Mechanical properties and freeze-thaw resistance of lightweight aggregate concrete using artificial clay aggregate
-
Mohammed Riyadh Al-Dikheeli
,
Hasanein M. Thaib
Abstract
This work intends to make structural lightweight aggregate concrete by using artificial expanded clay aggregate with different replacement levels from normal coarse aggregate and improve it with a high-performance superplasticizer to increase its strength. The mechanical characteristics covered in the present work were compressive strength, flexural strength, and splitting tensile strength in addition to freezing and thawing resistance. Different densities were found for all mixes ranging between normal and lightweight concrete and that depends on the replacement of normal aggregate with lightweight aggregates. Mixes with replacement exceeding 25% give compressive strength less than 17 MPa and cannot be regarded as structural lightweight concrete. Modified mixes give higher values of mechanical properties, and also some non-structural lightweight concrete mixes were improved to structural lightweight concrete by using PC-superplasticizer in this study. The research also includes freezing and thawing cycles on reference mixes and lightweight mixes. Lightweight mixes give high durability against freeze-thaw cycles where the reduction in compressive strength was 6.2, 4.6, and 5.5% for 10% rep, 15% rep, and 20% rep mixes, respectively, compared with 32.2% reduction for reference mix.
1 Introduction
In the latest periods, further consideration has been focused on the improvement of lightweight concrete (LWC) where it pulls down the cost of building, facilitates construction, and had the improvement of being somewhat sustainable construction material [1]. LWC has different structural applications, such as pre-stressed and precast LWC elements, bridge piers, decks, and girders, especially when it exceeds 17 MPa and is used as structural members that are not highly loaded [2]. LWC may be created by using lightweight aggregate (LWA). Lightweight aggregate concrete (LWAC) is used in building construction as lightweight blocks and can reduce the dead load on foundations and structural members [3]. Clays when processed with heat will expand up to five or six times in volume as an outcome of gas liberation, as a result of which a porous clinker-like structure aggregate will be formed with a strong sintered layer on the outer surface [4]. Compared to various industrial raw ingredients, great technical features and various benefits can be obtained by using expanded clay aggregates which supplies the highest compressive strength among LWAs [5]. The artificial lightweight clay was studied in many types of research as LWA and its benefits were decrease in total weight of the building, decrease in costs, higher durability, and increase in fire resistance [6,7]. Aldakshe et al. [8] studied the production of LWC using pumice aggregate as a reference mix and 1, 3, 5, and 9% replacement (rep) of pumice aggregate by Boron waste (BA). The results showed an increment in compressive strength and splitting tensile strength of LWC when using BA for all replacement levels. In addition to that, an environmental benefit was achieved by using an industrial waste “Boron waste” as aggregate. Balamuralikrishnan and Saravanan [9] investigated the effect of partial replacement of Alccofine (AF) “which is an extremely fine material derived from waste glass” on compressive strength of cement mortar cubes. The results indicated that 10% AF by volume of cement was the best replacement level and gave the highest compressive strength of about 53 MPa. In some studies [10], waste thermo-stone was used as coarse LWA in concrete to produce LWC. In LWAC, compared to the mortar matrix, the LWA as a component may possess lower properties, so the characteristics of LWA are the important factors influencing the resulting concrete properties. Thus this study aims to evaluate LWAC properties by using Iranian artificial clay aggregate by using superplasticizer and also study the impact of freeze-thaw cycles (FTCs) on LWC made with this artificial clay aggregate because according to Mehta and Monteiro [11] several factors in LWA affect the property of concrete, such as types of aggregate, density, water content, environmental conditions, etc. One of the essential reasons of concrete deterioration is the exposure to several cycles of freezing and thawing which will affect the service life of the structures.
2 Experimental program
Figure 1 shows the experimental program details.
Flowchart of research methodology.
1) Materials used: in all mixes ordinary Portland cement type-I (Kar Factory-in Najaf city) was used, as coarse aggregate, using aggregates with a maximum size of 10 mm with grading shown in Table 1, and fine aggregate grading shown in Table 2 and it was confirming with Indian standards IS-383 [12]. Artificial expanded clay aggregate (lightweight) was also used as a percentage of coarse aggregate (replacement), some properties of this LWA are given in Table 3. Hyperplastic PC200 (formerly known as Flocrete PC200) meets the ASTM C494 [14], and Types A and G were used as high-performance superplasticizing admixture and its properties are given in Table 4.
Grading and some properties of coarse aggregate
| Sieve size (mm) | % pass by weight | % passing, Indian standard specification |
|---|---|---|
| 20 | 100 | 100 |
| 10 | 100 | 85–100 |
| 5 | 18.3 | 0–20 |
| 2.36 | 3.6 | 0–5 |
| Property | — | — |
| Particle density (kg/m3) | 1,589 | — |
| Los Angeles coefficient (LA%) | 24.8 | According to ASTM C131 [13] |
Grading of fine aggregate
| Sieve size | % pass by weight | % passing, Indian standard specification, zone2 |
|---|---|---|
| 10 mm | 100 | 100 |
| 5 mm | 100 | 90–100 |
| 2.36 mm | 100 | 75–100 |
| 1.18 mm | 73.2 | 55–90 |
| 600 μm | 54.9 | 35–59 |
| 300 μm | 15.0 | 8–30 |
| 150 μm | 5.8 | 0–10 |
Some properties of LWA (expanded clay)
| Property | Absorption (%) | Color | Maximum particle size (mm) | Density (g/cm3) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Details | 40 | Gray | 10 | 0.29 |
Some properties of PC-200 superplasticizer used in the study
| Property | Trading name | Chemical composition | Color | Specific gravity |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Details | Hyperplast PC-200 | Polycarboxylate | Yellow-orange | 1.05 ± 0.02 at 25°C |
2) Mix proportions: reference mix with 1:1:1.2 was used (cement:sand:gravel), with a water to cement ratio of 0.42. Mixes with replacement of coarse aggregate with various levels of Iranian artificial clay aggregate of 3, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, and 50% were improved with high-performance concrete superplasticizer type PC-200, with yellow-orange color. Figure 2 shows the artificial expanded clay aggregate and also the PC-200 superplasticizer. In this study, 1.5 L of superplasticizer was used for each 100 kg cement and water/cement ratio was decreased to 0.28 to maintain workability.
Artificial expanded clay and PC-200 superplasticizer.
3) Specimens and tests: cubic molds with 10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm was used for compressive strength test, while small beams of 10 cm × 10 cm × 40 cm were used for flexural strength tests as displayed in Figure 3. Three specimens for each test and for each mix was used and then the average value was determined. Moreover, the cubic specimens were weighed before conducting compressive strength test to find the density of concrete for all mixes. Compressive strength test was done by loading specimens after 28 days curing and subjecting to uniaxial load until failure.
Some cubic concrete specimens with 3% replacement after casting and concrete beam with 10% replacement during mold open.
A flexural strength test was done according to ASTM C78-02 [15] by using the third point loading test according to equation (1). Figure 4 shows the LWAC under different tests.
where MR is the modulus of rupture (MPa). p is the maximum load applied (N). l is the distance between supports of the beam (mm). b and d are the width and depth of the beam (mm).
Some specimens under compression test, flexural test, and splitting test.
By using 100 mm × 200 mm cylinders, the tensile strength test was carried out and tested by splitting test method as shown in Figure 4 and according to equation (2).
where F t is the splitting tensile strength (MPa). P is the maximum load applied (N). D and L are the diameter and length of the cylinder (mm).
According to many researchers, several standards and methods were used to evaluate the freezing-thawing resistance of concrete such as ASTM C666 [16], European standard CEN/TR 15177 [17], and Chinese specification GB/T 50082-2009 [18]. In the present study, the test was done according to CEN/TS-12390-0 [19]. The freezing-thawing test was done by using cubic specimens tested in freezing room for 12 h in −18°C and 12 h in +20°C for 1 month and 2 months. Figure 5 shows the specimens during FTCs.
Specimens under testing for FTCs.
3 Results and discussions
Table 5 shows the mechanical properties of reference mixes and mixes with replacement with LWAs of different proportions from normal coarse aggregate and also densities for each mix. The forming of LWC begins from 20% LWA replacement, and this mix has a density of less than 2,000 kg/m3. The concrete density decreased with the replacement of normal aggregate with LWA and also all mechanical properties decreased with the increase in the LWA replacement. This can be attributed to two reasons, the first is the low density of LWA which is porous and second reason is low strength of LWA compared to normal aggregate. Compressive strength of reference mix was found to be 35.4 MPa which then decreased to 9.54 MPa with 50% replacement. It can be seen from Table 5 that mixes with 30% replacement gave compressive strength less than 17 MPa which is a low value for structural LWC according to its definition.
Mechanical properties of reference and LWAC specimens
| Mix | Compressive strength, MPa | Tensile strength, MPa | Flexural strength, MPa | Density, kg/m3 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1:1:1.2 | 35.39 | 3.53 | 4.13 | 2,483 |
| 3% rep | 33.17 | 2.96 | 4.05 | 2,354 |
| 5% rep | 31.12 | 2.11 | 3.80 | 2,263 |
| 10% rep | 27.19 | 1.87 | 3.34 | 2,190 |
| 15% rep | 23.02 | 1.58 | 3.16 | 2,108 |
| 20% rep | 20.54 | 1.49 | 2.94 | 1,965 |
| 25% rep | 18.87 | 1.36 | 2.63 | 1,903 |
| 30% rep | 15.72 | 1.30 | 2.41 | 1,839 |
| 40% rep | 12.82 | 1.22 | 2.33 | 1,749 |
| 50% rep | 9.54 | 1.16 | 2.16 | 1,650 |
Table 6 shows the same mixes but improved with high-performance superplasticizer PC-200. All mixes show higher values in compressive, tensile, and flexural strengths. 30% replacement mixes give 19.8 MPa by adding this admixture and it can be used as structural LWC.
Mechanical properties of reference and LWAC specimens modified with PC-superplasticizer
| Mix | Compressive strength (MPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | Flexural strength (MPa) | Density (kg/m3) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1:1:1.2 | 43.87 | 4.33 | 5.61 | 2,528 |
| 3% rep | 39.96 | 4.10 | 5.23 | 2,408 |
| 5% rep | 37.81 | 3.86 | 4.76 | 2,306 |
| 10% rep | 32.80 | 3.23 | 4.22 | 2,237 |
| 15% rep | 29.45 | 2.94 | 3.85 | 2,157 |
| 20% rep | 25.30 | 2.32 | 3.48 | 2,009 |
| 25% rep | 21.92 | 1.88 | 3.30 | 1,942 |
| 30% rep | 19.81 | 1.71 | 2.81 | 1,887 |
| 40% rep | 16.35 | 1.45 | 2.60 | 1,793 |
| 50% rep | 13.28 | 1.37 | 2.53 | 1,704 |
Mixes with 40 and 50% replacement did not give structural LWC even when superplasticizer was added. Their compressive strength was still lower than 17 MPa and this may be due to the higher replacement level of coarse aggregate for these mixes. Figures 6–8 show the relationship between replacement of normal aggregate with LWA and compressive, tensile, and flexural strength, respectively. Figures 9–11 show the comparison between normal mixes and modified mixes (with PC-200 superplasticizer) for compressive, tensile, and flexural strengths.
Relationship between % replacement of normal aggregate with LWA and compressive strength without PC-superplasticizer.
Relationship between % replacement of normal aggregate with LWA and tensile strength without PC-superplasticizer.
Relationship between % replacement of normal aggregate with LWA and flexural strength without PC-superplasticizer.
Relationship between % replacement of normal aggregate with LWA and compressive strength for normal mixes (lower curve) and modified mixes (upper curve).
Relationship between % replacement of normal aggregate with LWA and tensile strength for normal mixes (lower curve) and modified mixes (upper curve).
Relationship between % replacement of normal aggregate with LWA and flexural strength for normal mixes (lower curve) and modified mixes (upper curve).
Table 7 shows the effect of the FTC on the compressive strength of mixes. The reduction in strength of reference mixes after 2 months exposure was very high (about 32%). This may be due to that the micro-cracks were beginning to grow inside concrete during FTCs due to frost expansion. On the other hand, the reduction in strength decreases in LWC mixes as shown in Table 7 and this could be attributed to the reduction in the number of harmless pores due to high dosage of superplasticizer, so the pressure due to freezing may be valuably reduced. In addition to that, this performance may be interpreted as follows: the hydraulic pressure that resulted from frost may be released because the presence of voids in LWA can play a very important role as “expansion chambers” that will dissipate the pressure; therefore, lightweight mixes show higher durability to withstand cycles of freezing and thawing in this study and this was also observed by Bogas [20], Polat et al. [21], and Thienel et al. [22].
Compressive strength after FTCs
| Mix | Compressive strength before FTC (MPa) | Compressive strength after 1 month FTC (MPa) | Compressive strength after 2 months FTC (MPa) | Reduction in strength after 2 months (%) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1:1:1.2 | 43.87 | 35.31 | 29.70 | 32.2 |
| 3% rep | 39.96 | 36.65 | 35.12 | 12.1 |
| 5% rep | 37.81 | 35.20 | 33.58 | 11.2 |
| 10% rep | 32.80 | 31.91 | 30.78 | 6.2 |
| 15% rep | 29.45 | 28.54 | 28.10 | 4.6 |
| 20% rep | 25.30 | 24.65 | 23.91 | 5.5 |
| 25% rep | 21.92 | 21.50 | 20.78 | 5.2 |
| 30% rep | 19.81 | 19.17 | 18.86 | 4.7 |
| 40% rep | 16.35 | 16.10 | 15.91 | 2.7 |
| 50% rep | 13.28 | 13.04 | 12.89 | 2.9 |
4 Conclusion
LWAC was achieved by using Iranian artificial clay as coarse aggregate in this study.
Structural lightweight with compressive strength exceeding 17 MPa was achieved in 3–25% replacements, more than 25% replacement gave compressive strength of less than 17 MPa.
Mixes can be improved by using PC-superplasticizer and achieving structural lightweight until 30% replacement.
Higher durability for FTCs was achieved by using artificial lightweight clay as coarse aggregate compared to normal aggregate, where the reduction in compressive strength after 2 months of FTC ranged between 3 and 12%.
-
Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.
-
Data availability statement: The most datasets generated and/or analyzed in this study are comprised in this submitted manuscript. The other datasets are available on reasonable request from the corresponding author with the attached information.
References
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© 2022 Mohammed Riyadh Al-Dikheeli et al., published by De Gruyter
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
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- Solving transportation externalities, economic approaches, and their risks
- Demand forecast for parking spaces and parking areas in Olomouc
- Rescue of persons in traffic accidents on roads
- Special Issue: ICRTEEC - 2021 - Part II
- Switching transient analysis for low voltage distribution cable
- Frequency amelioration of an interconnected microgrid system
- Wireless power transfer topology analysis for inkjet-printed coil
- Analysis and control strategy of standalone PV system with various reference frames
- Special Issue: AESMT
- Study of emitted gases from incinerator of Al-Sadr hospital in Najaf city
- Experimentally investigating comparison between the behavior of fibrous concrete slabs with steel stiffeners and reinforced concrete slabs under dynamic–static loads
- ANN-based model to predict groundwater salinity: A case study of West Najaf–Kerbala region
- Future short-term estimation of flowrate of the Euphrates river catchment located in Al-Najaf Governorate, Iraq through using weather data and statistical downscaling model
- Utilization of ANN technique to estimate the discharge coefficient for trapezoidal weir-gate
- Experimental study to enhance the productivity of single-slope single-basin solar still
- An empirical formula development to predict suspended sediment load for Khour Al-Zubair port, South of Iraq
- A model for variation with time of flexiblepavement temperature
- Analytical and numerical investigation of free vibration for stepped beam with different materials
- Identifying the reasons for the prolongation of school construction projects in Najaf
- Spatial mixture modeling for analyzing a rainfall pattern: A case study in Ireland
- Flow parameters effect on water hammer stability in hydraulic system by using state-space method
- Experimental study of the behaviour and failure modes of tapered castellated steel beams
- Water hammer phenomenon in pumping stations: A stability investigation based on root locus
- Mechanical properties and freeze-thaw resistance of lightweight aggregate concrete using artificial clay aggregate
- Compatibility between delay functions and highway capacity manual on Iraqi highways
- The effect of expanded polystyrene beads (EPS) on the physical and mechanical properties of aerated concrete
- The effect of cutoff angle on the head pressure underneath dams constructed on soils having rectangular void
- An experimental study on vibration isolation by open and in-filled trenches
- Designing a 3D virtual test platform for evaluating prosthetic knee joint performance during the walking cycle
- Special Issue: AESMT-2 - Part I
- Optimization process of resistance spot welding for high-strength low-alloy steel using Taguchi method
- Cyclic performance of moment connections with reduced beam sections using different cut-flange profiles
- Time overruns in the construction projects in Iraq: Case study on investigating and analyzing the root causes
- Contribution of lift-to-drag ratio on power coefficient of HAWT blade for different cross-sections
- Geotechnical correlations of soil properties in Hilla City – Iraq
- Improve the performance of solar thermal collectors by varying the concentration and nanoparticles diameter of silicon dioxide
- Enhancement of evaporative cooling system in a green-house by geothermal energy
- Destructive and nondestructive tests formulation for concrete containing polyolefin fibers
- Quantify distribution of topsoil erodibility factor for watersheds that feed the Al-Shewicha trough – Iraq using GIS
- Seamless geospatial data methodology for topographic map: A case study on Baghdad
- Mechanical properties investigation of composite FGM fabricated from Al/Zn
- Causes of change orders in the cycle of construction project: A case study in Al-Najaf province
- Optimum hydraulic investigation of pipe aqueduct by MATLAB software and Newton–Raphson method
- Numerical analysis of high-strength reinforcing steel with conventional strength in reinforced concrete beams under monotonic loading
- Deriving rainfall intensity–duration–frequency (IDF) curves and testing the best distribution using EasyFit software 5.5 for Kut city, Iraq
- Designing of a dual-functional XOR block in QCA technology
- Producing low-cost self-consolidation concrete using sustainable material
- Performance of the anaerobic baffled reactor for primary treatment of rural domestic wastewater in Iraq
- Enhancement isolation antenna to multi-port for wireless communication
- A comparative study of different coagulants used in treatment of turbid water
- Field tests of grouted ground anchors in the sandy soil of Najaf, Iraq
- New methodology to reduce power by using smart street lighting system
- Optimization of the synergistic effect of micro silica and fly ash on the behavior of concrete using response surface method
- Ergodic capacity of correlated multiple-input–multiple-output channel with impact of transmitter impairments
- Numerical studies of the simultaneous development of forced convective laminar flow with heat transfer inside a microtube at a uniform temperature
- Enhancement of heat transfer from solar thermal collector using nanofluid
- Improvement of permeable asphalt pavement by adding crumb rubber waste
- Study the effect of adding zirconia particles to nickel–phosphorus electroless coatings as product innovation on stainless steel substrate
- Waste aggregate concrete properties using waste tiles as coarse aggregate and modified with PC superplasticizer
- CuO–Cu/water hybrid nonofluid potentials in impingement jet
- Satellite vibration effects on communication quality of OISN system
- Special Issue: Annual Engineering and Vocational Education Conference - Part III
- Mechanical and thermal properties of recycled high-density polyethylene/bamboo with different fiber loadings
- Special Issue: Advanced Energy Storage
- Cu-foil modification for anode-free lithium-ion battery from electronic cable waste
- Review of various sulfide electrolyte types for solid-state lithium-ion batteries
- Optimization type of filler on electrochemical and thermal properties of gel polymer electrolytes membranes for safety lithium-ion batteries
- Pr-doped BiFeO3 thin films growth on quartz using chemical solution deposition
- An environmentally friendly hydrometallurgy process for the recovery and reuse of metals from spent lithium-ion batteries, using organic acid
- Production of nickel-rich LiNi0.89Co0.08Al0.03O2 cathode material for high capacity NCA/graphite secondary battery fabrication
- Special Issue: Sustainable Materials Production and Processes
- Corrosion polarization and passivation behavior of selected stainless steel alloys and Ti6Al4V titanium in elevated temperature acid-chloride electrolytes
- Special Issue: Modern Scientific Problems in Civil Engineering - Part II
- The modelling of railway subgrade strengthening foundation on weak soils
- Special Issue: Automation in Finland 2021 - Part II
- Manufacturing operations as services by robots with skills
- Foundations and case studies on the scalable intelligence in AIoT domains
- Safety risk sources of autonomous mobile machines
- Special Issue: 49th KKBN - Part I
- Residual magnetic field as a source of information about steel wire rope technical condition
- Monitoring the boundary of an adhesive coating to a steel substrate with an ultrasonic Rayleigh wave
- Detection of early stage of ductile and fatigue damage presented in Inconel 718 alloy using instrumented indentation technique
- Identification and characterization of the grinding burns by eddy current method
- Special Issue: ICIMECE 2020 - Part II
- Selection of MR damper model suitable for SMC applied to semi-active suspension system by using similarity measures
