ER80-G
  105. Research Article
  106. Furnace heat prediction and control model and its application to large blast furnace
  107. Effects of Different Solid Solution Temperatures on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of the AA7075 Alloy After T6 Heat Treatment
  108. Study of the Viscosity of a La2O3-SiO2-FeO Slag System
  109. Tensile Deformation and Work Hardening Behaviour of AISI 431 Martensitic Stainless Steel at Elevated Temperatures
  110. The Effectiveness of Reinforcement and Processing on Mechanical Properties, Wear Behavior and Damping Response of Aluminum Matrix Composites
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