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Producing low-cost self-consolidation concrete using sustainable material

  • Zena K. Abbas EMAIL logo , Ahlam A. Abbood and Raghad S. Mahmood
Published/Copyright: December 5, 2022
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Open Engineering
From the journal Open Engineering Volume 12 Issue 1

Abstract

The disposal of the waste material is the main goal of this investigation by transformation to high-fineness powder and producing self-consolidation concrete (SCC) with less cost and more eco-friendly by reducing the cement weight, taking into consideration the fresh and strength properties. The reference mix design was prepared by adopting the European guide. Five waste materials (clay brick, ceramic, granite tiles, marble tiles, and thermostone blocks) were converted to high-fine particle size distribution and then used as 5, 10, and 15% weight replacements of cement. The improvement in strength properties is more significant when using clay bricks compared to other activated waste ceramics and granite tiles. The percentage increases to 11.59% at 28 days for compressive strength when using 10% replacement of cement weight. The ability to produce eco-SCC with less cement content and lower cost consumption is encouraged, although the enhancement in strength is not high since the waste can be disposable. While the percentage reduction in the strength of SCC mixes containing marble tile or thermostone block powder increases with the replacement of cement weight with a greater need for superplasticizer justification, we recommend using 5% as a replacement by weight of cement with an insignificant retardation of strength. Finally, there is a good relationship between compressive strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity and between tensile and flexural strength with a high R 2.

Keywords: self-consolidation concrete; clay brick powder; ceramic tile; granite tile; marble waste powder; thermostone block

1 Introduction

Increasing the quantities of waste in the modern world led to a series of environmental problems [1,2]. Therefore, many researchers and academicians try to solve this problem by recycling these materials differently, such as in building construction [3]. Moreover, some waste materials can be replaced or added to the concrete mix according to the study approach [4,5,6].

Green building construction is eco-friendly, recyclable, healthy, and a good way to reduce the impact on environmental and human health [7,8,9].

Because of the high amount of emission of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the cement production process, minimizing the use of cement products in the concrete mix is another good way to reduce pollution and acquire clean environment air. Besides, it can reduce the construction cost by recycling waste and cement content by repayment with high-fineness particle size waste material [10].

The use of supplemental cementitious materials in a finely powdered solid as a replacement for the cement in concrete was studied by converting the waste materials to powder. Chemical reactions and physical effects between them and hydrating cement led to a modified paste microstructure [11,12]. The high-fineness waste material may improve the concrete’s fresh state, mechanical properties, and durability.

The selected waste can be in the form of pozzolana that conforms to ASTM C618. It can react chemically with calcium hydroxide to produce essential silica gel that enhances concrete strength and microstructure-density filling [13,14]. Pozzolanic nano–micro particle size in the concrete mixture is one of the most recent novelties in the concrete mix design. The micro–nano particle size has a large surface area relative to its particle size, which gives it more spatial properties than other materials [4]. These nanomaterials can be pronounced as particle dimensions at least 1–100 nm [15].

The self-consolidation concrete (SCC), which can be named compacted, offers spatial properties, such as rapid replacement, consumption time, and the high ability to flow easily in the case of congested reinforcement and with no need for the mechanical vibration proses [16–20]. These can be achieved by increasing the paste content with a low water/powder ratio, which means a high cement content [21].

Our study focuses on presenting a new type of SCC that provides:

  1. Reducing cost by adopting the use of recycling waste to high-fineness material can be used as cement replacement by weight.

  2. Clean the environment by reducing cement consumption and waste disposal.

2 Materials

Tables 1 and 2 list the properties of ordinary Portland cement (OPC)/R 42.5. The properties of fine aggregate/natural sand (Zone 2 grading)-F.A and crushed coarse aggregate (14-5) mm-C.A, according to Iraqi stander (IQS) 45/1988, are listed in Table 3. Note that Structuro 520 (a superplasticizer) is issued by the producer and complies with ASTM C494/15 types A and F according to the manufactured sheet. All tests were carried out by the Building Research Center.

Table 1

Chemical composition of the OPC/R 42.5 cement

Oxide content (%)
CaO SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 SO3 MgO LOI IR
Results-OPC 63.02 19.97 6.05 3.18 2.19 1.89 2.69 0.4
IQS No. 5-19 [22] — — — — ≤2.8 ≤5.0 ≤4.0 ≤1.5
ASTM C150-17 [23] — — — — ≤3.0 ≤6.0 ≤3.0 ≤0.75
Table 2

Physical properties of the OPC/R 42.5 cement

Blaine surface (m2/kg) Autoclave soundness (%) Setting time (Vicat’s method) (min) Compressive strength (MPa)
Initial setting Final setting 2 days 3 days 7 days 28 days
Results 393.5 0.02 130 215 21 21.5 27 43.5
IQS No.5-19 [22] ≥280 ≤0.8 ≥45 ≤600 ≥20 — — ≥42.5
ASTM C150-17 [23] ≥260 — ≥45 ≤375 — ≥12 ≥19 —
Table 3

Properties of the F.A and C.A

Specific gravity Absorption (%) SO3 content (%) Material passing sieve 75 µm (%)
Results-FA 2.6 0.85 0.28 3.6
IQS No. 45-FA [24] — — ≤0.5 ≤5
Results-CA 2.62 0.25 0.02 1.5
IQS No. 45-CA [24] — — ≤0.1 ≤3.0

Figure 1 shows the steps for preparing the waste material, while the marble powder waste was collected from the workshop of tile marble. Table 4 presents the chemical analysis and the physical properties specification requirements adopting by ASTM C618-15 for class N [25].

Figure 1 Preparing the waste material.
Figure 1

Preparing the waste material.

Table 4

Properties of waste-recycled materials

Oxide content (%) Physical tests
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO SO3 MgO LOI Strength activity index (%) Specific gravity Particle size distribution
Brick powder 58.25 12.46 5.25 20.20 0.0 1.69 2.15 97.8 2.85 92 nm
Granite powder 45.25 18.25 7.25 15.38 0.25 0.44 1.75 78.5 2.75 0.54 µm
Ceramic powder 50.15 15.85 8.92 16.75 0.35 0.45 2.35 88.2 2.65 0.60 µm
Thermostone powder* 20.82 10.95 3.25 64.55 0.32 1.22 8.55 — 2.15 0.38 µm
Marble powder* 4.35 6.75 1.15 67.25 0.11 0.15 16.56 — 2.22 0.48 µm
ASTM C618-15, Type N [25] SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 ≥70 — ≤4% — ≤10% ≥75% at 7 days — —

*Inert or semi-inert material.

Table 5

SCC mixture and fresh tests

Mix ID Sand = 775 kg/m3, Crushed gravel = 850 kg/m3, W/P = 0.34 Cement + powder (kg/m3) Superplasticizer (L/100 kg cement) Slump flow—SF2 (mm) Viscosity class—VS2/VF2 L-box PA2 (H2/H1) for 3 bars
Description of the used powder in the mix T500 (s) V funnel (S)
660–750 >2 9–25 ≥0.8
Ref Cement 500 1.1 670 4.2 10.0 0.95
B5 Cement + 5% brick 475 + 25 1.4 695 4.0 12.0 0.92
B10 Cement + 10% brick 450 + 50 1.6 688 3.8 11.0 0.90
B15 Cement + 15% brick 425 + 75 2.0 675 4.2 10.5 0.95
C5 Cement + 5% ceramic 475 + 25 1.4 695 4.1 12.2 0.92
C10 Cement + 10% ceramic 450 + 50 1.6 701 4.1 9.8 0.88
C15 Cement + 15% ceramic 425 + 75 2.0 705 4.2 9.5 0.85
G5 Cement + 5% granite 475 + 25 1.4 747 3.9 9.4 0.85
G10 Cement + 10% granite 450 + 50 1.6 735 3.7 9.3 0.90
G15 Cement + 15% granite 425 + 75 2.0 690 3.6 11.2 0.91
Th5 Cement + 5% thermostone 475 + 25 1.4 680 4.1 10.5 0.87
Th10 Cement + 10% thermostone 450 + 50 1.6 725 3.9 9.5 0.85
Th20 Cement + 15% thermostone 425 + 75 2.0 715 3.8 9.8 0.88
M5 Cement + 5% marble 475 + 25 1.4 680 3.8 10.8 0.9
M10 Cement + 10% marble 450 + 50 1.6 688 4.2 11.0 0.85
M15 Cement + 15% marble 425 + 75 2.0 678 4.1 10.7 0.82

SF2: slump flow class 2 ranging (660–750 mm) suitable for many normal applications (e.g. walls, columns); VS2/VF2: Viscosity VS or VF (measure of the speed of flow); PA2: passing ability class 2 for structures with a gap of 60 mm to 80 mm.

3 SCC mixture, fresh properties, casting and curing

Laboratory trials for the initial mix composition, which was adopted according to the European guidelines [21], recommend the reference mix with a specified compressive strength of more than 40 MPa (standard cylinder) at 28 days, which contains only cement as a powder. Five waste materials were used as cement weight replacements by 5, 10, and 15%. Hence, the superplasticizer dosages were 1.4, 1.6, and 2.0 L/100 kg of cement, respectively, to achieve the fresh properties of SCC. The filling and passing ability were checked by slump flow, V funnel, and L-box to recommend the mix proportion, as shown in Figure 2. Table 5 presents the mixture content and fresh tests results for all SCC mixture.

Figure 2 Fresh properties test according to the European guidelines for SCC [21].
Figure 2

Fresh properties test according to the European guidelines for SCC [21].

After producing the SCC mixture and checking the fresh tests, the specimens were molded in cubic molds of 100 mm, cylinder molds of 150 mm × 300 mm, and prism molds of 100 mm × 100 mm × 400 mm for compressive, splitting, and flexural tests, respectively. A vibrating bench was done in two layers of cubes (10–12 s) adopting the British stranded 1881:Part 108:1983 [26], while the cylinders were compacted in three layers, and prisms had two layers adopting the ASTM C192-11 [27]. All specimens were smoothed in surfaces and covered with a nylon page for approximately 24 h and then cured in a tap water chamber until the test ages, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3 Curing samples.
Figure 3

Curing samples.

4 Experimental lab tests

For mechanical properties, three experimental tests were done: the ASTM C39/C39M [29] and the ASTM C496/C496M-11 [31] cover the determination of compressive strength and splitting tensile strength, respectively, of a cylindrical concrete size of 150 mm × 300 mm. The ASTM C78/C78M [32] can be adopted to test the flexural strength of concrete using simple beam size 100 mm × 100 mm × 400 mm with third-point loading and, finally, the ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) test according to ASTM C597 [30], as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4 Experimental hardened lab tests.
Figure 4

Experimental hardened lab tests.

5 Discussion of the experimental lab results

All SCC mixes conform to the European guide limits [15] for fresh properties that conform to passing and filling ability with resistance to segregation. Table 6 lists all test results for compressive strength, UPV, and tensile and flexural strength for different SCC mixes.

Table 6

Experimental lab tests for different SCC mixture

Mix ID Dry densit1 28 days (kg/m3) Compressive strength2 (MPa) UPV3 (km/s) Tensile strength4 (MPa) Flexural strength5 (MPa)
7 days 28 days 90 days 7 days 28 days 90 days 7 days 28 days 90 days 7 days 28 days 90 days
Ref 2,355 33.9 41.4 46.4 4.175 4.335 4.442 3.20 3.60 3.75 3.82 4.38 4.47
B5 2,385 35.7 43.5 48.7 4.221 4.376 4.495 3.28 3.69 3.84 3.94 4.54 4.60
B10 2,450 37.1 45.2 51.7 4.265 4.395 4.535 3.39 3.81 3.96 3.79 4.34 4.43
B15 2,465 35.1 42.8 47.9 4.176 4.365 4.455 3.26 3.66 3.81 3.75 4.28 4.38
C5 2,365 34.0 41.5 46.9 4.178 4.338 4.425 3.22 3.62 3.77 3.84 4.40 4.48
C10 2,435 35.1 42.8 49.1 4.197 4.352 4.458 3.30 3.71 3.85 3.73 4.26 4.36
C15 2,455 33.2 40.5 46.5 4.168 4.311 4.405 3.21 3.61 3.75 3.75 4.27 4.38
G5 2,360 33.8 41.2 46.8 4.165 4.318 4.425 3.22 3.62 3.76 3.78 4.32 4.42
G10 2,428 34.9 42.6 47.7 4.195 4.352 4.445 3.25 3.66 3.80 3.70 4.34 4.33
G15 2,435 33.5 40.8 45.7 4.165 4.305 4.412 3.18 3.58 3.72 3.67 4.16 4.28
M5 2,370 32.8 40 44.8 4.145 4.295 4.388 3.15 3.54 3.68 3.60 4.04 4.20
M10 2,365 31.6 38.5 43.1 4.125 4.265 4.355 3.09 3.47 3.61 3.53 3.95 4.13
M15 2,325 30.5 37.2 41.7 4.112 4.238 4.338 3.04 3.42 3.55 3.64 4.11 4.26
Th5 2,360 32.4 39.5 44.2 4.145 4.265 4.375 3.13 3.52 3.66 3.56 4.02 4.16
Th10 2,350 31.0 37.8 42.3 4.121 4.227 4.342 3.06 3.44 3.58 3.50 3.96 4.09
Th20 2,315 29.9 36.5 40.9 4.172 4.217 3.577 3.01 3.38 3.52 3.82 4.38 4.47

1: According to BS 1881-114:1983 [28], 2: According to ASTM C39/C39M-17b (L/D = 2) [29] 3: According to ASTM C597-16 [30], 4: According to ASTM C496/C496M-11 [31], 5: According to ASTM C78/C78M-16 [32].

Figures 5–7 show the strength properties of the SCC mix that contains high-fineness waste-recycled powder with pozzolana activity (clay brick, ceramic tile, and granite tile) and the reference mix, while the SCC mixture contains inert or semi-inert waste-recycled as a powder (marble tile and thermostone blocks) and the reference mix, as shown in Figures 8–10.

Figure 5 Compressive strength for Reference mix and pozzolanic SSC mix.
Figure 5

Compressive strength for Reference mix and pozzolanic SSC mix.

Figure 6 Compressive strength for Reference mix marble and thermostone SCC.
Figure 6

Compressive strength for Reference mix marble and thermostone SCC.

Figure 7 Tensile strength for Reference mix and pozzolanic SSC mix.
Figure 7

Tensile strength for Reference mix and pozzolanic SSC mix.

Figure 8 Tensile strength for Reference mix marble and thermostone SCC.
Figure 8

Tensile strength for Reference mix marble and thermostone SCC.

Figure 9 Flexural strength for Reference mix and pozzolanic SSC mix.
Figure 9

Flexural strength for Reference mix and pozzolanic SSC mix.

Figure 10 Flexural strength for Reference mix marble and thermostone SCC.
Figure 10

Flexural strength for Reference mix marble and thermostone SCC.

The improvement in strength properties is more significant when using clay brick compared to other activated waste materials (ceramic and granite tile). That behavior may be attributed to its high-strength activity index (97.8%), and a particle size distribution of 94 nm can be prepared [4]. Apart from that, the pozzolanic behavior can provide more strengthening gel contributing to the reaction between calcium hydroxide and active fine silica [33,34]. The use of ceramic tile powder instead of cement weight by 10% showed an enhancement in compressive strength up to 5.8% at 28 days [35,36]. Hence, removing waste can be recommended without a doubt of retardation of strength when converting that waste-recycled material to such a fine particle size [4,16]. While the percentage reduction in strength of SCC mixtures containing marble or thermostone powder increases with a high replacement of cement weight up to 15%, take into consideration the superplasticizer justification [37]. This behavior was expected when using inert or semi-inert materials as replacements for cement. The use of the low percentage of thermostone powder (5%) in the SCC mixture showed a low decrease in compressive strength and was within the required design. Note that the variance in strength properties between reference mix and other mixes containing powder waste materials at 28 days is shown in Figures 11–13.

Figure 11 Variance in compressive strength for different mixes compared to the reference SCC.
Figure 11

Variance in compressive strength for different mixes compared to the reference SCC.

Figure 12 Variance in tensile strength for different mixes compared to the reference SCC.
Figure 12

Variance in tensile strength for different mixes compared to the reference SCC.

Figure 13 Variance in flexural strength for different mixes compared to the reference SCC.
Figure 13

Variance in flexural strength for different mixes compared to the reference SCC.

The good compatibility relation between compressive strength and UPV shown in Figure 14 considers that it is less significant to change the type of waste material since the replacement from the weight of cement. Finally, a good correlation between tensile and flexural strength is shown in Figure 15.

Figure 14 Statistical relation between the UPV and compressive test.
Figure 14

Statistical relation between the UPV and compressive test.

Figure 15 Statistical relation between tensile and flexural strength.
Figure 15

Statistical relation between tensile and flexural strength.

6 Conclusions

  1. The compressive strength of the SCC mix containing 10% waste-recycled brick powder as a replacement for cement weight showed the highest percentage increase, up to 11.59% at 28 days compared to the reference mix.

  2. Partially replacing cement weight with 10% of ceramic tile high-fineness powder showed an improvement in compressive strength up to 5.8% at 28 days.

  3. The ability to use disposal brick or ceramic with a high-fine particle size of up to 15% of cement weight without affecting the strength of the SCC mixture.

  4. Granite tile powder can be used safely up to 15% as partial replacement of cement weight with little compressive strength improvement equal to 1.68 and 2.25% at 28 and 90 days, respectively, in SCC.

  5. The possibility of using (marble tile or thermostone blocks) waste instead of 5% cement weight with a slight reduction of 2.02 and 3.25%, respectively, at 28 days in SCC.

  6. The 10 and 15% replacement cement weights by (marble tile or thermostone blocks) waste led to a considerable reduction in compressive strength, up to approximately 7% at 90 days.

  1. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2022-03-29
Revised: 2022-07-28
Accepted: 2022-08-09
Published Online: 2022-12-05

© 2022 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/eng-2022-0368
Keywords for this article
self-consolidation concrete; clay brick powder; ceramic tile; granite tile; marble waste powder; thermostone block
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