Home Deposition Characteristics of Multitrack Overlayby Plasma Transferred Arc Welding on SS316Lwith Co-Cr Based Alloy – Influence ofProcess Parameters
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Deposition Characteristics of Multitrack Overlayby Plasma Transferred Arc Welding on SS316Lwith Co-Cr Based Alloy – Influence ofProcess Parameters

  • D. D. Deshmukh ORCID logo EMAIL logo and V. D. Kalyankar
Published/Copyright: September 26, 2018
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High Temperature Materials and Processes
From the journal High Temperature Materials and Processes Volume 38 Issue 2019

Abstract

Plasma transferred arc welding (PTAW) is one of the outstanding overlay coating technique used in numerous industries including pressure vessel, automotive, chemical, nuclear, etc. owing to its superior characteristics, low dilution and high efficiency in the coating. In the present investigations, an effort is made to investigate the multitrack overlay deposition by PTAW on 16 mm thick 316 L plate by CO-Cr alloy. Samples are produced under different processing conditions, as per full factorial central composite design of experiment with preheating of 200°C by maintaining the interpass temperature 250 °C. Effects of transferred arc current, welding travel speed, powder feed rate, welding oscillation speed and stand-off distance on weld bead shape parameters comprising of width of deposition and reinforcement are presented and discussed based on experimental observations and fitted model. Relationship between the input process parameters with deposition characteristics is also presented in the form of regression equation. Lower current (100–120 A), intermediate travel speed (120–140 mm/min), intermediate powder feed rate (12–14 gms/min), lower oscillating speed (450–550 mm/min) and lower stand-off distance (6–8 mm) would give better deposition characteristics with minimum distortion, less residual stresses, no surface defects with strong metallurgical bond.

Keywords: Surface modification; multitrack overlay deposition; plasma transferred arc welding; SS316; Stellite; weld deposition

Introduction

The gradual degradation of materials due to wear, abrasion, erosion and corrosion normally exists by relative motion and chemical reactions thus damaging the solid surface of component. It commonly occurs to the key industrial elements such as valve seat, collars, stem, pipes, valve surface, etc. thereby reducing the service life of components. To enhance the operating life of such components, various surface modification methods are employed where the surface exposing to such harsh environments is protected by depositing superficial alloys on the surface with the benefit of welding techniques [1, 2, 3]. Surface modifications methods like nitriding, carburising, thermal spray, laser surfacing and alloying, high-velocity oxygen-fuel and overlay techniques like cladding, hardfacing by plasma transferred arc welding (PTAW), gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) or tungsten inert-gas welding (TIGW), oxyacetylene gas welding (OAW), submerged arc welding (SAW) have been widely applied in industries to improve the wear, abrasion, erosion and corrosion resistance of materials in aggressive environments [4]. The most common welding technologies implemented for overlay are the OAW, TIG, SAW and the PTAW [5]. Alternatively, the available arc welding methods such as submerged, shielded metal and flux core are low cost processes but reproduces high thickness of overlay with higher melting of substrate materials thus producing higher dilution which limits their applications in severe working conditions [2].

The hardness, cavitations erosion and erosion-corrosion resistance of low-cost steel substrates can be improved by surface modification [4]. Applying hard surface coating on substrate material for wear and corrosion resistance to metal with the aids of welding techniques is the basis of overlay [5]. Among various surface overlay technologies, the alloy coatings prepared by PTAW has drawn large amounts of attention [4]. As powder is being used as a filler material, PTAW offers more flexibility among various available welding techniques [6]. Although this technique is quite attractive in industrial applications, the parameters like travel speed, welding current, substrate preheating, oscillation amplitudes, nozzle to work distance and choice of a welding gas are subjective to final microstructure and phases of coating [7]. Compared to thermal sprayed coatings, PTAW overlays possess a lower production cost and a higher productivity [8, 9, 10]. PTAW is a distinctive process for overlay and has found enormous applications in numerous industries [2]. It enables a thick localized hardfacing heat treatment that is principally beneficial for improving surface resistance to wear and abrasion [2, 7]. PTAW has several advantages such as low cost, easy operation, high efficiency, synchronized powder-feeding mechanism and automation simplicity [6, 10]. PTAW overlay techniques can be efficiently used in almost all metals that are meant to produce high wear resistant coatings by superficial alloys on the required substrate material [2, 10]. The PTAW overlays are generally thicker than laser-induced overlays and there is a metallurgical bond between the substrate and the coating, improving their impact-resistance [8, 9]. PTAW is also one of the repairing techniques used for the restoration of worn-out surface and also being used as additive manufacturing process. Repair of cracks in nozzle set of helicopter engine, repair of propeller shaft, etc. are few examples of PTAW process [6]. In PTAW overlay, minimum dilution took place (less than 10%) whereas for other hardfacing techniques the amount of dilution is 10–30% [10].

The PTAW technique for deposition of high-performance coatings has been attempted by Tu et al. [2] in which Taguchi-regression method is used to develop optimal PTAW process for obtaining high hardfacing quality characteristics. However, no valid conclusions were drawn based on deposition parameters and weld bead characteristics. Mandal et al. [6] conducted the experiments to deposit SS304L powders on SS316 plates by varying process parameter of PTAW. The effect of process parameters on dilution, deposition geometry and bead continuity was observed in their research however, the design of experimentation (DOE) approach is missing in their investigations. Literature also includes the use of response surface methodology (RSM) to predict the effect of processing parameters on the dilution obtained by developing the mathematical regression equation for the prediction of optimum values of input process parameters [5]. Bharath et al. [11] used DOE technique for investigations of effects of process parameters on dilution only. Siva et al. [12] made an attempt to optimize the process parameters to achieve desired bead geometry variables by genetic algorithm with experiments performed by central composite rotatable full-factorial design matrix and mathematical models were prepared based on regression analysis for minimization of penetration and maximization of reinforcement, however, effect of processing parameters is not studied in their work.

The comparative study on the influence of welding techniques is carried out by Deng et al. [13] and Balasubramanian et al. [14]. It is stated that, the deposition carried out by PTAW technique shows superior characteristics. Deng et al. [13] made the comparison based on fatigue life of overlaid surface and the analysis of constituent’s microstructural phases, the deposition were carried out by OAW and PTAW technique and it is observed that the coating produced by PTAW showed superior characteristics compared to OAW. Balasubramanian et al. [14] used analytical hierarchical process for comparison of five different welding processes namely SMAW, GMAW, GTAW, SAW and PTAW, by measuring dilution experimentally and it is found that the PTAW performs better compared to the other welding processes concerning the less dilution. Erosion corrosion behaviour of the deposited coating were carried out by recirculating impinging jet equipment and the effect of abrasive particle size is examined by Ramachandran et al. [15, 16]. The effects of abrasive particle size, slurry concentration, slurry bath temperature and speed of rotation on the abrasive slurry wear behaviour were studied. Balasubramanian et al. [17] also studied the behaviour of coating and found that the slurry concentration had the prominent effect on wear compared to other parameters. Also, the wear behaviour of PTAW coating was investigated by Fernandes et al. [18, 19]. The studies concerning the effect of process parameters consist of Balasubramanian et al. [5], Mandal et al. [6], Bharath et al. [11], Tosun [20], Buytoz et al. [21], Celik [22], Fernandes et al. [23] studied effect of arc current on microstructure and wear characteristics of a Ni-based coating deposited by PTA on grey cast iron, etc. However, research work related to the use of the PTAW in the past are limited considering broad overview of effects of process parameters on deposition characteristics. The process of overlay should be meant at high deposition rate and a strong bond between the base metal and deposit. Hence, for improved weld qualities of the overlay selection of process parameters is very important. In this experimental study, effects of five process parameters namely, transferred arc current, travel speed, powder feed rate, oscillation speed and stand-off distance on weld deposition characteristics are investigated. In the next section, detailed experimental approach is presented which includes information about the machine, materials, DOE, process parameters with their ranges and experimentation.

Materials and methods

Experimental investigations coupled with parametric and statistical analysis plays an important role to understand the effect of process parameters so as to obtain the defect free coating with desired tribo-corrosion and mechanical properties. It is proved that, efficient use of the statistical DOE techniques helps to develop an empirical relationship between the chosen parameters however, the use of DOE strategies coupled with statistical techniques were rarely applied for improvement in the overlay quality. Hence, in this investigation, the DOE is used to plan the experiments for exploring the interdependence of the process parameters. Also, an attempt has been made to understand the effect of PTAW process parameters on the deposition parameters of Stellite 6 on SS 316 L steel. The present work deals with multi-parameter multitrack sample investigations, which aim at investigations on deposition parameters of PTAW hardfacing for cobalt-based powder.

PTAW machine

The PTAW process employs a water-cooled constrictor nozzle, non-consumable tungsten electrode present inside the torch, shield gas for the protection of the molten pool and the plasma gas. The powder is used as a filler material which is transported through a gas to the arc region to produce the coating. The quality of the weld is controlled by various parameters of the process like gas flow rate (shield gas, plasma gas and carrier gas), rate at which powder being supplied to arc region, transferred arc current, stand-off distance, work travel speed, welding torch oscillation or waiving speed, etc. By proper controlling these process parameters, high quality deposits with required tribo-corrosion properties and weld bead characteristics of deposits can be achieved. Apart from this, the geometrical configuration of substrate also has significant effect on PTAW process parameters [6].

To carry out the investigations, a fully automated PTAW machine available with the KOSO India Pvt. Ltd., Ambad, Nashik (a valve manufacturing industry), made by Primo automation Ltd., is utilized. This technique have been used for the surfacing of parts i.e. valve seat, collars, sleeve and couplings, employed for the surfacing of valves and components. The experimental set up and various units of the machine are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: PTAW machine used for experimentation.
Figure 1:

PTAW machine used for experimentation.

Materials

The material used for manufacturing the components of engineering application exposed to severe working conditions should possess weldability and good corrosion and wear resistance properties. Material which is exposed to corrosive media is made up of stainless steels, duplex stainless steel, Inconel, low alloy steels, high alloy steel, plain carbon steels, etc. The coating of cobalt or nickel based alloy is generally prepared on the substrate materials. The 316 L stainless steels are commonly used materials in hydraulic systems due to its good corrosion resistance. However, the microhardness of 316 L stainless steel is low, which usually corresponds to the low cavitation erosion and erosion-corrosion resistance. 316 L stainless steel cannot meet the service requirements in liquid and slurry environments. Surface modification of this kind of material provides an effective solution to these problems leading to enhance its service life [4].

Stellite 6 is Co–Cr–W–C alloy, which shows outstanding behaviour in many aggressive services and has wide range of applications [24, 25 and 26]. Stellite 6 shows exceptional performance in erosion or corrosion by cavitations and galling and hence generally used in valve trims, pump sleeves, pipes, pressure vessel parts and liners, etc. The deposition on 316 L stainless steel by Stellite, which is CO-Cr alloy possess good weldability [27]. Hence, for the industry application point of view it is necessary to focus on the deposition characteristics of this superficial alloy by PTAW. For the present investigations, ASTM 316 L of thickness 16 mm plate is used as a substrate material and Stellite 6 powder of size 45–125 µ is used as a coating material. The nominal composition of substrate material and powder is as shown in Table 1.

Table 1:

Composition of base material and powder.

Composition%CSiCrCoW
Stellite 61.081.0928.75Balance4.37
Composition%CSiCrNiPSMoMnN
SS 316 L0.0210.31916.51510.0350.0320.032.0111.2800.043

Effective process parameters and their working limits

Selection of appropriate ranges of welding process parameters are of prior importance to obtain required mechanical properties and microstructure of layered matrix. The process of overlay should be aimed at achieving a strong bond between the deposit and the substrate metal with a high deposition rate, low dilution, less distortion and defect free surface [28]. During the overlay deposition, the properties and microstructure of the deposited layers depends on heat input and process conditions such as preheat temperature, interpass temperature, cooling rate, etc. The heat input supplied to the substrate by PTAW at instance during overlay depends on arc current, arc voltage, powder feed rate, stand-off distance, travel speed, torch oscillation speed, etc. The composition and properties of overlaid layer is strongly influenced by the dilution obtained, which depends on the thermal characteristics of substrate material, overlay material and exposed environmental conditions. Amongst the available welding processes, PTAW deposition process is superior in dilution as the dilution obtained is lower in PTAW [5, 10, 28]. Coatings deposited by the PTAW present high quality, competitive wear-resistance and high stability of properties at high temperature [13]. Thus, dilution obtained by PTAW is not a major concern; however it is required to control the deposition parameters, geometry, distortion, thermal stresses and defects.

To identify the main influencing process parameters and their appropriate ranges for further experimentation and investigation by DOE, trial experiments are performed along with the support of literature. The process parameters selected for the experimentations are, heat-producing factor i.e. transferred arc current (A), welding speed corresponding to travel speed (mm/min), overlay material flow rate i.e. powder feed rate (gms/min), torch oscillation speed (mm/min) and stand-off distance (mm). By varying the selected process parameters in between the available ranges, the deposition is prepared in the form of layers on the substrate material. The weld bead geometry, its appearance, surface irregularities, solidification cracks, distortions and defects are examined by visual inspection and dye penetration test. To avoid the distortion effect, the specimen plate of 16 mm thickness is employed for the experimentation as the thickness of the substrate plays a vital role in distortion and thermal stresses induced during operation. In addition, to mitigate the chances of solidification cracks a preheating of about 200°C is applied on the substrate plate and interpass temperature of 250 °C is maintained during the deposition.

During the trial experimentation, bead contours, surface defects, bead appearance, homogeneousness, melting and fusion of powder, heating of tungsten electrode, bonding of overlaid powder with substrate, defects like spatter, undercut, holes, etc. are inspected for the different combinations of process parameters by PTAW overlay in between the available ranges. The effects of process parameters on the distortion with surface defects are observed and examined by visual inspections and dye penetration test. Following inferences are drawn during trial operation and examination of overlay surface by dye penetration test to set the range of considered process parameters. The preliminary effect of each parameter in wide range is described in following subsections.

Selection of operating range for transferred arc current

If the transferred arc current greater than 180 A, undercut, spatters, distortions are noticed on the weld bead surface with possibly higher residual stresses. This is attributed because heat energy supplied for producing the arc at constrictor nozzle increases with transferred arc current. This increased heat input to the substrate material develops maximum residual stresses thereby causing the specimen plate to bend. The prominent effect of heat supplied on melting of substrate materials is found in the investigations. With the increasing current, the melting of substrate material increases leading to complete fusion of the powder supplied at that instant with the substrate surface causing higher deposition and undercuts. Also, the weld overlay contact angle decreases, which is probably due to higher dilution or penetration.

Consequently, at arc current less than 100 A the heat energy supplied is less, causing incomplete melting of powder and less bonding of deposited layer with the substrate material. When the arc current was less than 100 A, the weld overlay contact angle increases with higher build up reinforcement of deposited layer, which is probably due to less dilution, less wetting of droplets or penetration. Lower current hardfacing shows less distortion with no solidification cracks due to less heat input. Whereas if the transferred arc current is more than 180 A, heat input supplied to the arc region increases which leads to more deformation and residual stresses and thus giving chance to develop cracks and distortion on the overlaid layers. Thus, appropriate amount of heat supply is necessary to obtain good quality in hardfacing with required bonding between the substrate material and deposited layer. Hence, the acceptable range of transferred arc current for the further investigations is maintained as 100–180 A.

Selection of operating range for travel speed

If the travel speed is less than 100 mm/min, there is an over deposition of powder and higher reinforcement height is observed which leads to increase the weld overlay contact angle. Higher travel speed greater than 180 mm/min reduces the time availability for deposition and thus produces very thin layer with zigzag pattern. Also, less bonding and incomplete penetration of the overlaid surface is observed at travel speed more than 180 mm/min, which resulted in spatter on the surface of substrate and cut-off type deposition.

Whereas, lower travel speed less than 100 mm/min shows over deposition of powder as well as over melting of substrate surface which results in deeper penetration or maximum dilution and very thick weld bead. Processing of hardfacing with lower travel speed is also not desirable as time required will be more to complete the overlay on required surface. This ultimately increases the heat input supplied to the substrate material, which leads to increased chances of distortion, residual stresses and solidification cracks. Thus, appropriate travel speed is necessary to create the bonding between substrate material and overlaid layer with desired contact angle and metallurgical properties. Lower travel speed basically allows the time for deposition on that instant leading to maximum deposition at instant and thus heat supplied at instance increases. Hence, the acceptable range of travel speed for further investigations where defects are not observed is 100 to 180 mm/min.

Selection of operating range for powder feed rate

If the powder feed rate is lower than 08 gms/min, over melting of base metal and overheating of tungsten electrode is noticed. When the powder feed rate increases above 20 gms/min the width and reinforcement of deposition increases. In addition, at higher powder feed rate the weld bead formation is not smooth owing to incomplete melting of powder supplied at the instance. The bonding between the overlaid layer and substrate also decreases with possibly higher weld overlay contact angle. This is because, the amount of heat energy supplied at that instant is being utilised for melting of powder and forming a molten pool with possibly less melting of substrate material.

It is also observed that, there is variation in deposition parameters with the powder feed rate and it is identified that cross-section area of deposition rises with the increase in powder feed rate and due to this fact the melting of substrate material decreases. Lower powder feed rate and higher current produces spatter and undercut on the surface with uneven layer of deposition. Higher heat supplied per unit length of substrate material leads to generate residual stresses and distortion in the substrate. Whereas, higher powder feed rate reduces the melting of substrate material, which decreases the residual stresses and distortion of the substrate material, but causes less bonding in the deposited layer. In contrast, lower powder feed rate increases the melting of substrate material, which increases the residual stresses and distortion of substrate material with higher bonding in the deposited layer. Hence, the acceptable range of powder feed rate for further investigation is 8 to 20 gms/min.

Selection of operating range for oscillation speed

For torch oscillation speed less than 450 mm/min, the bead appearance and contours are not so smooth and very narrow bead is obtained. When the oscillation speed is greater than 850 mm/min, wider bead width and smaller reinforcement height is observed thereby reducing the weld overlay contact angle. During the investigations, it is observed that during higher torch oscillation frequency the torch covers wider region of substrate material, which results in gradual increase in width of deposition with torch oscillation frequency. As oscillation speed increases, the mean value of width of oscillation of torch also increases. Very thin layer of the deposited surface with spatter and undercuts are observed corresponding to oscillation speed greater than 850 mm/min and lower powder feed rate. This is attributed because at lower powder feed rate and higher oscillation speed, the heat energy supplied at the instance increases.

A very narrow and irregular weld bead and small deposition reinforcement is observed corresponding to the low oscillating speed. The heat energy supplied to the substrate and powder is not governed by oscillation speed thus dilution, heat supplied, deformation of substrate and residual stresses does not depends on the oscillation speed. However, energy concentration at instance depends on the oscillation speed and the chances of surface irregularities, defects and blowholes in the coating are higher at higher oscillation speed than at lower oscillation speed. The weld overlay contact angle does not vary significantly with variation of oscillation speed. Hence, the acceptable range of oscillation speed for further investigation is considered as 450–850 mm/min.

Selection of operating range for stand-off distance

For stand-off distance less than 5 mm, the bead appearance and contours are not so smooth and very narrow bead is obtained. When the stand-off distance is greater than 14 mm, wider bead width and smaller reinforcement height with less melting of substrate material is observed. It is also observed that the percentage melting of substrate decreases as the stand-off distance increases giving less concentration of heat energy supplied by arc at particular point as lateral spread of arc concentration increases with stand-off distance. It is identified that, because of increase in arc length which is function of stand- off distance, the constrictor arc diverge and the heat input supplied to the wider region of substrate material instead of directing on a lesser area. This causes lower reinforcement, wider deposition width and lower penetration possibly with less distortion of substrate material.

Further, with increase in stand-off distance, some amount of voltage rise takes place resulting in more heat input. It is also observed that the deposition width increases very slightly up to the mean level and again start to falls. Layer reinforcement also decreases with the increase in stand-off distance. This is attributed because the change in stand-off distance did not vary the energy supplied to substrate material but the lateral spread of powder depositions increases due to changed diameter of energy density distribution from the plasma arc on the substrate material. Thus, the acceptable range of stand-off distance for further investigation is considered as 6–14 mm.

On basis of the above inferences from trial experiments and literature analysis, important variable process parameters are identified with their acceptable ranges. The considered process parameters in this work are transferred arc current, pose speed corresponding to the travel speed of the welding, powder feed rate, oscillation speed and stand-off distance. Each parameter is having its own importance and plays a significant role during the deposition process. The working limits of the predominant welding parameters that have greater influence on the PTAW overlay process are identified with their working levels as shown in Table 2.

Table 2:

Process parameters, their working limits and levels.

Sr No.Parameters/Levels−2−1012
1Transferred arc current (Amp) (TC)100120140160180
2Travel speed (mm/min) (TS)100120140160180
3Powder feed rate (gms/min) (PF)811141720
4Oscillation speed (mm/min) (OS)450550650750850
5Stand-off distance (mm) (SOD)68101214

The employed PTAW machine for experimentation is having considerable range of these parameters so as to provide flexibility for different applications. However, keeping in view the chosen substrate material and powder, the most feasible range of each process parameter is identified through trial experiments and finalized for detail experimentation and analysis purpose. In order to achieve accuracy in the research and experimental work, the chosen range is divided in the five levels that can be pre-set on the machine for experimentation. Table 2 shows the process parameters and working limits at different levels. These different levels of process parameters are used to plan the DOE for actual experimentation.

Design of experiment

DOE is a tool used to develop an experimental strategy that maximizes learning using minimum resources. When the characteristic of a process are influenced by several variables, then effective use of DOE helps to draw reliable and valid conclusions [29]. To develop an empirical relationship between the chosen parameters, the statistical DOE techniques are proficient. The experiments in which the effects of more than one factor on response are investigated are known as full factorial experiments. In a full factorial experiment, both of the (−1) and (+1) levels of each parameters are correlated with each other with the effect of each level on the response can be investigated with respect to the levels of other parameters. With the help of full factorial experiments, it is possible to correlate and investigate the effects of all variables simultaneously [30].

Numerous studies had reported the modelling of bead geometry using DOE methodology for different welding processes focusing on development of mathematical model using RSM. Balasubramanian et al. [5] used central composite rotatable design to investigate the effect of PTAW process parameters on the dilution obtained by performing 32 experiments. The use of full factorial DOE strategies coupled with statistical techniques was rarely applied for enhancement in the overlay quality. This is because, it increases the numbers of experiments and also it is time and resources consuming process. However, keeping in view the accuracy in results and exact interpretation of effects of each process parameters, the full factorial DOE is used for present investigation to plan and explore the interdependence of the each process parameters. To carry out the experimentation, a centre composite full factorial design for five factors and five level is selected, a two-level full factorial central composite design is created as per the levels of processing parameters by using Minitab-17 software and the obtained experimental plan is shown in Table 3. The created DOE consist of 32 cube points, 10 centre points and 10 axial points and hence to study the entire experimental domain with all variability and capabilities under the influence of chosen range of process parameters considering deposition characteristics, total 52 numbers of experiments need to performed.

Table 3:

Design of experiment along with measured responses.

Expt.

No.		TC (Amp)TS (mm/min)PF (gms/min)OS

(mm/Min)		SOD

(mm)		Deposition width (mm)Reinforcement

(mm)
114018014650107.521.17
212012011550812.182.32
316016017750811.081.82
4140140146501011.922.15
5140140146501011.862.08
6120120175501213.302.90
7160160177501210.341.77
812012017550813.252.94
9140140146501011.902.05
10140140146501411.692.00
1116012011750812.472.49
12140140146501012.002.05
13160120115501212.152.38
1416012017750813.653.09
1514014014650612.102.09
1616012017550813.663.22
1712016017750129.401.77
18140140146501011.902.09
19160160175501210.421.91
201201601755089.351.95
21180140146501011.582.63
221201601175088.651.50
231601601175089.851.51
2412016011750128.731.46
25140100146501014.213.21
26140140146501011.902.05
27140140144501012.062.18
28100140146501010.882.33
291401408650109.771.62
3016016017550811.021.96
3112012017750813.422.88
32160120117501212.132.44
33140140146501011.902.05
34160120175501213.172.96
35120120177501213.332.83
361601601155089.651.65
3712016017550129.301.90
3812016011550128.501.60
39120120117501212.722.13
401201601775089.591.81
41140140146501011.902.05
4212012011750812.532.18
4316016011550129.341.61
4416012011550812.352.64
4516016011750129.391.47
46140140146501011.902.05
47120120115501212.562.27
481201601155088.271.64
49140140146501011.902.05
50140140148501012.281.91
51160120177501213.022.85
52140140206501011.732.42

Specimen preparation and experimentation

For the present investigation, a specimen of 120×150 mm size is obtained from the 16 mm thick plate of substrate material. To remove the surface oxides or contaminants, the substrate plate is ground with abrasive paper and polished with 600 SiC paper in order to obtain a smooth surface. This helps to keep stable arc conditions by avoiding the current fluctuations during the operation. For enhancing powder adhesion and to improve bonding of overlaid layer, the sample plate is kept for preheating in electrical furnace at a temperature of 200°C before deposition.

Subsequently, all the experiments are performed as per the planed DOE by depositing the layers of Stellite grade 6 powder of size 45–125 µ on the substrate specimen 1 G groove position with DCEN electrode. Tungsten electrode size of 4 mm diameter (2% throated tungsten), torch orifice diameter 25 mm, industrially pure argon (99.99%) is used at a constant flow rate of 13–15 L/min for shielding, 3.5–4 L/min for centre, 2–3 L/min for powder feeding and is maintained during the experimentation. The deposits are prepared on the plate up to 100×70 mm area by multitrack deposition with nearly 50% overlapping for each specimen so as to get total deposition area for further analysis purpose. The welding joint is G1 as applicable for the overlay operation and the maximum inter pass temperature is maintained up to 250 °C during the experiments.

In a first step of the investigation, width of deposition and reinforcement is measured for each single run during each experiment. In order to evaluate the surface characteristics of these overlays as well as to produce clad coupons for studies, surface defects like undercut, spatter, blows and presence of any surface cracks are evaluated and detected by dye penetration test. Multitrack deposition is carried out on all the samples with the parameter setting as per DOE. Figure 2 shows the typical single and multitrack geometry and Figure 3 shows few samples after deposition which gives the overall representation of test sample, deposition area and multitrack approach.

Figure 2: Typical single and multitrack geometry.
Figure 2:

Typical single and multitrack geometry.

Figure 3: Few samples of multitrack deposition on the substrate plate.
Figure 3:

Few samples of multitrack deposition on the substrate plate.

Measurement of width of deposition and reinforcement

The quality of the weld is generally characterised by weld bead geometry, which depends on input process parameters. In actual practice, it is very hard to identify the contribution of each parameter on desired output. To judge the effect of input parameters, the expert welder set the process parameter on trial and error basis however, to produce good and acceptable results, the trial and error approach should be avoided. Hence, an appropriate mathematical model needs to be established, which could predict the output result from given set of desired input parameters or vice versa.

Width of deposition is the lateral width corresponding to the spread of overlay material on the substrate materials and weld bead reinforcement is referred as the height of deposition obtained by overlay material on the substrate material. As per the planned DOE, the multitrack deposition is prepared on the substrate plate during the experiment, the width of deposition and reinforcement for each run is measured with the help of high accuracy level digital Vernier calliper and recorded accordingly. The values of all measured responses corresponding to each run are shown in Table 3.

For multitrack deposition it is observed that, if the overlap ratio is kept constant for the same set of process parameters, nearly same deposition pattern is obtained. Moreover, the previously tracked overlapping area shows somewhat greater smooth fusion with the current track as compared to only single track. The obtained deposition characteristics, bead contour, appearance for each sample are checked visually and by dye penetration test. Figure 3 shows some samples of multitrack deposition on substrate plate for the reference.

Results and discussions

In the present work, a five-parameter full factorial design technique is used to carry out the experimental investigations. Effects of transferred arc current (TC), welding travel speed (TS), powder feed rate (PF), welding oscillation speed (OC) and stand-off distance (SOD) on weld bead shape parameters comprising of width of deposition (W) and reinforcement (H) is analysed. For this purpose, the measured response of all the corresponding experiments is used to develop regression equations for estimating the bead shape parameters. By plotting the contour and main effect plot of each considered process parameters, their effects are predicted.

Modelling of width of deposition and reinforcement

In the literature it is observed that, the RSM approach is effectively used by researchers to create a model which fits the given response surface in terms of all chosen input parameters. For prediction of result and also to examine the approach of experimentation the RSM is practical, economical and relatively easy to use [29]. RSM consists of an experimental approach for determining the effect of several process parameters on the required responses by means of developing mathematical models. In this work, a second order quadratic model is developed to predict the width of deposition and reinforcement obtained by PTAW overlay of Stellite 6 on SS 316 L. The full quadratic model obtained for width of deposition and reinforcement is represented by eqs. (1) and (2), respectively.

Regression equation of width of deposition (W),

(1)W(mm)=0.40+0.06019×TC−0.00572×TS+1.0917×PF                 −0.00139×OS+0.8709×SOD−0.000443(TC)2−0.000671                 ×(TS)2−0.033004×(PF)2+0.000006×(OS)2−0.00270                 ×(SOD)2+0.000780×TC×TS+0.001161×TC×PF−0.000023                 ×TC×OS−0.003414×TC×SOD+0.000214                 ×TS×PF+0.000008×TS×OS−0.000711×TS×SOD−0.000116                 ×PF×OS−0.01203×PF×SOD−0.000186×OS×SOD

Regression equation for reinforcement (H),

(2)H(mm)=5.08−0.04529×TC−0.01332×TS+0.3265×PF                 +0.00028×OS−0.0063×SOD+0.000260                  ×(TC)2+0.000079×(TS)2−0.001207(PF)2−0.000000×(OS)2−0.00115×(SOD)2                 −0.000121×TC×TS−0.000255×TC×PF+0.000001×TC×OS                  −0.000492×TC×SOD−0.001234×TS×PF−0.000006×TS×OS                  +0.000508×TS×SOD+0.000001×PF×OS−0.00109×PF×SOD                 +0.000036×OS×SOD

The developed model is tested by means of analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the Tables 4 and 5 shows the ANOVA results for width of deposition and reinforcement respectively. From the obtained results, it is perceived that both models has very good fit, as P value of lack of fit is less than 0.05 and also the adjusted R2 of both the model is greater than 99%.

Table 4:

Analysis of variance for width of deposition.

SourceDFAdj SSAdj MSF-ValueP-Value
Model20134.0406.7022637.120.000
Linear5122.97424.5959677.680.000
TC (Amp)12.5052.505985.680.000
TS (mm/min)1110.191110.19143,358.360.000
PF (gms/min)19.7529.7523837.090.000
OS (mm/min)10.1290.12950.690.000
SOD (mm)10.3980.398156.610.000
Square56.8361.367537.940.000
TC×TC11.0361.036407.800.000
TS×TS12.3802.380936.520.000
PF×PF12.9172.9171147.990.000
OS×OS10.1110.11143.710.000
SOD×SOD10.0040.0041.510.228
2-Way104.2300.423166.430.000
TC×TS13.1193.1191227.180.000
TC×PF10.1550.15561.150.000
TC×OS10.0690.06927.300.000
TC×SOD10.5970.597234.820.000
TS×PF10.0050.0052.070.161
TS×OS10.0090.0093.450.073
TS×SOD10.0260.02610.180.003
PF×OS10.0390.03915.150.000
PF×SOD10.1670.16765.610.000
OS×SOD10.0440.04417.410.000
Error310.0790.003
Lack-of-fit220.0670.0032.430.085
Pure error90.0110.001
Total51134.118

  1. Model Summary

    S=0.0504123; R-sq=99.94%; R-sq (adj)=99.90%; R-sq (pred) 99.78%

Table 5:

Analysis of variance for reinforcement.

SourceDFAdj SSAdj MSF-ValueP-Value
Model2012.27450.61372289.090
Linear511.58270.316531091.20
TC (Amp)10.13110.131161.760
TS (mm/min)19.28330.283324372.90
PF (gms/min)11.96690.96692926.520
OS (mm/min)10.14280.142867.270
SOD (mm)10.05850.0585227.570
Square50.40060.0801337.740
TC×TC10.35860.35856168.90
TS×TS10.03310.0330915.590
PF×PF10.00390.00391.840
OS×OS10.00070.00070.330
SOD×SOD10.00070.00070.330.228
2-Way100.29120.0291213.720
TC×TS10.07510.0750835.370
TC×PF10.00750.00753.530
TC×OS10.00020.000150.070
TC×SOD10.01240.01245.840
TS×PF10.17550.1755382.680.161
TS×OS10.00430.004282.020.073
TS×SOD10.01320.01326.220.003
PF×OS10000
PF×SOD10.00140.001380.650
OS×SOD10.00170.001650.780
Error310.06580.00212
Lack-of-Fit220.05620.002552.390.085
Pure Error90.0096
Total5112.3403

  1. Model Summary

    S=0.0460752; R-sq=99.47%; R-sq (adj)=99.12%; R-sq (pred) 98.22%

On basis of F value shown in Table 4, it can be perceived that the travel speed is the most influencing process parameter on width of deposition followed by powder feed rate and transferred arc current. The stand-off distance shows less effect on the width of deposition but it is significant as compared to oscillation speed. Similarly, from the Table 5, it can be perceived that the travel speed is the most influencing process parameter on reinforcement followed by powder feed rate and oscillation speed. The transferred arc current shows less effect on the reinforcement compared to width of deposition but it is significant as compared to oscillation speed and stand-off distance.

Effects of process parameters on width of deposition and reinforcement

On the basis of present experimental work and statistical techniques coupled with DOE strategy, the characteristics and properties of overlaid layer deposited by PTAW are investigated. It is observed that, the overlaid layer shows distinct variations with respect to change in between the ranges of process parameters. The effect of process parameters is observed and predicted on the basis of fitted model and also with the help of interaction and main effect plots. Detailed analysis of effects of various parameters is presented separately in the following subsections:

Effects of transferred arc current

The heat energy supplied for producing the arc at constrictor nozzle depends on transferred arc current and prominent effects of heat supplied on deposition characteristics are found in the investigations. With the increase in current, the deposition rate increases leading to complete fusion of the powder supplied at that instant with the substrate surface. As transferred arc current increases from 100 Amp to 180 Amp, the mean value of width of deposition increases, this is attributed to the fact that at the higher current, maximum melting of substrate material took place, which causes wider width of deposition compared to the reinforcement. In addition, complete melting of the powder is observed at higher current and at that instance, the molten powder get deposited on the maximum width. However, the observed reinforcement is less as compared to width of deposition at higher current.

Also increase in arc current raises the plasma power as well as the energy density of the plasma beam and lead to lateral spread of substrate surface melting. Consequently, the deposition width increases with the increase in current. The possible reason behind decreasing the reinforcement of the coating is due to increase in percent dilution. This performance is related with greater build-up of material during deposition at lower arc current. Consequently, the lower dilution produced which reduces the melting of substrate material thus, better preserving the characteristics of the overlay alloy in the coating.

By observing the interactions and main effect plots, as shown in Figures 4, 5, 6 and 7, it can be easily predicted that higher powder feed rate, higher current and lower speed shows good width of deposition and reinforcement. It is due to the fact that, at lower travel speed, torch has to attain the same powder at particular instant on substrate material up to larger span of time compared to fast travel of torch the same kind of trends was also observed by Mandal et al. [6]. However, it is also noticed that, at higher current and lower powder feed, heating of tungsten electrode is observed with overheating of substrate materials. The effect of transferred arc current on the width of deposition and reinforcement is shown by main effect plot in Figures 6 and 7. Thus, for obtaining the defect free coating with appropriate deposition width and reinforcement, the desired value of current should be in the range of 100–120 A. The depositions prepared by these current conditions would show appropriate deposition characteristics with required bonding, minimum dilution and less distortion of substrate material and lower residual stresses.

Figure 4: Interaction plots for width of deposition.
Figure 4:

Interaction plots for width of deposition.

Figure 5: Interaction plots for reinforcement.
Figure 5:

Interaction plots for reinforcement.

Figure 6: Main effects plot for width of deposition.
Figure 6:

Main effects plot for width of deposition.

Figure 7: Main effects plot for reinforcement.
Figure 7:

Main effects plot for reinforcement.

Effects of travel speed

Travel speed corresponds to relative displacement of material surface per unit time to the torch or arc current. Appropriate travel speed is necessary to create the bonding between substrate material and overlaid layer. During the experimentation it is observed that, at higher travel speed, both the deposition characteristics decreases with travel speed. From the main effects plot as shown in Figures 6 and 7, it can be observed and predicted that width of deposition and reinforcement decreases with travel speed. This is attributed due to the fact that at lower travel speed, available heat input is focused at less area per unit time of deposition thus maximising the melting rate of substrate material. Consequently, at the higher travel speed, the distance travelled by torch per unit length of substrate material is more focusing more area per unit time of deposition. At higher speed, heat input supplied per unit length of weld bead decreases thus creating lower deposition with less width of deposition and reinforcement.

It is also observed that, as compared to other factors, the most sensitive factor to width of deposition and reinforcement is travel speed and powder feed rate as lateral spreading of molten powder and constrictor arc on substrate plate measures the width of deposition. These two parameters are mostly related to energy available at substrate material to mix up together with the molten powder deposited on the surface. A thicker coating is observed at low travel speeds, as decrease in torch travel speed produces a greater build-up of material in the melt pool leading to substantial increase in overlay thickness. Same kind of trend is observed by Balasubramanian et al. [5] in their investigations of effect of process parameters on dilution and it was observed that at higher travel speed, the dilution decreases due to less melting of substrate material. Figures 4 and 5 shows the interaction plots for both the deposition characteristics and these plots are useful to predict the results at each combination. From the main effect plot as shown in Figures 6 and 7, the nature of these deposition characteristics can be predicted easily.

Thus, the travel speed shows very prominent effect on the deposition characteristics, very high and very low travel speed is not desirable. Very slow speed produces higher width and reinforcement of deposition however, the heat energy supplied would be higher at slow speed thus time required for completing the overlay increases. To obtain defect free coatings, the travel speed should be in the range of 120–140 mm/min, which would cause less deformation, less residual stresses and higher contact angle of weld overlay.

Effects of powder feed rate

The appropriate amount of powder flow rate plays a vital role in surface characteristics of coatings [31]. From the present investigations, it is found that as the powder feed rate increases, the width of deposition and reinforcement increases. Because, the amount of heat energy supplied at that instant is being utilised for melting of powder and forming a molten pool with possibly less melting of substrate material. This results in less melting of substrate material provided that the current available is sufficient to melt the powder supplied at that instant.

It is also observed that, there is variation in deposition parameters with the powder feed rate and it is identified that cross-section area of deposition rises with the increase in powder feed rate and due to this the melting of substrate material decreases. The variation in powder feed rate do not vary the energy supplied per length, but the energy supplied by transferred arc to substrate varies with powder feed rate. As the oscillation width is fixed during the experiment, the increase in powder feed rate causes less variation in width of deposition as compared to reinforcement. From Figures 4 and 5, it is also seen that width of deposition decreases somewhat as compared to reinforcement after the powder feed rate of 15 gms/min. This is due to the fact that, as at higher powder feed rate the weld pool cushions the effect of arc and prevents deeper penetration resulting in lower melting of substrate material and producing stacking layers of coating leading to increase the reinforcement. Mandal et al. [6] had shown the same trend during the deposition and variation of deposition parameters with the powder feed rate was observed and it was identified that cross-section area of deposition rises with the increase in powder feed rate.

Higher powder feed rate offers larger deposition on the substrate, but it depends on the current availability; less current with higher powder feed rate gives rise to the incomplete melting of powder resulting in irregular weld bead surface. Again, from the main effect plots as shown in Figures 6 and 7, it can be perceived that width of deposition and reinforcement increases with increase in the powder feed rate. This is attributed due to the fact that as powder feed rate increases, less melting of the substrate plate takes place and molten powder forms a stacking layer on the substrate plate which leads to increase in the reinforcement of deposition.

A spatter and undercut is also observed by dye penetration test on the surface of the deposited area at the end portion of the run where higher arc current and lower powder feed rate is supplied. At lower travel speed and higher powder feed rate, higher deposition reinforcement is observed. This is due the fact that, the time available for deposition is higher at low travel speeds. Thus, for obtaining good deposition characteristics and deposition efficiency complete melting of powder supplied at instant is necessary with proper bonding between substrate and overlay. Lower powder feed rate increases the melting of substrate material and higher powder feed rate shows incomplete melting of powder supplied, hence moderate amount of powder feed rate of the range of 12–14 gms/min shows superior deposition characteristics.

Effects of torch oscillation speed

The torch oscillation frequency is the oscillation distance covered by torch per unit time or the cycle (oscillation width) per unit time and it is also referred as torch weaving speed. During the investigations it is observed that, at higher torch oscillation frequency, distance moved by the torch over the width of oscillation is faster which gradually increases the width of deposition. Consequently, at higher torch oscillation frequency, reinforcement decreases. As oscillation speed increases, small variation in the width of deposition is observed. In contrast, very thin layer of the deposited surface is observed corresponding to high oscillation speed and lower powder feed rate. At lower travel speed and higher oscillation speed, wider width of deposition is observed with less reinforcement. Thus, for obtaining good deposition width and reinforcement with smooth overlay the oscillation speed should be in the range of 450–550 mm/min. This would produce better deposition characteristics with minimum distortion, less residual stresses and surface defects. This also results in possible refined microstructure and good bonding between overlay and substrate material.

Effects of stand-off distance

It is observed that, the percentage melting of substrate decreases as the stand-off distance increases giving less concentration at particular point as lateral spread of arc concentration increases with stand-off distance. It is identified that, because of increase in arc length, the constrictor arc diverge and the heat input supplied to the wider region of substrate material instead of directing on a lesser area. Further, with increase in stand-off distance, some amount of voltage rise takes place resulting in more heat input. It is also observed that the width of deposition increases very slightly up to the mean level and again start to falls. Layer reinforcement also decreases with the increase in stand-off distance. This is attributed due to the fact that, the change in stand-off distance did not vary the energy supplied to substrate material but the lateral spread of powder depositions increases due to changed diameter of energy density distribution from the plasma arc on the substrate material. In that case, both deposition characteristics manage their self to settle on the substrate material and vice versa. From the Figures 4 and 5, the interaction effects of other parameters with deposition width and reinforcement can be predicted.

Furthermore, as the stand-off distance decreases, the bead appearance and contours were not so smooth and very narrow bead was obtained. At higher stand-off distance, wider bead width and smaller reinforcement height with less melting of substrate material was observed. It is identified that, because of increase in arc length, the constrictor arc diverge and the heat input supplied to the wider region of substrate material instead of directing on a lesser area. This causes lower reinforcement and wider deposition width. Thus, from current investigation it is perceived that the higher stand- off distance results in spatters and unstable arc causing rough deposition. The desirable stand-off distance is 6–8 mm for obtaining good surface of overlay.

Conclusions

In the present investigation, influence of process parameters on width of deposition and reinforcement is studied. An effort is made to investigate the multitrack overlay deposition on 16 mm thick 316 L plate by CO-Cr alloy (Stellite 6). Samples are produced under different processing conditions, as per full factorial central composite DOE. The width of deposition and reinforcement, which represents the deposition characteristics are measured during experimentation for each run. Effects of transferred arc current, travel speed, powder feed rate, oscillation speed and stand-off distance on width of deposition and reinforcement are presented and discussed based on experimental observations and fitted model. Relationship between the input process parameters with deposition characteristics is presented in the form of regression equation and the same has been validated by performing another experiments.

Considering the service environments of Stellite 6 overlay components like pipes, pressure vessels, turbine components, valves, sleeves and spindles used in the oil, aerospace industry, nuclear power plants, etc., it is important to study the deposition characteristics of the coating produced by PTAW technique. Processing of PTAW with high current leads to distortion of substrate and melting and burning effects. In the context of penetration and dilution, the higher current is not at all desirable. For an effective, smooth and defect free coating proper controlling of process parameters is necessary. From the present investigation, following inferences are drawn.

  1. Increasing arc current up to 150–160 A the width of deposition increases, later increase in arc current the width of deposition starts narrowing which leads to increase the reinforcement height.

  2. Increasing travel speed both deposition characteristics decreases, whereas at low travel speed the higher deposition width and reinforcement height was observed.

  3. The powder feed rate up to 14 gms/min shows good deposition width with maximum melting of powder supplied, when powder feed rate increases beyond 14 gms/min width of deposition decreases and height of reinforcement increases.

  4. Lower oscillation speed (450–600 mm/min) and lower stand-off distance (6–8 mm) produces good deposition height and reinforcement.

  5. Lower current (100–120 A), intermediate travel speed (120–140 mm/min), intermediate powder feed rate (12–14 gms/min), lower oscillating speed (450–550 mm/min) and lower stand-off distance (6–8 mm) would give better deposition characteristics with minimum distortion less residual stresses without any surface cracks and defects with possible refined microstructure and good bonding between overlay and substrate material.

  6. The developed mathematical model will be useful for the prediction of width of deposition and reinforcement as well as to have control on process parameters. As a result, raw material cost and process time would be correspondingly reduced.

Acknowledgements

Authors are thankful to M/S KOSO India Pvt. Ltd., Nashik, Maharashtra, India, for providing good quality machine, materials and testing facilities to perform necessary experimental work.

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Received: 2018-03-16
Accepted: 2018-06-18
Published Online: 2018-09-26
Published in Print: 2019-02-25

© 2019 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Public License.

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  47. Induced Electro-Deposition of High Melting-Point Phases on MgO–C Refractory in CaO–Al2O3–SiO2 – (MgO) Slag at 1773 K
  48. Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of 14Cr-ODS Steels with Zr Addition
  49. A Review of Boron-Rich Silicon Borides Basedon Thermodynamic Stability and Transport Properties of High-Temperature Thermoelectric Materials
  50. Siliceous Manganese Ore from Eastern India:A Potential Resource for Ferrosilicon-Manganese Production
  51. A Strain-Compensated Constitutive Model for Describing the Hot Compressive Deformation Behaviors of an Aged Inconel 718 Superalloy
  52. Surface Alloys of 0.45 C Carbon Steel Produced by High Current Pulsed Electron Beam
  53. Deformation Behavior and Processing Map during Isothermal Hot Compression of 49MnVS3 Non-Quenched and Tempered Steel
  54. A Constitutive Equation for Predicting Elevated Temperature Flow Behavior of BFe10-1-2 Cupronickel Alloy through Double Multiple Nonlinear Regression
  55. Oxidation Behavior of Ferritic Steel T22 Exposed to Supercritical Water
  56. A Multi Scale Strategy for Simulation of Microstructural Evolutions in Friction Stir Welding of Duplex Titanium Alloy
  57. Partition Behavior of Alloying Elements in Nickel-Based Alloys and Their Activity Interaction Parameters and Infinite Dilution Activity Coefficients
  58. Influence of Heating on Tensile Physical-Mechanical Properties of Granite
  59. Comparison of Al-Zn-Mg Alloy P-MIG Welded Joints Filled with Different Wires
  60. Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Thick Plate Friction Stir Welds for 6082-T6 Aluminum Alloy
  61. Research Article
  62. Kinetics of oxide scale growth on a (Ti, Mo)5Si3 based oxidation resistant Mo-Ti-Si alloy at 900-1300∘C
  63. Calorimetric study on Bi-Cu-Sn alloys
  64. Mineralogical Phase of Slag and Its Effect on Dephosphorization during Converter Steelmaking Using Slag-Remaining Technology
  65. Controllability of joint integrity and mechanical properties of friction stir welded 6061-T6 aluminum and AZ31B magnesium alloys based on stationary shoulder
  66. Cellular Automaton Modeling of Phase Transformation of U-Nb Alloys during Solidification and Consequent Cooling Process
  67. The effect of MgTiO3Adding on Inclusion Characteristics
  68. Cutting performance of a functionally graded cemented carbide tool prepared by microwave heating and nitriding sintering
  69. Creep behaviour and life assessment of a cast nickel – base superalloy MAR – M247
  70. Failure mechanism and acoustic emission signal characteristics of coatings under the condition of impact indentation
  71. Reducing Surface Cracks and Improving Cleanliness of H-Beam Blanks in Continuous Casting — Improving continuous casting of H-beam blanks
  72. Rhodium influence on the microstructure and oxidation behaviour of aluminide coatings deposited on pure nickel and nickel based superalloy
  73. The effect of Nb content on precipitates, microstructure and texture of grain oriented silicon steel
  74. Effect of Arc Power on the Wear and High-temperature Oxidation Resistances of Plasma-Sprayed Fe-based Amorphous Coatings
  75. Short Communication
  76. Novel Combined Feeding Approach to Produce Quality Al6061 Composites for Heat Sinks
  77. Research Article
  78. Micromorphology change and microstructure of Cu-P based amorphous filler during heating process
  79. Controlling residual stress and distortion of friction stir welding joint by external stationary shoulder
  80. Research on the ingot shrinkage in the electroslag remelting withdrawal process for 9Cr3Mo roller
  81. Production of Mo2NiB2 Based Hard Alloys by Self-Propagating High-Temperature Synthesis
  82. The Morphology Analysis of Plasma-Sprayed Cast Iron Splats at Different Substrate Temperatures via Fractal Dimension and Circularity Methods
  83. A Comparative Study on Johnson–Cook, Modified Johnson–Cook, Modified Zerilli–Armstrong and Arrhenius-Type Constitutive Models to Predict Hot Deformation Behavior of TA2
  84. Dynamic absorption efficiency of paracetamol powder in microwave drying
  85. Preparation and Properties of Blast Furnace Slag Glass Ceramics Containing Cr2O3
  86. Influence of unburned pulverized coal on gasification reaction of coke in blast furnace
  87. Effect of PWHT Conditions on Toughness and Creep Rupture Strength in Modified 9Cr-1Mo Steel Welds
  88. Role of B2O3 on structure and shear-thinning property in CaO–SiO2–Na2O-based mold fluxes
  89. Effect of Acid Slag Treatment on the Inclusions in GCr15 Bearing Steel
  90. Recovery of Iron and Zinc from Blast Furnace Dust Using Iron-Bath Reduction
  91. Phase Analysis and Microstructural Investigations of Ce2Zr2O7 for High-Temperature Coatings on Ni-Base Superalloy Substrates
  92. Combustion Characteristics and Kinetics Study of Pulverized Coal and Semi-Coke
  93. Mechanical and Electrochemical Characterization of Supersolidus Sintered Austenitic Stainless Steel (316 L)
  94. Synthesis and characterization of Cu doped chromium oxide (Cr2O3) thin films
  95. Ladle Nozzle Clogging during casting of Silicon-Steel
  96. Thermodynamics and Industrial Trial on Increasing the Carbon Content at the BOF Endpoint to Produce Ultra-Low Carbon IF Steel by BOF-RH-CSP Process
  97. Research Article
  98. Effect of Boundary Conditions on Residual Stresses and Distortion in 316 Stainless Steel Butt Welded Plate
  99. Numerical Analysis on Effect of Additional Gas Injection on Characteristics around Raceway in Melter Gasifier
  100. Variation on thermal damage rate of granite specimen with thermal cycle treatment
  101. Effects of Fluoride and Sulphate Mineralizers on the Properties of Reconstructed Steel Slag
  102. Effect of Basicity on Precipitation of Spinel Crystals in a CaO-SiO2-MgO-Cr2O3-FeO System
  103. Review Article
  104. Exploitation of Mold Flux for the Ti-bearing Welding Wire Steel ER80-G
  105. Research Article
  106. Furnace heat prediction and control model and its application to large blast furnace
  107. Effects of Different Solid Solution Temperatures on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of the AA7075 Alloy After T6 Heat Treatment
  108. Study of the Viscosity of a La2O3-SiO2-FeO Slag System
  109. Tensile Deformation and Work Hardening Behaviour of AISI 431 Martensitic Stainless Steel at Elevated Temperatures
  110. The Effectiveness of Reinforcement and Processing on Mechanical Properties, Wear Behavior and Damping Response of Aluminum Matrix Composites
https://doi.org/10.1515/htmp-2018-0046
Keywords for this article
Surface modification; multitrack overlay deposition; plasma transferred arc welding; SS316; Stellite; weld deposition
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Articles in the same Issue

  1. Frontmatter
  2. Review Article
  3. Research on the Influence of Furnace Structure on Copper Cooling Stave Life
  4. Influence of High Temperature Oxidation on Hydrogen Absorption and Degradation of Zircaloy-2 and Zr 700 Alloys
  5. Correlation between Travel Speed, Microstructure, Mechanical Properties and Wear Characteristics of Ni-Based Hardfaced Deposits over 316LN Austenitic Stainless Steel
  6. Factors Influencing Gas Generation Behaviours of Lump Coal Used in COREX Gasifier
  7. Experiment Research on Pulverized Coal Combustion in the Tuyere of Oxygen Blast Furnace
  8. Phosphate Capacities of CaO–FeO–SiO2–Al2O3/Na2O/TiO2 Slags
  9. Microstructure and Interface Bonding Strength of WC-10Ni/NiCrBSi Composite Coating by Vacuum Brazing
  10. Refill Friction Stir Spot Welding of Dissimilar 6061/7075 Aluminum Alloy
  11. Solvothermal Synthesis and Magnetic Properties of Monodisperse Ni0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4 Hollow Nanospheres
  12. On the Capability of Logarithmic-Power Model for Prediction of Hot Deformation Behavior of Alloy 800H at High Strain Rates
  13. 3D Heat Conductivity Model of Mold Based on Node Temperature Inheritance
  14. 3D Microstructure and Micromechanical Properties of Minerals in Vanadium-Titanium Sinter
  15. Effect of Martensite Structure and Carbide Precipitates on Mechanical Properties of Cr-Mo Alloy Steel with Different Cooling Rate
  16. The Interaction between Erosion Particle and Gas Stream in High Temperature Gas Burner Rig for Thermal Barrier Coatings
  17. Permittivity Study of a CuCl Residue at 13–450 °C and Elucidation of the Microwave Intensification Mechanism for Its Dechlorination
  18. Study on Carbothermal Reduction of Titania in Molten Iron
  19. The Sequence of the Phase Growth during Diffusion in Ti-Based Systems
  20. Growth Kinetics of CoB–Co2B Layers Using the Powder-Pack Boriding Process Assisted by a Direct Current Field
  21. High-Temperature Flow Behaviour and Constitutive Equations for a TC17 Titanium Alloy
  22. Research on Three-Roll Screw Rolling Process for Ti6Al4V Titanium Alloy Bar
  23. Continuous Cooling Transformation of Undeformed and Deformed High Strength Crack-Arrest Steel Plates for Large Container Ships
  24. Formation Mechanism and Influence Factors of the Sticker between Solidified Shell and Mold in Continuous Casting of Steel
  25. Casting Defects in Transition Layer of Cu/Al Composite Castings Prepared Using Pouring Aluminum Method and Their Formation Mechanism
  26. Effect of Current on Segregation and Inclusions Characteristics of Dual Alloy Ingot Processed by Electroslag Remelting
  27. Investigation of Growth Kinetics of Fe2B Layers on AISI 1518 Steel by the Integral Method
  28. Microstructural Evolution and Phase Transformation on the X-Y Surface of Inconel 718 Ni-Based Alloys Fabricated by Selective Laser Melting under Different Heat Treatment
  29. Characterization of Mn-Doped Co3O4 Thin Films Prepared by Sol Gel-Based Dip-Coating Process
  30. Deposition Characteristics of Multitrack Overlayby Plasma Transferred Arc Welding on SS316Lwith Co-Cr Based Alloy – Influence ofProcess Parameters
  31. Elastic Moduli and Elastic Constants of Alloy AuCuSi With FCC Structure Under Pressure
  32. Effect of Cl on Softening and Melting Behaviors of BF Burden
  33. Effect of MgO Injection on Smelting in a Blast Furnace
  34. Structural Characteristics and Hydration Kinetics of Oxidized Steel Slag in a CaO-FeO-SiO2-MgO System
  35. Optimization of Microwave-Assisted Oxidation Roasting of Oxide–Sulphide Zinc Ore with Addition of Manganese Dioxide Using Response Surface Methodology
  36. Hydraulic Study of Bubble Migration in Liquid Titanium Alloy Melt during Vertical Centrifugal Casting Process
  37. Investigation on Double Wire Metal Inert Gas Welding of A7N01-T4 Aluminum Alloy in High-Speed Welding
  38. Oxidation Behaviour of Welded ASTM-SA210 GrA1 Boiler Tube Steels under Cyclic Conditions at 900°C in Air
  39. Study on the Evolution of Damage Degradation at Different Temperatures and Strain Rates for Ti-6Al-4V Alloy
  40. Pack-Boriding of Pure Iron with Powder Mixtures Containing ZrB2
  41. Evolution of Interfacial Features of MnO-SiO2 Type Inclusions/Steel Matrix during Isothermal Heating at Low Temperatures
  42. Effect of MgO/Al2O3 Ratio on Viscosity of Blast Furnace Primary Slag
  43. The Microstructure and Property of the Heat Affected zone in C-Mn Steel Treated by Rare Earth
  44. Microwave-Assisted Molten-Salt Facile Synthesis of Chromium Carbide (Cr3C2) Coatings on the Diamond Particles
  45. Effects of B on the Hot Ductility of Fe-36Ni Invar Alloy
  46. Impurity Distribution after Solidification of Hypereutectic Al-Si Melts and Eutectic Al-Si Melt
  47. Induced Electro-Deposition of High Melting-Point Phases on MgO–C Refractory in CaO–Al2O3–SiO2 – (MgO) Slag at 1773 K
  48. Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of 14Cr-ODS Steels with Zr Addition
  49. A Review of Boron-Rich Silicon Borides Basedon Thermodynamic Stability and Transport Properties of High-Temperature Thermoelectric Materials
  50. Siliceous Manganese Ore from Eastern India:A Potential Resource for Ferrosilicon-Manganese Production
  51. A Strain-Compensated Constitutive Model for Describing the Hot Compressive Deformation Behaviors of an Aged Inconel 718 Superalloy
  52. Surface Alloys of 0.45 C Carbon Steel Produced by High Current Pulsed Electron Beam
  53. Deformation Behavior and Processing Map during Isothermal Hot Compression of 49MnVS3 Non-Quenched and Tempered Steel
  54. A Constitutive Equation for Predicting Elevated Temperature Flow Behavior of BFe10-1-2 Cupronickel Alloy through Double Multiple Nonlinear Regression
  55. Oxidation Behavior of Ferritic Steel T22 Exposed to Supercritical Water
  56. A Multi Scale Strategy for Simulation of Microstructural Evolutions in Friction Stir Welding of Duplex Titanium Alloy
  57. Partition Behavior of Alloying Elements in Nickel-Based Alloys and Their Activity Interaction Parameters and Infinite Dilution Activity Coefficients
  58. Influence of Heating on Tensile Physical-Mechanical Properties of Granite
  59. Comparison of Al-Zn-Mg Alloy P-MIG Welded Joints Filled with Different Wires
  60. Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Thick Plate Friction Stir Welds for 6082-T6 Aluminum Alloy
  61. Research Article
  62. Kinetics of oxide scale growth on a (Ti, Mo)5Si3 based oxidation resistant Mo-Ti-Si alloy at 900-1300∘C
  63. Calorimetric study on Bi-Cu-Sn alloys
  64. Mineralogical Phase of Slag and Its Effect on Dephosphorization during Converter Steelmaking Using Slag-Remaining Technology
  65. Controllability of joint integrity and mechanical properties of friction stir welded 6061-T6 aluminum and AZ31B magnesium alloys based on stationary shoulder
  66. Cellular Automaton Modeling of Phase Transformation of U-Nb Alloys during Solidification and Consequent Cooling Process
  67. The effect of MgTiO3Adding on Inclusion Characteristics
  68. Cutting performance of a functionally graded cemented carbide tool prepared by microwave heating and nitriding sintering
  69. Creep behaviour and life assessment of a cast nickel – base superalloy MAR – M247
  70. Failure mechanism and acoustic emission signal characteristics of coatings under the condition of impact indentation
  71. Reducing Surface Cracks and Improving Cleanliness of H-Beam Blanks in Continuous Casting — Improving continuous casting of H-beam blanks
  72. Rhodium influence on the microstructure and oxidation behaviour of aluminide coatings deposited on pure nickel and nickel based superalloy
  73. The effect of Nb content on precipitates, microstructure and texture of grain oriented silicon steel
  74. Effect of Arc Power on the Wear and High-temperature Oxidation Resistances of Plasma-Sprayed Fe-based Amorphous Coatings
  75. Short Communication
  76. Novel Combined Feeding Approach to Produce Quality Al6061 Composites for Heat Sinks
  77. Research Article
  78. Micromorphology change and microstructure of Cu-P based amorphous filler during heating process
  79. Controlling residual stress and distortion of friction stir welding joint by external stationary shoulder
  80. Research on the ingot shrinkage in the electroslag remelting withdrawal process for 9Cr3Mo roller
  81. Production of Mo2NiB2 Based Hard Alloys by Self-Propagating High-Temperature Synthesis
  82. The Morphology Analysis of Plasma-Sprayed Cast Iron Splats at Different Substrate Temperatures via Fractal Dimension and Circularity Methods
  83. A Comparative Study on Johnson–Cook, Modified Johnson–Cook, Modified Zerilli–Armstrong and Arrhenius-Type Constitutive Models to Predict Hot Deformation Behavior of TA2
  84. Dynamic absorption efficiency of paracetamol powder in microwave drying
  85. Preparation and Properties of Blast Furnace Slag Glass Ceramics Containing Cr2O3
  86. Influence of unburned pulverized coal on gasification reaction of coke in blast furnace
  87. Effect of PWHT Conditions on Toughness and Creep Rupture Strength in Modified 9Cr-1Mo Steel Welds
  88. Role of B2O3 on structure and shear-thinning property in CaO–SiO2–Na2O-based mold fluxes
  89. Effect of Acid Slag Treatment on the Inclusions in GCr15 Bearing Steel
  90. Recovery of Iron and Zinc from Blast Furnace Dust Using Iron-Bath Reduction
  91. Phase Analysis and Microstructural Investigations of Ce2Zr2O7 for High-Temperature Coatings on Ni-Base Superalloy Substrates
  92. Combustion Characteristics and Kinetics Study of Pulverized Coal and Semi-Coke
  93. Mechanical and Electrochemical Characterization of Supersolidus Sintered Austenitic Stainless Steel (316 L)
  94. Synthesis and characterization of Cu doped chromium oxide (Cr2O3) thin films
  95. Ladle Nozzle Clogging during casting of Silicon-Steel
  96. Thermodynamics and Industrial Trial on Increasing the Carbon Content at the BOF Endpoint to Produce Ultra-Low Carbon IF Steel by BOF-RH-CSP Process
  97. Research Article
  98. Effect of Boundary Conditions on Residual Stresses and Distortion in 316 Stainless Steel Butt Welded Plate
  99. Numerical Analysis on Effect of Additional Gas Injection on Characteristics around Raceway in Melter Gasifier
  100. Variation on thermal damage rate of granite specimen with thermal cycle treatment
  101. Effects of Fluoride and Sulphate Mineralizers on the Properties of Reconstructed Steel Slag
  102. Effect of Basicity on Precipitation of Spinel Crystals in a CaO-SiO2-MgO-Cr2O3-FeO System
  103. Review Article
  104. Exploitation of Mold Flux for the Ti-bearing Welding Wire Steel ER80-G
  105. Research Article
  106. Furnace heat prediction and control model and its application to large blast furnace
  107. Effects of Different Solid Solution Temperatures on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of the AA7075 Alloy After T6 Heat Treatment
  108. Study of the Viscosity of a La2O3-SiO2-FeO Slag System
  109. Tensile Deformation and Work Hardening Behaviour of AISI 431 Martensitic Stainless Steel at Elevated Temperatures
  110. The Effectiveness of Reinforcement and Processing on Mechanical Properties, Wear Behavior and Damping Response of Aluminum Matrix Composites
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